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ESD Lab Manual
ESD Lab Manual
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Sir.C.V.Raman Nagar, Tirunelveli-12
Name
Reg No
Branch
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Exp.No
Page No
10
INDEX
EX.No
DATE
NAME OF EXPERIMENT
PAGE No
MARKS
INITIAL
AIM:
To design, construct and test an instrumentation amplifier using IC 741 and vary its gain
from 1 to 100.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
1
2
Range
IC 741
10k
1k
150
Quantity
4
10
4
1
1
DRB
4
5
6
Bread Board
&Connecting wires
Dual Power Supply
Rheostat
(0-100)
1
1
Ammeter
(0-250)A
Multimeter
As required
THEORY:
INSTUMENTATION AMPLIFIER:
Instrumentation amplifier is generally required in any measurement system
using electrical transducers to enhance signal levels often in low voltage less than mV. Also
it is required to provide impedance matching and isolation. When the desired input rides over
a common mode signal special amplifier are needed so that difference signals get amplified
to an acceptable level while the common mode signals get attenuated.
The physical quantities can be converted into electrical quantities by using
transducer. The output of the transducer needs to be amplified to get the meter readings. This
amplification is done by using instrumentation amplifier. The output of instrumentation
amplifier drives of indicator or display system. The important features of an instrumentation
amplifier are high gain accuracy, high CMRR, high gain stability with low temperature
co-efficient, low dc offset, low output impedance.
Low input impedance may load the signal source heavily. Therefore high resistance
buffer is used preceding each input to avoid this loading effect. For V1 =V2 under common
mode condition. If V2 =V2 and V1 =V1 both the operational amplifiers act as voltage
follower. If V1 V2 the circuit has differential gain by the formula VO/ (V2-V1)=1+(2R/R).
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER:
PIN DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN:
Displacement
from initial
place (cm)
Output
Voltage (volt)
Output
Current (mA)
Gain =
(VO / (V2 -V1))
Gain =
20 log (VO / (V2 -V1)) in dB
RESULT:
Thus the physical quantities are converted into electrical quantities and by
using electrical quantities instrumentation amplifier was designed, constructed and
outputs were verified.
Einstein College of Engineering
Page 12 of 80
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
DC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
PIN DETAILS:
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
Ex.No.2
AIM:
(i)To design, construct and test a AC voltage regulator using SCR.
(ii)To design, construct and test a DC voltage regulator using SCR.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
S.No
Range
Quantity
Transformer
230V/12V
SCR
2P4M
Diode
BY 127
Resistor
100 k
12 k
Bread Board
2
1
1
Connecting Wires
As required
CRO
DRB
DC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
S.No
1
2
3
Range
230V/24V
TYN 604
1N4001
Quantity
1
1
4
4
5
Resistor
Bread Board
10 k
2
1
Connecting Wires
As required
CRO
DRB
IC
7812
10
Capacitors
1000f
100f
MODEL GRAPH:
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
DC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
THEORY:
The SCR is switched ON and OFF to regulate the output voltage in AC and
DC voltage regulator.
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
If the SCR is connected to AC supply and load, the power flow can be
controlled by varying the RMS value of AC voltage applied to the load and this type
of power circuit is caused as AC voltage regulator. Applications of AC voltage
regulator are in heating on load transformers for changing light controls, speed
controls and polyphase controls, induction motors and AC magnet controls for power
transfer. Two types of power control are normally used.
(1) ON-OFF control
(2) Polyphase Angle control
AC regulators are those converter which converts fixed ac voltage directly to
variable ac voltage of the same frequency. The load voltage is regulated by
controlling the firing angle of SCRs. AC voltage controllers are thyristor based
devices.
The most common circuit is the inverse parallel SCR pair in which two
isolated gate signals are applied. Each of the two SCRs are triggered at alternate half
cycles of the supply and the load voltage is part of input sine wave. The SCR is an
unidirectional device like diode, it allows current flow in only one direction but unlike
diode, it has built-in feature to switch ON and OFF. The switching of SCR is
controlled by gate and biasing condition. This switching property of SCR allows to
control the ON periods thus controlling average power delivered to the load.
In this circuit SCR1 is forward biased during positive half cycle and SCR2 is
forward biased during negative half cycle. SCR1 is triggered at the firing angle t=
and supply voltage is impressed on the load resistance(RL). It conducts from the
remaining positive half cycle, turning OFF when the anode voltage becomes zero at
t=.
SCR2 is triggered at the firing angle t=+ and conducts till t=2. Hence
the load is alternating in polarity and is part of sine wave. The firing angle of both
SCRs is controlled by gate circuit. The conduction period of SCR is controlled by
varying gate signals within specified values of maximum and minimum gate currents.
For gate triggering, a signal is applied between the gate and cathode of the
device. AC sources are normally used as gate signals. This provides proper isolation
between power.
DC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
If SCRs are used to convert an AC voltage into DC voltage then they are
known as DC voltage regulators. Eg. Battery changes for high current capacity
batteries in DC voltage control only phase control is used.
The transformer is used to step down the voltage from 230V to 24V. This is
given as input to bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier converts incoming ac signal to
unidirectional wave. Therefore we get full wave rectifier output at the output of bridge
rectifier. This is given as input to SCR. The gate of SCR is triggered with firing angle
of . During positive half cycle, diode D1 and D2 conducts and during negative half
cycle, diode D3 and D4 conducts. The full wave rectified output is given to capacitive
Einstein College of Engineering
Page 16 of 80
TABULAR COLUMN:
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
DRB 1 value(K)
Amplitude (V)
TON(ms)
DRB 2 value(K)
Amplitude (V)
TOFF(ms)
DC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
Resistance RL(K)
Output (V)
DESIGN:
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING SCR:
Triggering circuit for SCR:
12 V ac is rectified by diode BY 127. SCR 2P4M is used to trigger.
Let the current be 1mA. R=V/I=12V/1mA=12K.
DC VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING SCR:
Triggering circuit for SCR:
24 V ac is rectified by diode 1N4001. SCR TYN604 is used to trigger.
Let the current be 1mA. R=V/I=12V/1mA=12K.
PROCEDURE:
AC VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING SCR:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The supply is given by means of step down transformer.
3. Anode terminal of SCR1 is connected to the anode terminal of diode, is
connected to cathode of SCR1 by means of resistor as the load.
4. Hence the voltage regulation is verified at load terminal.
DC VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING SCR:
1. Connect the two terminals at the top of bridge rectifier.
2. The positive terminal of the bridge rectifier is connected to one terminal at
the load and at the other terminal to anode terminal of SCR.
3. The pin 15 connected from the power supply to the load.
4. Then the DC voltage regulation is checked and verified.
RESULT:
Thus both AC and DC voltage regulators were designed, constructed and the
output waveforms were drawn.
Ex.No.3
SEQUENTIAL TIMER
AIM:
To design sequential timer to switch ON and OFF at least three delays in a
particular sequence using IC 555 timer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
RPS
Connecting wires
Capacitors
LED
Range
555
33k
100k
220
10f
0.01f
Quantity
3
1
3
3
3
1
As required
3
6
3
THEORY:
Sequential timer is the simplest form of the process control timer in which
many timing operations carried out sequentially one by one. Each timing operation is
kept in active condition for a predefined amount of time and then goes to off
condition. Similarly the controller activates all the operations as per the defined
timings.
This type of sequential controller is required for injection moulding machine,
back sealing experiments where it required to activate solenoids, relays other
activating mechanism for a predefined time sequentially one by one.
Sequential timer is used for control process. The timer IC 555 is operated in
monostable mode. The mode monostable multivibrator circuit is useful for generating
single output pulse of adjustable data form in response to a trigger signal. The width
of the output pulse depends only on external component connected to the op-amp. The
output of first multivibrator is given to the trigger input of the second one. Similarly it
is connected in sequential order. The time period of each timer determine the
triggering period of LED.
PIN DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:
OBSERVATION:
LED 1 ON Time
LED 2 ON Time
LED 3 ON Time
DESIGN:
This relay should be energised for 1 sec.
ON Time TH=1.1*R*C
Here we design for 1 sec.
By choosing the value of R=100k
The value of C approximated to C=10f
Similarly we have
RA=RB=RC=R=100k
CA=CB=CC=C=10f
PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit connections were given as shown in circuit diagram.
2. The triggering is given to pin 2 of timer 1.
3. When the trigger pulse is given the LED glows one by one sequentially.
RESULT:
Thus the circuits for sequential timer was designed, constructed and outputs
were verified.
Ex.No.4
AIM:
To design, construct and test wireless data modem using FSK modulator(555)
and FSK demodulator (565).
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
Range
Quantity
Transistor
BC557
IC
Each one
Resistors
58K
47K
1K
10K
600
1
2
1
5
2
Capacitors
0.01f , 0.1f
0.02f
2
5
6
7
1
As required
THEORY:
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:
A digital-to-analog modulation technique. Data is transmitted by shifting
between two close frequencies with ones represented by one frequency and zeroes by
the other.
FSK DEMODULATOR:
DESIGN:
FSK MODULATOR:
ON time TH=0.693RBC
OFF time TL=0.693(RA+RB)C
Total time T=TH+TL=0.693(RA+2RB)C
1
f1=-------------------------0.69(RA+2RB) C1
(1)
1
f2=-----------------------------------(2)
0.69(RA+2RB) C 1C2
----------C1+C2
Duty cycle D=ON time/Total time=(RB)/(RA+2RB)=0.3
RB= 0.3RA+0.6RB
RB=0.75RA
Let f1= 1050 Hz, f2= 1250 Hz, C1=0.01f
From (1)
1
1050=--------------------------------0.69(RA+2*0.75RA) 0.01f
1
=--------------------------------0.69*2.5RA*0.01f
RA=55.2K
RB=0.75RA
RB=41.4K
MODEL GRAPH:
From (2)
1
1250=-----------------------------------------------0.69(55.2K+2(41.4K)) 0.01f*C2
---------------0.01f+C2
0.01f+C2
C2 =----------------------------------0.69(138K)1250*0.01f
0.01f+C2
C2 =--------------1.19
1.19C2 - C2 = 0.01f
0.19C2 = 0.01f
C2 = 52.63 nf
FSK DEMODULATOR:
Upper cut off frequency of RC ladder circuit fH=1/(2RC)
Assume
R2=R3=R4=R
C2=C3=C4=C
fH=(key in frequency+2 maximum frequency)/2
=(150+2(1250))/2=1325Hz
Let C=0.02f then R=1/(2CfH)=1/(2*1325Hz*0.02f )=7K
f0=0.3/(R1C1)
f0=(f1+f2)/2=(1050+1250)/2=1150Hz
Let C1=0.01f
R1=0.3/(1150*0.01f)=26K
flock=8f0/10=(8*1150)/10=920Hz
fcapture should be less than flock.
Choose fcapture =400Hz
fcapture =(1/2)(2*flock)/(R0C0)
R0=internal resistance=3.6K
2
C0=(2flock)/(42fcapture R0)=920/(2(400)2*3.6K)=254nf
OBSERVATION:
INPUT:
Amplitude =
ON time TH =
ms
ms
Frequency f =
Hz
FSK MODULATOR:
For positive half cycle
Amplitude =
ON time TH =
ms
ms
Frequency f =
Hz
ON time TH =
ms
ms
Frequency f =
Hz
FSK DEMODULATOR:
Amplitude =
ON time TH =
ms
ms
Frequency f =
Hz
PROCEDURE:
FSK MODULATOR:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The digital input was applied at the input of FSK modulator.
3. The square wave output was noted in astable mode by CRO.
FSK DEMODULATOR:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The FSK modulated output is given as a input in the demodulation
circuit.
3. The output of the demodulator gives a modulating signal by using
voltage comparator was noted.
RESULT:
Thus the circuit for wireless data modem using FSK modulator (555) and
demodulator (NE 656) were designed, constructed and outputs were verified.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PIN DIAGRAM:
AIM:
To design Component/Board layout, PCB layout of the given circuit
using AutoCAD 2000.
PROCEDURE:
1. Double click on AutoCAD 2000 or ACAD.
2. Ensure that you select metric (i.e. you are telling AutoCAD that you will be
drawing in metres and millimetres NOT feet and inches) in the dialog box.
3. AutoCAD will now create a new drawing file named drawing1.dwg.
4. Select various electronic components from FileOpenAutoCAD
folderSample folderDesign Center folderAnalog Integrated
Circuits& Basic Electronics& CMOS Integrated Circuits.
5. Thus Component/Board layout is drawn by various AutoCAD commands.
6. Then PCB layout is drawn by various AutoCAD commands.
COMPONENT/BOARD LAYOUT:
PCB LAYOUT:
RESULT:
Thus the Component/Board layout, PCB layout of the given circuit using
AutoCAD 2000 was designed.
VIEWRES:
Sets the resolutions for objects in current view port.
Command:viewers
Do u want fast zooms[yes/no]<Y>: Press enter(fast zooms is no longer a functioning
option of this command and remains for script compatibility only)
Enter circle zoom present(1 20000 )<current>: Enter an integer from 1 20000 or
press Enter The model is regenerated.
VIEWRES controls the appearance of circles, arcs, ellipses and splines using short
vectors. The greater the no of vectors the smoother the appearance of circle or arc.
For eg if u create a very small circle and then zoom in it might to appear to be
polygon. Using VIEWRES to increase the zoom percentage and regenerate the
drawing updates and smoothes the circle appearance. Decreasing the zoom percentage
has the opposite effect.
Before VIEWRES
After VIEWRES
VIEWRES at 15
VIEWRES at 500
Select 'Create Drawings', then 'Start from Scratch'. Ensure that you select metric (i.e
you are telling AutoCAD that you will be drawing in metres and millimetres NOT
feet and inches).
AutoCAD will now create a new drawing file named drawing1.dwg.
AutoCAD will default to 'model space'. For now it is sufficient to say that model
space is the blank space where all the drawing is carried out. Paperspace (now called
Layout space since AutoCAD 2000) isn't really required until we are ready to plot
(print)
the
drawing.
Toolbars
There are many toolbars available in AutoCAD. Go to View > Toolbars from the drop
down menu to see them all. For now make sure that the following toolbars are
checked:
Draw
Contains
AutoCADs
most
common
drawing
tools
Modify - Contains all of the common editing commands such as erase, copy etc.
Object Properties - Contains 'layer' information as well as object colours and line style
options.
(Covered
Later).
Standard Toolbar - Contains open & save options as well as zoom & pan options.
Pull-down menus - These are the standard pull-down menus through which
you can access almost all commands.
Main toolbar - This has most of the standard Windows icons, as well as the
most common AutoCAD commands.
Property toolbar - This toolbar gives a way to quickly modify an object's
properties, such as layer and linetype.
Floating toolbar - This is a toolbar that can be moved around the screen, or
'docked' as the main toolbar is.
Drawing space - This is where you draw. You have an almost infinite area to
draw and this is just a 'section' of the entire space.
Scrollbars - These work like in other windows programs. You can also use the
PAN command to move around your drawing.
WCS Icon - This is here to show you which direction positive X and positive
Y go. The W means you're in the World Co-ordinate System. (It can be
changed to a User Co-ordinate System.)
Status Bar Tray Icons - These icons give you updates on items like reference
files program updates and print status.
Command line - When you type a command, you will see it here. AutoCAD
uses this space to 'prompt' you for information. It will give you a lot of
information and tell you where you are in the command. Watch this line while
learning.
Status bar - This allows to see and change different modes of drawing such as
Ortho, Osnaps, Grid, Otrack, etc.
Tool Palette - Collection of tools in one area that can be organized into
common catagories.
Command
Properties
Keystroke
PROPERTIES
Icon
Menu
Modify
Properties
Result
Displays
the
properties
of
>
the object in the
Properties
Palette
Command
Description
Options
COPY
or
CP
Draws a copy of selected objects using two methods - "base point" method, or "displacement" method.
BASE
can be transparent
DONUT
or
DOUGHNUT
ERASE or E
EXPLODE
Separates a block, dimension or hatch pattern into its constituent entities or makes a
polyline into a series of straight lines. In the case of a block that is exploded, if it
was originally drawn on the 0 layer, it returns to that layer, regardless of the layer it
was inserted on, and it loses its referential connection to the original block. In the
case of a dimension or hatch pattern that has been exploded, their parts go back to
the 0 layer, and are assigned the logical color (BYBLOCK) regardless of the layer
they were drawn on. In the case of an exploded polyline, it loses any width it may
have had.
LINE or L
MOVE or M
NEW
OFFSET
<number>
specifies
offset distance
T "Through" allows
specification of a point
through which the
offset line, polyline,
arc or circle is to pass
OPEN
ORTHO
can be transparent
OSNAP
can be transparent
CEN CENter of arc or
circle
END
closest
ENDpoint of arc or
line
INS INSertion point of
Text or Block
INT INTersection of
line, arc, or circle
MID MIDpoint of
line, arc, rectangle
side, or polygon side
NEA NEArest point
selected by aperture on
line, polyline, arc, or
circle
NOD NODe (another
name for a Point)
NON NONe -- used
when a "Running
OSNAP" is on to
temporarily turn off
OSNAP selection
PER PERpendicular
point to line, arc or
circle -- when used
with an arc or circle it
will draw a line to the
surface of the arc or
circle heading toward
the center point
QUA QUAdrant point
of arc or circle (top,
bottom, right or left
side)
QUI QUIck mode -this is a modifier to
one of the other
OSNAP options -- it
will find the first point
that
meets
the
requirements,
not
necessarily the closest
point to the aperture.
TAN TANgent point
to arc or circle
QSAVE
Saves the current drawing "Quickly" without requesting a filename (as long as file
has already been given a name)
QUIT
Exits AutoCAD -- if the current drawing has not been Saveds in its current state, a
dialogue box will appear asking if you want to Save the drawing, Discard the
changes, or Cancel the Exit command
SNAP
can be transparent
<number> sets snap alignment
resolution
ON aligns designated points
OFF does not align designatged
points
A sets aspect ratio (differing X
and Y spacing)
VIEWRES
Allows you to control the precision and speed of circle and arc drawing on the
monitor by specifying the number of sides in a circle. Acts like an AutoCAD
variable. Recommend that it be set to 2000.
ZOOM
Enlarges
or
reduces
the
display
magnification of the drawing, without
changing the actual size of the entities
can be transparent
<number> multiplier from original
magnification
<number X> multiplier
current magnification
from
<number
XP>multiplier
of
magnification relative to paper
space -- used for plotting to get
right plot scale in each viewport
A ("All") fills limits of drawing to
screen
C ("Center") makes picked point
the center of the screen
D ("Dynamic") makes an adjustible
rectangular lens appear on the
screen which is capable of being
made smaller or larger and moved
to different positions over the
drawing and once set by the user,
the drawing will quickly zoom to
the location and magnification set
for the lens. This sub-command is
no longer useful because all
computers have very fast zooms
naturally now.
E ("Extents") makes the farthest
edges of the actual visible drawing
fill up the graphics screen
L ("Lower-Left") makes the point
picked become shoved to the lowerleft corner of the graphics screen
P ("Previous") zooms back to
whatever the last zoom, previous to
the current zoom was -- AutoCAD
stores about 10 of these, so you can
walk
backward
in
magnification 10 times
zoom
AIM:
To design microcontroller based system for simple applications like security
systems combination lock etc. using 89c series flash micro controller.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. PC with windows operating system, RIDE IDE software, WINISP
software
2. 8051 microcontroller
3. RS 232C Serial Cable
4. Home Security System
PROCEDURE:
1. Use RS 232C Serial Cable to connect 8051 microcontroller through serial
port.
2. Set the DIP switch as follows
DIP switch1: RS 232
DIP switch2: PGM for Programming Flash mode, EXE for execution
Mode DIP switch3: INT
3. Write the ALP program (text document) in notepad, save as ASM
language (ASM format) in
Micro 51.
4. Set the DIP switch2 in PGM for Programming Flash.
5. Run WINISP.
6. Set the parameter for the following fields in WINISP window
A CHIP: P89C51RD2
B PORT: Select Serial port connected to RS 232C Serial Cable
C OSC: 12MHz
7. If flash is not blanked, perform erase operation.
8. Load hexa file containing the object code to be programmed into flash
from Micro 51 by clicking load file.
9. Program the flash by clicking program part.
10. Set the DIP switch2 in EXE for execution mode.
11. Enter the password in Home Security System.
12. If a valid password is given, door will open.
RESULT:
Thus microcontroller based system for simple applications like security
systems combination lock etc. using 89c series flash micro controller was
designed and executed.
call Bussy_check
call lcd_IOCONT
mov A,#80h
mov dptr,#DCONT
movx @dptr,A
call Bussy_check
call lcd_IOCONT
mov A,#04h
mov dptr,#DCONT
movx @dptr,A
call Bussy_check
call lcd_IOCONT
mov A,#0Eh
mov dptr,#DCONT
movx @dptr,A
;
;address assign for lcd data line
;Control register of the 8255_1.
;Port A
;Port B
;Port C
;Control register of the 8255_2.
;Port A.
;Port B.
;Port C.
;
;
;
;
; 5*7 matrix lcd init.
;
;
;
;
; starting location .
;
;
;
;
; Set cursor move direction.
;
;
;
;
; enable display,cursor ,cursor blining
call Bussy_check
;
call lcd_IOCONT
;
mov A,#01
;
mov dptr,#DCONT
;
movx @dptr,A
; clear display.
;~~~~~~
;4*4 matrix key read
;8255_1 Assign Port A and Port C are output port and port B is input port
key_start:mov dptr,#CONTR1
;Dptr load Control register address.
mov A,#83h
;Acc load 83hex.
movx @dptr,A
;Dptr point to Acc .
mov r2,#06
;no of character use in password.
mov dptr,#4000h
;dptr contain address of 4000h.;this address location
continiously contain password character.
back_keystart:mov r0,dpl
;dpl contain lower byte of dptr.
mov r1,dph
;dph contain higher byte of dptr.
dec r2
;decrement r2 value.
mov a,r2
;Acc load r2.
jnz getdata
;Acc!=0 load another char.
ljmp end1
;If Acc==0 goto password compare.
getdata:mov A,#00
;Acc load 0.
mov dptr,#Port1A
;PortA init.
movx @dptr,A
;Port1A load 0.
continue:mov dptr,#Port1B
;key Read continiously checking
movx A,@dptr
;Acc load dptr point to the value.
anl A,#0fh
;logical operation of Acc and 0f.
cjne A,#0fh,key_Next
;if Acc!=0x0f read char
sjmp continue
;if Acc==0x0f key continiously checking
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;ROW 1 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
Einstein College of Engineering
Page 48 of 80
;
;call rotate subroutine.
;
;
;Bussy_check subroutine
Bussy_check :
mov A,#02
;
mov dptr,#IOCONT
;
movx @dptr,A
;
mov dptr,#DCONT
;
back:movx A,@dptr
;
anl A,#80h
;
cjne A,#00,back
;
mov A,#00
;
mov dptr,#IOCONT
;
movx @dptr,A
;
ret
;
;lcd enable rotine
lcd_IOCONT :
mov A,#00
;
mov dptr,#IOCONT
;
movx @dptr,A
;
ret;
;
;
;
;
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
4
5
6
RPS
Connecting wires
Capacitors
7
8
FG
Diode
Range
MC1496
51 k
k k
4k
k
k
10f
0.001f,0.1f,0.0
1f
IN 4001
Quantity
1
1
3,5,1,1
2,2,1,1,
1
1
As required
1
1,2,1
2
1
PROCEDURE:
MODEL GRAPH:
TABULATION:
THEORY:
Result:
Thus the AM modulation and demodulation circuits were constructed
and modulation index was calculated.
CIRCUIT DIAGARM:
Einstein College of Engineering
Page 66 of 80
FREQUENCY MODULATION:
AIM:
To design FM signal using IC 566 for the given carrier frequency and
demodulat the FM using PLLNE 565.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.
Name of the Apparatus
No
1
IC
2
Bread Board
3
Resistors
4
5
6
7
RPS
Connecting wires
Capacitors
FG
Range
Quantity
566
1
1
1,1,
1
1
As required
1,2
1
39 k k
k
0.01f, 0.001f
THEORY:
Modulation:
It is the process in which the characteristics of high frequency carrier
wave are varied in accordance with instantaneous value of other wave.
Frequency Modulation:
Frequency modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a
carrier wave in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
without any variation in the amplitude of the carrier wave. Because the amplitude of
the wave remains unchanged, the power associated with an FM wave is constant.
When the modulating signal is zero, the output frequency equals fc
(centre frequency).When the modulating signal reaches its positive peak, the
frequency of the modulated signal is maximum and equals(fc + fm). At negative peaks
of the modulating signal, the frequency of the FM wave becomes minimum and equal
to
(fc - fm).Thus, the process of frequency modulation makes the frequency of
the FM wave to deviate from its centre frequency(fc).By an amount ( + or - f) where
f is termed as the frequency deviation of the system. During this process, the total
power in the wave does not change but a part of the carrier power is transferred to the
side bands. There are two types of FM they are
1.Narrow band FM
2.Wide band FM
Frequency demodulation
It is a process which is used to receive the origin of signals.
TABULATION:
PROCEDURE:
RESULT:
Thus the frequency modulation and its demodulation circuits were designed
and waveforms are plotted.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TRUTH TABLE:
RESULT:
Thus the pseudo random sequence was generated using linear feedback shift
register and the output was verified using truth table.
ALU PROGRAM:
Ex. No.9
Date:
AIM:
To write HDL program for designing arithmetic logic unit and
simulate it using xilinx ISE9.2i.
SOFTWARE USED:
XILINX ISE 9.2i
PROCEDURE:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
xi)
xii)
xiii)
xiv)
RESULT:
Thus the HDL program was written for arithmetic logic unit and
simulated using xilinx.
PROGRAM:
clc; clear all; close all;
format short
T=input('enter the symbol interval T');
br=input('enter the bit rate value br');
rf=input('enter the roll off factor rf');
n=[-10 10];
y=5000*rcosfir(rf,n,br,T);
ds=[5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 5 5 5 2 2 2 5 5 5 5];
m=length(ds);
n1=length(y);
i=1;
z=conv(ds(i),y);
while (i)
z1=[z,zeros(1,1.75*br)];
z=conv(ds(i+1),y);
z2=[zeros(1,i*1.7*br),z];
z=z1+z2;
i=i+1;
end
%plot(z);
h=randn(1,length(ds));
rs1=filter(h,1,z);
for i=1;length(ds),
rs(i)=rs1(i)/15;
end
for i=1:round(x3/3),
rs(i)=randn(1);
end
fs=[5 5 2 2 2 2 2 5 2 2 2 5 5 5 2 5 2 5 2];
m=length(ds);
n1=length(y);
i=1;
z=conv(fs(i),y);
while(i)
z1=[z,zeros(1,1.75*br)];
z=conv(fs(i+1),y);
z2=[zeros(1,i*1.75*br),z];
Einstein College of Engineering
Page 76 of 80
plot(fs);
title('desired signal');
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(fs1);
title(' echo added with desired signal');
figure(2);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(y4);
title('estimated echo signal using LMS algorithm');
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(fs1-y4);
title('echo cancelled signal');
RESULT:
Thus the LMS Algorithm based Echo cancellation System has been
designed and verified using MATLAB.