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Food Chemistry
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Department of Internal Medicine, Institut dInvestigacions Biomdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clinic, Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
CIBER CB06/03 Fisiopatologa de la Obesidad y la Nutricin, (CIBERobn), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
Nutrition and Food Science Department, XaRTA, INSA, School of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
d
Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Unit, School of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 16 December 2013
Received in revised form 4 June 2014
Accepted 8 July 2014
Available online 15 July 2014
Keywords:
cis/trans carotenoids
Lipid prole
Lycopene
Tomato juice
a b s t r a c t
The potential benets of tomato-rich diets for the cardiovascular system have been related to plasma
concentrations of carotenoids. In addition, the bioavailability of carotenoids from foods depends on their
chemical structure, processing and the food matrix. Our aim was to evaluate the effect of adding oil to
tomato juice (not treated with heat) on the bioavailability of plasma carotenoids and postprandial lipid
response. In a randomized, controlled, crossover feeding trial, eleven healthy volunteers were assigned to
receive a single ingestion of 750 g of tomato juice (TJ) containing 10% of rened olive oil/70 kg body
weight (BW) and 750 g of TJ without oil/70 kg BW on two different days. All lycopene isomers increased
signicantly in subjects consuming TJ with oil, reaching the maximum concentration at 24 h. LDL
cholesterol and total cholesterol decreased signicantly 6 h after the consumption of TJ with oil, which
signicantly correlated with an increase of trans-lycopene and 5-cis-lycopene, respectively.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Several studies have observed that a regular intake of tomato
products may have a signicant impact on human health
(Burton-Freeman, Talbot, Park, Krishnankutty, & Edirisinghe,
2012; Ghavipour et al., 2012). The consumption of P7 servings/
week of tomato-based products has been associated with a 30%
relative risk reduction for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (Sesso,
Liu, Gaziano, & Buring, 2003) and a reduction of coronary and
inammatory biomarkers (Riso et al., 2006; Sesso, Wang, Ridker,
& Buring, 2012). These potential benets of tomato-rich diets on
vascular health have been attributed to the high concentrations
Abbreviations: AUC024, area under the concentrationtime curve from time zero
(0) to 24 h; BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; BW, body weight; CVD,
cardiovascular disease; Cmax/AUC024, absorption rate; HDL-c, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; HPLC-MS/MS, high pressure liquid chromatographymass
spectrometry in tandem; LDL-c, low density lipoprotein cholesterol; MTBE, methyl
tert-butyl ether; PTFE, polytetrauoroethylene; SD, standard deviation; TJ, tomato
juice; TC, total cholesterol.
Corresponding author at: Nutrition and Food Science Department, XaRTA, INSA,
School of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Avda. Joan XXIII, 08028 Barcelona,
Spain. Tel.: +34 93 4034843; fax: +34 93 4035931.
E-mail address: lamuela@ub.edu (Rosa Ma. Lamuela-Raventos).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.07.053
0308-8146/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
204
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the addition
of oil to a tomato juice (TJ) preparation, without cooking, on postprandial absorption and bioavailability of carotenoids from TJ and
tentatively evaluate the plausible effect on lipid metabolism. For
this purpose an open, controlled, randomized, crossover feeding
trial was carried out in 11 healthy adults.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Samples
The TJ was elaborated with raw tomato fruits (Lycopersicum esculentum L., Royalty variety) at commercial maturity, supplied by CASI
Cooperative (Almeria, Spain). TJ preparation was processed at the
Torribera campus, University of Barcelona (UB, Barcelona, Spain)
by a standardised industrial scale-like manufacturing process.
Rened olive oil was kindly furnished by the Juan Ballester Ross
Company (Tortosa, Spain). Briey, tomatoes were cleaned and sanitized with chlorinated water to remove any impurities and chemical
compounds on the surface. Afterwards, the tomatoes were cleaved
and weighed to obtain the desired amount of juice by crushing in
a blender texturiser at high speed. Then the rened olive oil or the
corresponding amount of water (10%) was added and the resulting
TJ was packaged under vacuum to be frozen at 20 C.
subjects were approved by the Ethics Committee of Clinical Investigation of the University of Barcelona (Spain) and the Institutional
Review Board of the Hospital Clinic in Barcelona. Written informed
consent was obtained from all subjects before inclusion in the trial.
This study has been registered at the London Controlled-trial register with ISRCTN99660610 as the number.
2.4. Dietary assessment
Before each intervention, we used a 24 h food recall questionnaire to assess compliance with the recommended diet. Dietary
intake was converted into nutritional data, using the Professional
Diet Balancer software (Cardinal Health Systems).
2.5. Blood pressure monitoring and biochemistry analysis
Blood pressure (BP), glucose and lipid prole were analysed at
baseline and 6 h after each intervention. BP was measured in the
non-dominant arm, using an automatic oscillometer (Omron 705
CP; Omron Matsusaka Co., Ltd., Matsusaka City, Japan) after
10 min resting in a seated position. Plasma concentration of total
cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides was analysed by enzymatic procedures: HDL and LDL cholesterol after precipitation with phosphotungstic acid and magnesium chloride and blood glucose by
the glucose oxidase method.
2.2. Subjects
205
3. Results
3.1. Carotenoid content in tomato juice
Table 1 shows the content of the main carotenoids identied in
the TJ administered during interventions. Fig. 1 shows the HPLC
MS/MS chromatogram of the carotenoid prole of TJ. The major
compound was beta-carotene (65.8 mg), followed by trans- and
13-cis-lycopene, (46.6 and 15.9 mg, respectively). The sums of
lycopene isomers and beta-carotene contributed to 52% and 46%
of the total intake of carotenoids, respectively. Moreover, translycopene of TJ represented 63% of the total lycopene content while
total cis-lycopene isomers represented 37%.
Table 1
Carotenoid content in dose of tomato juice administered during the intervention.
Compound
(mg/dose administered)a
cis-Lutein
trans-Lutein
alpha-Carotene
beta-Carotene
13-cis-Lycopene
9-cis-Lycopene
trans-Lycopene
5-cis-Lycopene
Total carotenes
Total lycopene isomers
Total carotenoids
0.53 0.08
0.52 0.08
0.06 0.01
65.8 9.55
16.0 2.32
5.96 0.86
46.7 6.77
5.50 0.80
66.7 23.1
74.1 10.8
141 20.4
206
Fig. 1. Tomato juice carotenoids identied by HPLCMS/MS (HPLC coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry).
Table 2
Plasma carotenoid concentrations at baseline and 3, 6 and 24 h after the TJ interventions (n = 11).
(mg l
trans-Lutein
cis-Lutein
alpha-Carotene
beta-Carotene
13-cis-Lycopene
9-cis-Lycopene
trans-Lycopene
5-cis-Lycopene
Total lycopene
Total carotenoids
TJ with oil
TJ without oil
0h
3h
6h
24 h
0h
3h
6h
24 h
0.27 0.11a
0.06 0.04a
0.09 0.03a
1.52 0.91a
0.61 0.22a
0.08 0.04a
0.81 0.40a
1.84 0.69a
3.33 1.20a
5.22 1.94a
0.24 0.10a
0.05 0.03a
0.10 0.04a
1.65 1.07a
0.68 0.27a,
0.11 0.08b,
1.24 0.49b,
2.14 0.92a,b,
4.17 1.48a,b,
6.40 1.85b,
0.23 0.10a,b
0.06 0.06a,b
0.10 0.04a
1.57 0.99a
0.71 0.30a,b
0.09 0.04a,b
1.38 0.73b,c
2.28 0.79a,b
4.02 1.84a
5.96 2.35a,b
0.20 0.11b
0.05 0.03b
0.09 0.02a
1.45 0.90a
0.97 0.70b,
0.13 0.09b,
1.62 0.80c,
2.28 1.13b,
4.98 2.46a,b,
7.25 2.34b
0.21 0.09a
0.04 0.02a
0.10 0.02a
1.73 0.88a
0.59 0.30a,b
0.08 0.04a
0.82 0.21a
1.73 0.70a,c
3.34 1.47a
5.48 1.85a,b
0.21 0.02b
0.05 0.02a
0.09 0.02a
1.69 0.94b
0.58 0.20a
0.07 0.03a
0.72 0.27b
1.78 0.64b,c
3.12 1.00a
4.97 1.65a
0.23 0.12c
0.04 0.02a
0.09 0.02a
1.86 1.10a
0.66 0.21b
0.08 0.03a
0.90 0.32a
1.91 0.56a
3.23 1.41a
5.77 1.53b
0.20 0.10a,c
0.04 0.01a
0.09 0.03a
1.71 1.42a,b
0.60 0.34a,b
0.07 0.05a
0.69 0.37b
1.50 0.70c
3.00 1.51a
5.27 2.68a,b
207
Fig. 2. Plasma concentration and change from baseline of different lycopene isomers and total carotenoids through both interventions. Statistically different (p < 0.05)
between interventions.
Table 3
Pharmacokinetic parameters of carotene and lycopene isomers after TJ, with and without oil interventions (n = 11).
Cmax (mg/l)
TJ with oil
trans-Lutein
cis-Lutein
alpha-Carotene
beta-Carotene
13-Cis-Lycopene
9-cis-Lycopene
trans-Lycopene
5-cis-Lycopene
0.30 0.11
0.07 0.03
0.10 0.02
1.88 1.19
1.06 0.65
0.13 0.08
1.78 0.64
2.55 0.82
TJ with oil
4.88 2.52
0.96 0.65
1.98 0.62
31.5 18.6
15.9 6.96
1.87 1.08
28.0 13.2
44.7 19.4
Cmax/AUC024 (h
TJ without oil
5.14 2.05
1.08 0.28
2.19 0.56
36.4 20.2
14.9 5.57
1.81 0.65
18.7 6.11
43.5 12.4
TJ with oil
)
TJ without oil
0.07 0.04
0.10 0.07
0.06 0.04
0.06 0.04
0.06 0.04
0.07 0.06
0.07 0.04
0.06 0.04
0.05 0.01
0.05 0.01
0.04 0.01
0.05 0.01
0.05 0.01
0.05 0.01
0.05 0.01
0.05 0.01
Values are means SD. The non-parametric statistical Wilcoxon test was used for paired comparisons.
Cmax, peak plasma concentration; AUC, area under the plasma concentrationtime curve; Cmax/AUC, absorption rate.
Values with asterisks are statistically different between interventions (Wilcoxon test, p < 0.05).
plasma the major increase was observed for the cis isomers. Possibly, an isomerisation of trans-lycopene to 5-cis-lycopene occurs
during the absorption process. Moreover, it was also observed that
oil signicantly increased the Cmax values of 13-cis-, trans- and 5cis-lycopene. However, only the trans-lycopene isomer showed a
signicantly higher AUC024 after TJ with oil intervention than after
TJ without oil. With respect to the absorption rate, no statistical
differences were observed in Cmax/AUC024 of lycopene isomers
between interventions; the trend of this kinetic parameter indicates that oil tends to increase the absorption rate. This effect
was more pronounced in the case of cis- and trans-lutein, for which
Cmax/AUC024 was signicantly higher after TJ with oil intervention.
208
Table 4
Blood lipids and BP at baseline and 6 h after both interventions (n = 11).
Parameter
Time
TJ with oil
TJ without oil
Triglycerides (mg/dl)
Baseline
6h
Change (%)
Baseline
6h
Change (%)
Baseline
6h
Change (%)
Baseline
6h
Change (%)
Baseline
6h
Change (%)
Baseline
6h
Change (%)
Baseline
6h
Change (%)
81.3 17.9
83.7 37.2
3.7 43.9
160 27.6
150 22.4
6.2 5.1
102 17.9
96.4 16.3
5.5 7.2
41.6 10.9
38.9 10.9,a
3.7 2.8
2.5 0.4
2.6 0.5
0.1 0.2
69.3 7.7
67.0 7.1
3.8 12.4
120.9 17.5
116.0 9.5
1.9 6.3
87.5 28.7
69.7 18.6
21.3 18.4
160 24.8
153 23.2
5.8 4.4
100 16.0
99.3 16.3
1.0 7.4
42.5 11.1
40.5 11.1,b
2.0 2.9
2.4 0.4
2.5 0.3
0.1 0.1
70.2 10.5
69.5 11.1
0.4 7.8
117.5 15.9
117.2 15.3
1.0 10.3
4. Discussion
Several studies have focussed on the bioavailability of lycopene
due to its potent health benets on the cardiovascular system and
certain types of cancer (Bohm, 2012; Ilic, Forbes, & Hassed, 2011).
However, scarce information is available regarding the absorption
of other carotenoids and the different lycopene isomers.
In contrast to other reports related to carotenoids, our study
analysed different carotenoids (lutein, alpha and beta-carotene)
and all the main cis and trans lycopene isomers present in plasma
after the consumption of TJ, with or without oil, to evaluate both,
the absorption of each of these compounds and the postprandial
lipid response.
209
210
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