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Principles of Learning
Introduction
Abraham Maslow
The following assignment discusses motivation, learning activities, organisation of
information, communication and feedback. The theories of psychologists will be
referenced to the examples given for motivation and the organisation of information.
Theories include those of Abraham Maslow, Jerome Bruner and David Kolb.
Motivation
Students attend Learning Resources IT training on a voluntary basis, and are
therefore highly motivated. These students are intrinsically motivated. Borich &
Tombari describe this type of motivation as follows intrinsic motivation influences
learners to choose a task, get energised about it, and persist until they accomplish it
successfully, regardless of whether it brings an immediate reward (p210). This
description closely matches how our learners behave. Our students have
recognised that they would benefit from improving their IT skills, have sought out and
identified a resource to help them achieve this, and are happy to attend a
programme that does not award a certificate.
Some students are extrinsically motivated, as there are external factors for
responsible for their attendance. An example of this if they are referred by academic
staff for additional IT support, or if they are experiencing problems with an
assignment involving IT. Social learning theorists such as Albert Bandura believe
that observing peers shapes learners behaviour and that the social environment can
influence personality Zimbardo, McDermott, Jansz & Metaal (p460). This could
explain why some students attend because their peers are already competent in
using a computer. If friends and family are IT literate then the learner feels they
should be too. As more people become adept in using IT, then more people will
follow this behaviour. Whatever the motivation factors, when a learner attends a
learning programme it is the responsibility of the tutor to maintain their motivation.
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The learning environment
Introduction
A tutors first consideration is to establish and maintain an effective learning
environment. Learners need to feel secure and emotionally safe. As the humanist
psychologist Abraham Maslows (1962) Hierarchy of Needs shows, physiological and
safety needs must be satisfied before a person can progress. These needs can be
applied to a computer workshop as discussed in Reece & Walker (p101). To satisfy
physiological needs the tutor must ensure that the room is not too hot/cold, the
chairs meet health and safety regulations, and learners have adequate breaks.
Many students feel insecure and apprehensive about learning IT, to ensure they feel
emotionally safe it is important that the tutor show empathy. Computers must be
regularly maintained and software properly installed to ensure the learner does not
have to struggle with technical difficulties.
Learning activities
The Humanist psychologists believe behaviour is unique to each individual. We are
not all motivated by the same things and we all have different aims and expectations.
Borich & Tombari describe the humanist theory as follows: It is called humanist
because the primary focus is the inner thoughts, feelings, psychological needs, and
emotions of the individual learner (p285). The Humanistic approach should apply
choosing teaching methods and planning learning activities.
Learning activities must be structured to meet the needs of all learners. This can be
a challenge as some learners expect formal instruction and the tutor-led approach,
while others want to work independently, requesting help as required. Learners can
become frustrated and de-motivated if the workshop is not at an appropriate level
and/or the teaching methods and activities inappropriate to their needs.
Psychologist Carl Rogers stated that the learner should be placed at the centre of
the learning process through active self-discovery. He also stated that the job of the
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teacher, in his view, is to generate the conditions and environment for students to
develop their own self concept Reece & Walker (p112). Rogerss concept of placing
a learner at the centre of the learning process is possible when learning activities
and teaching methods encourage independent learning, the tutor taking the role of
facilitator. Computer-based training, student-centered material and exercises are all
suitable for independent learning.
Motivation can be maintained by acknowledging previous learning experience and
providing the appropriate learning materials to enable the learner to build on existing
skills.
Learners benefit from seeing a task carried out before they attempt it themselves.
When the tutor is required to teach many new skills the demonstrations are broken
up throughout the workshop. One long demonstration is not appropriate, as learners
can become bored, retention is more difficult, leading to de-motivation.
Communicating effectively with learners
Our task as teachers is to create an environment where students feel part of a
group and feel that their contribution has worth Reece & Walker (p112). To achieve
this the tutor must be able to communicate with learners, encouraging
communication within the group. Communication must be a two-way process
between tutor and learner.
Learners must be aware of the aims and objectives of the learning programme. The
tutor needs to be aware of the learners expectations and v previous learning
experiences. This can only be achieved by fostering an environment whereby the
tutor and learner can discuss this, learners need to feel comfortable. If a learner is
not mastering the appropriate skills required to take an assessment, the tutor must
let the learner know, guiding them in the right direction
Communication with learners needs to be consistent to avoid a situation where some
learners get more attention than others. Gagne and Berliner (1988) discuss several
biased ways in which a tutor can interact with a learner. These include: interacting
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with learners seated only at the front, non-minority group members more than
minority and more able learners more often than the less able. Educational
Psychology A Contemporary Approach Gary D. Borich & Martin L. Tombari 2nd
Edition 1997 Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. page 261.
Organising information
Learning should be organised and delivered to allow learners to learn at their own
pace and have the opportunity to build on existing skills. It helps learners to see the
end result or outcome of the skills they are trying to attain. This is particularly
relevant when learning IT. For example, building a budget in Microsoft Excel is
easier if the learner has seen working model. The Gestalt theory of seeing the big
picture can be applied. Gestalt psychology emphasised the importance of
perceiving whole objects or forms, and proposed a number of principles on how we
organise objects. Atkinson, Smith & Bem (p166)
Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner believed learning to be an active process in
which learners learn based upon their current and previous learning experiences. A
learner acquires new information, transforming that learning with regard to existing
knowledge Reeves & Walker (p110). If you apply this to learning how to use a
computer it is important that learners know about the menus and toolbars before
progressing into new skills. When this have been achieved learners can add to
these skills and continue building.
The author of Cognitive Development Today, Peter Sutherland (1992 p55) states:
Skinners ideas are suitable for linear subjects, such as computing, where tackling
one topic depends on the successful achievement of the previous one.
The organisation of information should be hierarchical. Demonstrations, handouts
and exercises flow in a logical sequence. Computer-based training (CBT) is a logical
sequence. International students, learners lacking IT skills in confidence find step-bystep written instructions helpful. An example of this would the steps required to
create a chart in Microsoft Excel. This can be compared to Skinners theory that

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people learn by operant conditioning, an operant being a series of actions the learner
does to achieve an outcome.
Another theory that can be applied to learning IT is Jerome Bruners theory of the
three forms of representation. This is discussed in Bruners book Toward a theory of
Instruction (p10). The three forms of representation is:
Action (enactment and demonstrations)
Icons (summarising pictures)
Symbols (words and numbers)
We know many things for which we have no imagery and no words, and they are
very hard to teach anyone by the use of words, diagrams or pictures Bruner (p10).
Action can be represented by the demonstration of a skill to a learner.
Demonstrations are an important teaching method in IT.
Iconic representation is principally governed by principles of perceptual
organisation bruner (p11). Handouts/exercises include screen shots of the software
being learnt.
Representation in words or language Bruner (p10). There is always an element of
teaching where speech or text imparts information.
In his influential book, Principles of Learning (1921) Thorndike suggested that
learning would occur subject matter was carefully refined and sequenced and
learners appropriately reinforced. The subject matter is presented and organised to
the learner broken down into suitably small steps or frames, each one generally in
the form of a question requiring a response.
Reviewing the learning process with learners
Learners registered for the European Computer Driving Licence are given verbal
feedback throughout the programme. Learners use computer-based training (CBT)
as their primary learning source. Their progress is automatically recorded onto their
university network space. The tutor uses this to check pre-test assessment scores
to identify areas of weakness. Learners are given this feedback verbally during
fortnightly tutorials.
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The computer-based pre-test could be viewed as a positive reinforcer, a key element
in Skinners Stimuli-Response theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the
desired response and is one of the key concepts in behaviour analysis. The learner
naturally wants to achieve a high score, when this is achieved; they are motivated to
learn more in order to perform well in subsequent tests. One of the advantages of
computer-based training is that the learner receives a response at each stage of the
learning process and receives immediate feedback.
Negative reinforcement, such as poor pre-test scores, can de-motivate, and should
be avoided. The reason for poor test scores could be that the learner is not suited to
CBT and requires more traditional teaching methods. This learner would be advised
to attend the taught workshop sessions. When the learners skills, confidence and
experience improve they can be re-introduced to the CBT pre-tests.
The automated testing software marks the test and the result is immediate. Learners
are not given this information in the test environment. This is because of learners
who have failed, it is inappropriate to tell them this in front of another learner.
Results are always given to the individuals at a later stage.
The European Computer Driving Licence tests are regulated by the British Computer
Society. They stipulate that learners are not permitted to know the percentage score,
only that they have passed or failed. Understandably learners want more feedback
than just a pass or fail. Test feedback forms have been devised to meet this need
(see appendix 1 ECDL test feedback form).
The automated test software offers various reports. One of these reports list the
tasks tested and how the learner performed (see appendix 2 ECDL test results
module 7). The tutor checks these results and identifies the areas where the learner
has done well and where they can improve. The test feedback form is completed
and given to the learner, usually in a tutorial where progress can be discussed.

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Teaching and Learning Strategies
Introduction
The following assignment discusses the teaching and learning strategy for the
programme of IT training workshops (see appendix 1 IT training programme) run
by Learning Resources at The University of Luton. It includes a description of the
teaching methods used, factors to be considered when choosing a method, and the
effect of resource constraints.
Promoting learning in groups, learning through experience and encouraging
individual learning is also discussed.
Lesson plans for Microsoft Access and Internet Explorer and the World Wide Web
are included in the appendix. The teaching methods for both workshops have been
evaluated and revised as appropriate.
The Teaching and Learning Strategy
The objective of the IT Training programme is to equip students with the necessary
skills required to produce assignments and to encourage them to become
independent learners. The programme is available to all students studying at The
University of Luton. The majority of students sign up voluntarily, but lecturers can
refer students who require additional help and support.
Students attending workshops often have very different aims, expectations and
abilities. Some use the workshops on a need to know basis while others want to
learn all aspects of IT and attend the entire programme.
The learning process has to be structured to meet the needs of all learners. Some
learners expect formal instruction and the tutor led approach, while others want to
work independently, requesting help as required.

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The tutor led approach is applied for some of the workshop but the tutor facilitates for
the majority of the time. Facilitation is the desired approach as it helps to foster a
learning environment where the learner takes responsibility for their own learning,
building on existing skills and becoming more confident.
Teaching methods
The most commonly used teaching methods for the computer workshops are:
Demonstration
Practical
Verbal instruction (step-by-step)
Talk/presentation
Exercises
Computer-based training (including assessment)
Student-centred learning
Computer workshops are by nature practical sessions, though it is sometimes
necessary to impart theoretical knowledge. For example, learners benefit from
learning about the concepts of databases before they actually start to use a
database application such as Microsoft Access. Including some theory on search
techniques/criteria can enhance a workshop on Internet Explorer and the World
Wide Web.
The most appropriate and effective method is that of demonstration. Learners
benefit from seeing a task carried out before they attempt it themselves. A workshop
may require several demonstrations, depending on how many new skills are to be
taught. If learners find a task particularly difficult the tutor gives verbal step-by step
instruction.
The computer-based training software includes on-line tests, which can be used as a
form of assessment, whether by the learner themselves or the tutor.

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The student-centred handouts are available if learners wish to practise skills
independently. These handouts are designed to be used away from a
workshop/tutor environment.
Handouts are very important, particularly to learners who find IT difficult. There are
two types of handout, instructions and exercises. The exercises are used to
consolidate learning. Handouts must be written in a concise step by step way. A
well-written handout can be utilised by learners of all abilities.
It is important to distribute handouts at the beginning of the workshop or inform
learners that handouts are available. Learners will then concentrate on the
demonstrations and will not waste time writing instructions.
Factors to be considered when choosing a teaching method
There are many factors to consider when choosing a teaching method. These
include the learning objective, group size, available resources, time and most
importantly ability and learning styles of learners. Some of these will be discussed
along with advantages and disadvantages for each method.
The learning objective
The objective of the IT Training programme is to equip students with the necessary
skills required to produce assignments and most importantly encourage them to
become independent learners. To promote independent learning it is important to
use teaching methods that encourage the learner to work as an individual.
Computer-based training, student centred material and exercises are all suitable for
independent learning.
Group size
A formal demonstration (using a multi-media projector) is a very effective and
efficient way of introducing a new skill to a group of 5 or more. Participation is high if
the demonstration is good and of high quality. When the tutor is required to teach
many new skills the demonstrations are broken up throughout the workshop. One
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long demonstration is not appropriate, as learners can become bored, distracted and
retention is more difficult. Demonstrations may not be appropriate for very small
groups, as it can be quite intimidating.
Verbal step-by-step instruction is more appropriate for groups of 5 and under and
very effective for one-to-one. Using this method for large groups can lead to real
problems for the tutor. The tutor must ensure that all learners are at the same point
and that no one is being left behind. This can be very frustrating for the learners who
are managing to keep up and are wasting time waiting for the others. International
students may have problems understanding the tutors dialect and find they get left
behind.
Resources
Computers, networks and software are obviously an integral resource. These
resources must be in perfect working order if a computer workshop is to run
smoothly. Information technology tutors should always be aware of what can go
wrong and have some idea of how to trouble shoot when things do go wrong.
There should be a variety of handouts and exercises, ranging from beginners to
more advanced. This is important because the tutor can then meet the needs of
learners of different abilities.
Ability of learners
A workshop for an introduction to Microsoft Excel can attract learners of varying
abilities. This is usually because a learners perception of his or her own ability often
does not match the reality. The list of pre-requisites (skills they must already have),
which is available at the time of signing up for the workshop rarely deters learners
from signing up for a workshop not appropriate to their needs. The tutor has to use a
variety of teaching methods to ensure everyones learning needs are met. If the
workshop is too basic for the learner there should be handouts and exercises
covering more advanced topics available. The tutor can also use computer-based

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learning for learners who find the workshop material either too easy or too difficult.
This then frees the tutor to meet the needs of the less experienced learners.
Learning styles
Some learners (possibly reflectors) may find computer-based learning, studentcentred learning and the exercises with its element of independent learning
appealing because they will be able to work at their own pace.

Others (possibly

activists) may find the computer-based training repetitive and too rigid because there
are no opportunities for expression and experimentation.
There should be variety of teaching methods and learning materials to meet the
learning style of each individual.
Effects of resource constraints
Time is the biggest constraint when running any computer workshop. The
programme is available to students from any faculty, studying on any degree
programme and they sign up to attend workshops between lectures/seminars. Due
to the limited time available to students it is important that the workshops are not too
long. Most of the workshops run for between 90 and 120 minutes and unless the
group is very small it is often very difficult to cover all of the intended material. If a
workshop is not carefully managed (time wise) the learner may feel their needs have
not been met. To overcome this problem the tutor needs to be realistic in what it will
be possible to cover and the learner must know up front which skills are to be
addressed.
Technical problems are a major constraint. A problem with the university network
can severely disrupt a computer workshop, as can a shortage of computers due to
faults. When this happens learners often become de-motivated, which can result in
learners opting out of IT. It is important that the tutor checks the resources prior to
the start of the workshop. Learners need to be assured that technical difficulties can
be overcome.

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