Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Coastal and Ocean Engineering
Coastal and Ocean Engineering
XIII
Coastal and Ocean
Engineering
87
87
Shallow Water and Deep
Water Engineering
87.1 Wave Phenomena
Airy (Low Amplitude) Cnoidal (Shallow Water, Long Waves)
Stream Function Stokian (Third Order)
John B. Herbich
Texas A & M University Consulting
& Research Services, Inc.
87.6
87.7
87.8
87.9
Navigational Channels
Marine Foundations
Oil Spills
Offshore Structures
Ocean engineering is a relatively new branch of engineering. The need for this new specialty was recognized
in the 1960s. Several universities, including Texas A&M, MIT, Florida Atlantic, the U.S. Coast Guard
Academy, and the U.S. Naval Academy, have established undergraduate degree programs in ocean engineering. Several universities have also developed programs at the graduate level specializing in ocean engineering.
Ocean and coastal engineering covers many topics, generally divided between shallow water (coastal
engineering) and deep water (ocean engineering), shown in Figure 87.1 and Figure 87.2.
87-2
Wave Phenomena
Characteristics
Design
Values
Sediment Processes
OnshoreOffshore
Marine Foundation
Coastal Structures
Seawalls Groins Breakwater
Littoral
Shore
Connected
Navigation Channels
Shallow
Deep
Detached
Oil Spills
Containment Removal
Dredging
Dredging
Dredging
Dredging
Dredging
Offshore Structures
Offshore Pipelines
Fixed Tension
Floating
Dynamic
Naval
Positioning Architecture
Structural
Analysis
Pile
Driving
Stability
and transitional water, whereas Airy and Stokian theories apply to transitional and deep water (Airy
applies to low amplitude waves).
Transitional water
Deep water
L = T gh = CT
L=
(87.1)
gT 2
2ph
tanh
L
2p
(87.2)
gT 2
= C oT
2p
(87.3)
Lo =
where T = wave period; g = acceleration due to gravity; h = water depth; and C = wave celerity. Subscript
o denotes deep water conditions.
87-3
d
= 0.040
L
d
= 0.500
L
d
= 0.00155
gT2
d
= 0.0792
gT2
Shallow water
Deep water
Transitional water
H0
= 0.14
L0
78
ry
0.
eo
Stream Function V
ve
ry
th
ita
it
l
So
H=
wa
HB
4
NONBREAKING
lim
kin
ea
Br
Stream
Function
V
L2H
~
~ 26
d3
Croidal Theory
0.0004
0.001
0.002
0.02
0.04 0.06
0.1
FIGURE 87.3 Regions of validity for various wave theories (Source: Le Mhaut, B. 1969. An Introduction to Hydrodynamics and Water Waves, Report No. ERL 118-POL3-1&2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science
Services Administration, Washington, DC.)
L=
16d3
kK (k )
3H
(87.4)
y
16
g
kK (k )
t h
T
=
h
3H yt
H 1 E(k )
1 +
yt k 2 2 K (k )
(87.5)
87-4
where yt = distance from the bottom to the wave trough; k = modulus of the elliptic integrals; K(k) =
complete elliptic integral of the first kind; and E(k) = complete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Cnoidal waves are periodic and of permanent form; thus L = CT.
Stream Function
Stream function was developed by Dean [1977] and is of analytical form with the wavelength L, coefficients X(n), and the value of stream function on the free surface yh determined numerically. The
expression for the stream function, y, for a wave system rendered stationary by a reference frame moving
with the speed of the wave, C, is
L
y = -U z +
T
NN
2p n
X(n)sinh L
n=1
2p nx
(h + z ) cos
(87.6)
with the coordinate z referenced to the mean water level; U is a uniform current.
Stream function (Table 87.1) provides values of wavelength L = L/ Lo, hc = hc/H (water surface elevation
above mean water), ht = ht/H (wave surface elevation below mean water), uc (horizontal dimensionless
velocity at the crest), w m (maximum dimensionless vertical velocity), (FD)m (maximum dimensionless
drag force), and (FI)m (maximum dimensionless inertia force).
L=
2
2
gT 2
2ph pH 5 + 2 cosh(4ph / L) + 2 cosh (4ph / L
+
tanh
1
4
L L
2p
8 sinh (2pd/L)
(87.7)
87-5
h/Lo
H /L0
hc
ht
u c
w m *
q(w m ) *
1-A
1-B
1-C
1-D
2-A
2-B
2-C
2-D
3-A
3-B
3-C
3-D
4-A
4-B
4-C
4-D
5-A
5-B
5-C
5-D
6-A
6-B
6-C
6-D
7-A
7-B
7-C
7-D
8-A
8-B
8-C
8-D
9-A
9-B
9-C
9-D
10-A
10-B
10-C
10-D
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
0.00039
0.00078
0.00117
0.00156
0.00097
0.00195
0.00293
0.00388
0.00195
0.00389
0.00582
0.00775
0.00390
0.00777
0.01168
0.01555
0.00975
0.01951
0.02916
0.03900
0.0183
0.0366
0.0549
0.0730
0.0313
0.0625
0.0938
0.1245
0.0420
0.0840
0.1260
0.1681
0.0427
0.0852
0.1280
0.1697
0.0426
0.0852
0.1275
0.1704
0.120
0.128
0.137
0.146
0.187
0.199
0.211
0.223
0.260
0.276
0.292
0.308
0.359
0.380
0.401
0.422
0.541
0.566
0.597
0.627
0.718
0.744
0.783
0.824
0.899
0.931
0.981
1.035
1.013
1.059
1.125
1.194
1.017
1.065
1.133
1.211
1.018
1.065
1.134
1.222
0.910
0.938
0.951
0.959
0.857
0.904
0.927
0.944
0.799
0.865
0.898
0.922
0.722
0.810
0.858
0.889
0.623
0.716
0.784
0.839
0.571
0.642
0.713
0.782
0.544
0.593
0.653
0.724
0.534
0.570
0.611
0.677
0.534
0.569
0.609
0.661
0.533
0.569
0.608
0.657
-0.090
-0.062
-0.049
-0.041
-0.143
-0.096
-0.073
-0.056
-0.201
-0.135
-0.102
-0.078
-0.278
-0.190
-0.142
-0.111
-0.377
-0.284
-0.216
-0.161
-0.429
-0.358
-0.287
-0.218
-0.456
-0.407
-0.347
-0.276
-0.466
-0.430
-0.389
-0.323
-0.466
-0.431
-0.391
-0.339
-0.467
-0.431
-0.392
-0.343
49.68
47.32
43.64
40.02
29.82
29.08
26.71
23.98
19.83
19.87
18.47
16.46
12.82
13.35
12.58
11.29
7.20
7.66
7.41
6.47
4.88
5.09
5.00
4.43
3.63
3.64
3.54
3.16
3.11
3.01
2.86
2.57
3.09
2.98
2.83
2.60
3.09
2.98
2.83
2.62
13.31
15.57
14.98
13.63
8.70
9.29
9.85
9.47
6.22
7.34
6.98
6.22
4.50
5.38
5.29
4.99
3.44
3.69
3.63
3.16
3.16
3.07
2.98
2.44
3.05
2.93
2.49
2.14
2.99
2.85
2.62
1.94
2.99
2.85
2.62
1.99
2.99
2.85
2.63
2.04
10
10
10
10
20
10
10
10
30
20
20
10
30
30
20
20
50
50
30
30
75
50
50
50
75
75
50
50
75
75
75
50
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
(FD ) m
(FI) *m
2574.0
2774.6
2861.0
2985.6
907.0
1007.9
1060.7
1128.4
390.3
457.3
494.7
535.4
156.3
197.6
222.9
242.4
44.3
59.1
72.0
85.5
17.12
22.37
28.79
36.48
6.69
8.60
11.31
15.16
2.09
2.71
3.53
4.96
1.025
1.329
1.720
2.303
0.513
0.664
0.860
1.137
815.6
1027.0
1043.5
1001.7
327.1
407.1
465.7
465.2
162.1
209.0
225.6
242.4
82.2
103.4
116.1
113.5
37.6
38.5
47.1
45.1
22.62
23.67
23.64
22.43
13.86
13.61
13.31
11.68
6.20
6.21
5.96
5.36
3.116
3.126
3.011
2.836
1.558
1.563
1.510
1.479
q(FI) m*
10
10
10
10
20
10
10
10
30
20
10
10
30
20
20
20
50
50
30
20
75
50
30
30
75
75
50
50
75
75
75
50
75
75
75
50
75
75
75
50
p Dc
(Bottom)
1.57
1.45
1.35
1.29
1.46
1.36
1.23
1.11
1.34
1.28
1.16
1.04
1.18
1.16
1.06
0.97
0.93
0.94
0.88
0.76
0.73
0.73
0.70
0.62
0.46
0.47
0.47
0.44
0.090
0.101
0.116
0.120
0.004
0.005
0.008
0.009
-0.001
0.000
-0.001
0.0000
Notes: (1) Except where obvious or noted otherwise, dimensionless quantities are presented for mean water elevation. (2)
The maximum dimensionless drag and inertial forces apply for a piling extending through the entire water column. (3)
Subscripts m, c, and t denote maximum, crest, and trough, respectively.
Source: Dean, R. G. 1991. Beach profiles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf,
Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
87-6
High waves
(87.8a)
Hb
< 0.85 , a monotonic profile can be expected.
wT
(87.8b)
When
When
Later, on the basis of large laboratory data, Kriebel et al. [1986] found the value of 2.3 rather than 0.85
in Equation (87.8a) and Equation (87.8b).
Beach or shore
Coast
Backshore
luff
or
scarpment
Nearshore zone
(defines area of nearshore currents)
Foreshore
Inshore or shoreface
(extends through breaker zone)
Offshore
Surf Zone
Berms
Breakers
Beach scarp
Crest of berm
Plunge point
Bottom
FIGURE 87.4 Visual definition of terms describing a typical beach profile. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987.
Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
87-7
1.0
Suggested Empirical
Relationship
From Hughes
Field Results
0.10
0.1
10.0
1.0
100.0
FIGURE 87.5 Beach profile scale factor, A, versus sediment diameter, D, in relationship h = Ax2/3. (Source: Dean, R.
G. 1991. Beach profiles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston.
Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
Longshore transport rate (Q, given in unit volume per second) is assumed to depend upon the
longshore component of wave energy flux, Pls (Department of the Army, 1984):
Q=
K
P
(r s - r)ga ls
(87.9)
(87.10)
where E is wave energy density and Cg is wave group speed. The wave energy density is calculated by
E=
rgH 2
8
(87.11)
rgH 2
C g cos a
8
(87.12)
rgH 2
C g cos a sin a
8
(87.13)
87-8
4
Bagnold
Theoretical curve
Goddet
Manohar
Empirical formula
101
8
6
*c
D
d 0/
Shields
200
1
=5
6 8 10
6 8 102
100
200
Turbulent
Laminar
2
102
Theoretical curves
50
100
4
6 8 103
6 8 104
FIGURE 87.6 Threshold of sand movement by waves with Shields, Sleath, and Tsuchiya empirical curves, as well
as the theoretical curve. (Source: Tsuchiya, Y. 1991. Threshold of sand movement. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston.
Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
or
Pl =
rg 2
H C g sin 2a
16
(87.14)
for Dv * 1
= 0.20Dv-*23/
for 1 Dv * 20
/
= 0.010D13
v*
for 20 Dv * 125
= 0.050
for 125 Dv *
(87.15)
Seawalls
Forces due to nonbreaking waves may be calculated using Sainflou or MicheRundgren formulas.
Employing the MicheRundgren formula, the pressure distribution is
87-9
h0
SWL
SWL
Hydrostatic Pressure
Distribution
Actual Pressure
Distribution
Hydrostatic Pressure
Distribution
d
Fc
Actual Pressure
Distribution
F1
A
h
p1
p1
FIGURE 87.7 Pressure distributions for nonbreaking waves. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection
Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
g Hi
1+ c
p1 =
2 cosh(2ph / L)
(87.16)
where c = wave reflection coefficient; g = unit weight of water; Hi = incident wave height; h = water
depth; and L = wavelength.
Figure 87.7 shows the pressure distribution at a vertical wall at the crest and trough of a clapotis.
Forces due to breaking waves may be estimated by Minikin and Goda methods. The Minikin method
described by the Department of the Army [1984] estimates the maximum pressure (assumed to act on
the SWL) to be:
pm = 101g
H b ds
(D + ds )
LD D
(87.17)
where pm is the maximum dynamic pressure, Hb is the breaker height, ds is the depth at the toe of the
wall, D is the depth one wavelength in front of the wall, and LD is the wavelength in water depth D. The
distribution of dynamic pressure is shown in Figure 87.8. The pressure decreases parabolically from pm
at the WL to zero at a distance of Hb/2 above and below the SWL. The force represented by the area
under the dynamic pressure distribution is
Rm =
pm H b
3
(87.18)
Godas method [1985] assumes a trapezoidal pressure distribution (Figure 87.9). The pressure extends
to a point measured from SWL at a distance given by h*:
h* = 0.75(1 + cos b)Hmax
(87.19)
in which b denotes the angle between the direction of wave approach and a line normal to the breakwater.
The wave pressure at the wall is given by
87-10
pm
SWL
Hb
Dynamic Component
Hydrostatic Component
ds
Combined Total
(ds +
Hb
)
2
FIGURE 87.8 Minikin wave pressure diagram. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual,
vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
p1
*
hc
Buoyancy
h
pu
p2
p3
FIGURE 87.9 Distribution of wave pressure on an upright section of a vertical breakwater. (Source: Goda, Y. 1990.
Random wave interaction with structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich.
Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
1
p1 = (1 + cos b)(a 1 + a 2 cos 2 b)gH max
2
p2 =
(87.20)
p1
cosh(2p h / L)
(87.21)
p3 = a 3 p1
(87.22)
in which
4p h / L
a 1 = 0.6 + 0.5
sinh(4p h / L)
h - d H 2 2d
max
a 2 = min b
,
3hb d H max
2005 by CRC Press LLC
(87.23)
(87.24)
87-11
Crest Width
Breakwater Crest
Max. Design SWL
W
SWL (Minimum)
3r
2r
SWL (Minimum)
W/10
W/10
W/200 to W/4000
1.3 H
FIGURE 87.10 Rubble-mound section for wave exposure on both sides with moderate overtopping conditions.
(Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
a3 = 1 -
h
1
1h cosh(2p h / L)
(87.25)
Breakwaters
Rubble-mound breakwaters are the oldest form of breakwaters, dating back to Roman times. The rubble
mound is protected by larger rocks or artificial concrete units. This protective layer is usually referred to
as armor or cover layer.
W=
g rH3
K D (S r - 1)3 cot q
(87.26)
where W = weight in newtons or pounds of an individual armor unit in the primary cover layer; gr =
unit weight (saturated surface dry) of armor unit in N/m3 or lb/ft3; Sr = specific gravity of armor unit,
relative to the water at the structure (Sr = wr/ww); gw = unit weight of water: freshwater = 9800 N/m3 (62.4
lb/ft3); seawater = 10,047 N/m3 (64.0 lb/ft3); q = angle of structure slope measured from horizontal in
degrees; and KD = stability coefficient that varies primarily with the shape of the armor units, roughness
of the armor unit surface, sharpness of edges, and degree of interlocking obtained in placement.
Figure 87.10 presents the recommended three-layer section of a rubble-mound breakwater. Note that
underlayer units are given in terms of W, the weight of armor units.
Automated coastal engineering system (ACES) describes the computer programs available for the
design of breakwaters using Hudson and related equations.
Van der Meer [1987] developed stability formulas for plunging (breaking) waves and for surging
(nonbreaking) waves. For plunging waves,
H s / DDn50 * x z = 6.2P 0.18(S / N 0.2 )
(87.27)
(87.28)
where
Hs = significant wave height at the toe of the structure
87-12
8
PLUNGING WAVES
SURGING WAVES
7
cot = 6
5
cot = 4
cot = 3
cot = 2
cot = 1.5
1
Dn50 = 1 m
3
4
5
z = cot / Hs /Lz
= 1.6
S=5
P = 0.5
N = 3000
FIGURE 87.11 Influence of slope angle. (Source: Van der Meer, J. W. 1990. Rubble mounds Recent modifications.
In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston, TX. Copyright 1990 by
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
tan a
2pH s / gTz2
87-13
Very Good
Good
Poor
160
325
385
80
180
370
440
80
200
415
490
80
60
60 plus
60 plus
Bank clearance
Channels with
Yawing Forces
Judgmenta
Judgmenta
Judgmenta
100 but not less
than 100 ft
150
Open sea area. When exposed to strong and long stern or quarter swells where speed may be high,
the gross underkeel clearance should be about 20% of the maximum draft of the large ships to
be received.
Waiting area. When exposed to strong or long swells, the gross underkeel clearance should be
about 15% of the draft.
Channel. For sections exposed to long swells, the gross underkeel clearance should be about 15%
of the draft.
The Engineering Manual [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1983] provides guidance for the layout and
design of deep-draft navigation channels. Table 87.2 provides the general criteria for channel widths.
Strength Properties
Clay
Common Properties
Sand
Clay
Sand
Grain
Size
Atterberg
Limits
Su, St
c, f
f or Su
Cv, k
Cc
Cc
Shallow foundation
Deadweight anchors
Deep pile foundations
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Pile anchors
Direct-embedment anchors
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Drag anchors
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Penetration
Breakout
Scour
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Slope stability
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Subbottom Depth
of Survey
1.5 to 2 foundation width
1.5 to 2 anchor width
1 to 1.5 pile group width, below
individual pile tips
To depth of pile anchor
To expected penetration of anchor,
maximum 33 to 50 ft clay; 13 to 33 ft sand
33 to 50 ft clay; 10 to 16 12 ft sand for large
anchors
33 to 50 ft clay; 13 to 33 ft sand
1 object width plus embedment depth
3.3 to 16 12 ft; related to object size and
water motion
33 to 100 ft; more on rare occasions
Note: Su = udrained shear strength; St = sensitivity; c = drained cohesion intercept; f = drained friction angle; f = undrained friction angle for sands rapidly sheared; Cv =
coefficient of consolidation; k = permeability; Cc = compression index.
Source: Marine Board, National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Soil
Classification
Application
87-14
TABLE 87.3 Soil Engineering Parameters Normally Required for Categories of Geotechnical Engineering Applications
87-15
DRILLING RIG
SELF-CONTAINED UNIT
Drill Ship
Small Vessel
Drill String
Single
Umbilical
Umbilical
SUBMERSIBLE
Fixed Carrier
Tool
Thrusting
Platform
In Situ Tool/Sampler
Stabilizing
Mass
Testrod
Sensor
In Situ
Tool/Sampler
FIGURE 87.12 Deployment systems used for sampling, in situ, and experimental testings. (Source: Marine Board,
National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.)
gravity-inertial, gravity-viscous, and surface tension. In the early stage, generally less than 1 h, the gravityinertial regime, or inertial spread, dominates and is described by
R = k 4 (DgLt 2 )1/4
(87.29)
where R = radius of the oil slick; k4 = nondimensional coefficient experimentally determined to be 1.14;
D = the ratio of the absolute difference between the densities of sea water and the oil to that of seawater;
g = force of gravity; L = original volume of oil spilled; and t = time.
When the oil film thickness becomes equal to the viscous layer in the water, a transition occurs from
the gravity-inertial regime to the gravity-viscous regime. This viscous spreading is described by
DgL2t 3/2
Radius of oil slock = R = k5
v 1/2
16
/
(87.30)
where k5 is the nondimensional coefficient determined to be about 1.45, v is the kinematic viscosity of
water, D is the ratio of the difference between density of seawater and oil, L is the original volume of
spilled oil, and t is the time.
87-16
The last phase, the surface tension regime, occurs when the oil film thickness drops below a critical
level, which is a function of the net surface tension, the mass densities of the oil and the water, and the
force of gravity. The surface tension spread is described by
s 2t 3
R = k6 2
rv
1/4
(87.31)
18
/
(87.32)
where Ka = undetermined constant or order unit; V = volume of oil that can be dissolved in this layer;
D = diffusivity; and s = solubility of the significant oil fractions in the water.
In addition, the area covered by the oil slick is not allowed to exceed AT ; therefore, spreading is
terminated at the time
12
/
14
/
Vr v K
t = a2
ss D p k 6
23
/
(87.33)
Oil may be set up by wind and current against a barrier; any containment device must take the setup
estimates into account. There are a number of containment devices (barriers) that prevent oil from
spreading. Most mechanical-type oil containment barriers fail in wave heights greater than 2 ft, when
the wave steepness ratio is greater than 0.08, and in currents normal to the barrier greater than about
0.7 knots.
Oil may also be removed from the water surface by skimming devices. Most mechanical skimming
devices have only been able to work in waves less than 2 to 3 ft in height, in moderate currents.
(87.34)
The force, f, as a function of time, t, is written as a function of the horizontal water particle velocity,
u(t), and the horizontal water particle acceleration, u(t ), at the axis of the cylinder, and is dependent on
2005 by CRC Press LLC
87-17
12Well Structure
El. +5 m
1:7 Batter
Pile Loads
Ult. Axial Capacity
18 mn
8 Main Piles
1.2 m diameter
Welded at top
91.5 m penet.
4 Skirt Piles
grouted in
sleeves
El. 85 m
Template Weight 19.5 mn
FIGURE 87.13 Template-type pile foundation structure. (Source: Young, A. G. 1991. Marine foundation studies.
In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
WATER
DEPTH
GRAVITY
PLATFORM
FIXED
PLATFORM
0700 FEET
(0200 METERS)
01000 FEET
(0300 METERS)
GUYED
TOWER
TENSION-LEG
PLATFORM
BUOYANT
COMPLIANT TOWER
7002000 FEET
(200600 METERS)
10003000 FEET
(300900 METERS)
10002500 FEET
(300750 METERS)
FEET METERS
2000
600
FLOATING
PLATFORM
500
1500
400
GUY-LINES
1000
300
TETHERS
200
500
100
SEABED
ANCHOR
PILES
FIGURE 87.14 Range of water depths for various types of deep-water marine structures. (Source: Marine Board,
National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.)
2005 by CRC Press LLC
87-18
the water density, r. The quantities CM and CD are defined as the inertia (or mass) coefficient and the
drag coefficient, respectively.
The design and dynamic analysis of offshore platforms, which include jacket structures, topside
structures, pile foundations, and dynamic analysis, may be found in Hsu [1991]; discussion of wave
forces is given in Chakrabarti [1991].
Defining Terms
Armor unit A relatively large quarry stone or concrete shape that is selected to fit specified geometric
characteristics and density. It is usually of nearly uniform size and usually large enough to
require individual placement. In normal cases it is used as primary wave protection and is
placed in thicknesses of at least two units.
Artificial nourishment The process of replenishing a beach with material (usually sand) obtained
from another location.
Attenuation (1) A lessening of the amplitude of a wave with distance from the origin. (2) The decrease
of water-particle motion with increasing depth. Particle motion resulting from surface oscillatory waves attenuates rapidly with depth and practically disappears at a depth equal to a surface
wavelength.
Bar A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material built on
the sea floor in shallow water by waves and currents.
Diffraction The phenomenon by which energy is transmitted laterally along a wave crest. When a
part of a train of waves is interrupted by a barrier, such as a breakwater, the effect of diffraction
is manifested by propagation of waves into the sheltered region within the barriers geometric
shadow.
Dunes (1) Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand. (2) Bed forms smaller than
bars but larger than ripples that are out of phase with any water-surface gravity waves associated
with them.
Ebb current The tidal current away from shore or down a tidal stream, usually associated with the
decrease in height of the tide.
Fetch The area in which seas are generated by a wind having a fairly constant direction and speed.
Sometimes used synonymously with fetch length or generating area.
Flood current The tidal current toward shore or up a tidal stream, usually associated with an increase
in the height of the tide.
Groin A shore protection structure built (usually perpendicular to the shoreline) to trap littoral drift
or retard erosion of the shore.
Harbor oscillation (harbor surging) The nontidal vertical water movement in a harbor or bay. The
vertical motions are usually low, but when oscillations are excited by a tsunami or storm surge,
they may be quite large. Variable winds, air oscillations, or surf beat also may cause oscillations.
See seiche.
Hurricane An intense tropical cyclone in which winds tend to spiral inward toward a core of low
pressure, with maximum surface wind velocities that equal or exceed 33.5 meters per second
(75 mph or 65 knots) for several minutes or longer at some points. Tropical storm is the term
applied if maximum winds are less than 33.5 meters per second.
Mean high water (MHW) The average height of the high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter
periods of observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the
results to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value.
Probable maximum water level A hypothetical water level (exclusive of wave run-up from normal
wind-generated waves) that might result from the most severe combination of hydrometeorological, geoseismic, and other geophysical factors and that is considered reasonably possible in
the region involved, with each of these factors considered as affecting the locality in a maximum
manner. This level represents the physical response of a body of water to maximum applied
2005 by CRC Press LLC
87-19
phenomena such as hurricanes, moving squall lines, other cyclonic meteorological events,
tsunamis, and astronomical tide, combined with maximum probable ambient hydrological
conditions such as wave setup, rainfall, runoff, and river flow. It is a water level with virtually
no risk of being exceeded.
Refraction (1) The process by which the direction of a wave moving in shallow water at an angle to
the contours is changed. The part of the wave advancing in shallower water moves more slowly
than that part still advancing in deeper water, causing the wave crest to bend toward alignment
with the underwater contours. (2) The bending of wave crests by currents.
Scour Removal of underwater material by waves and currents, especially at the base or toe of a shore
structure.
Seawall A structure separating land and water areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion and other
damage due to wave action.
Seiche (1) A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed water body that continues, pendulum fashion,
after the cessation of the originating force, which may have been either seismic or atmospheric.
(2) An oscillation of a fluid body in response to a disturbing force having the same frequency
as the natural frequency of the fluid system. Tides are now considered to be seiches induced
primarily by the periodic forces caused by the sun and moon.
Significant wave A statistical term relating to the one-third highest waves of a given wave group and
defined by the average of their heights and periods. The composition of the higher waves
depends upon the extent to which the lower wave are considered.
Wave spectrum In ocean wave studies, a graph, table, or mathematical equation showing the distribution of wave energy as a function of wave frequency. The spectrum may be based on observations or theoretical considerations. Several forms of graphical display are widely used.
References
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Chakrabarti, S. K. 1991. Wave forces on offshore structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
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Goda, Y. 1985. Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures, Tokyo University Press, Tokyo,
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Herbich, J. B. (Ed.) 1990 (vol. 1), 1991 (vol. 2), 1992 (vol. 3). Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
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Hsu, T. H. 1991. Design and dynamic analysis of offshore platforms. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Kriebel, D. L., Dally, W. R., and Dean, R. G. 1986. Undistorted Froude Number for Surf Zone Sediment
Transport, Proc. 20th Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE. pp. 12961310.
2005 by CRC Press LLC
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Le Mhaut, B. 1969. An Introduction to Hydrodynamics and Water Waves, Report No. ERL 118-POL31&2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services Administration, Washington,
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2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
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Further Information
ASCE Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering: Published bimonthly by the American
Society of Civil Engineers. Reports advances in coastal and ocean engineering.
ASCE specialty conference proceedings: Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Report
advances in coastal and ocean engineering.
PIANC Bulletin: Published quarterly by the Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses, Brussels, Belgium. Reports case studies.
Coastal Engineering Research Center (Technical reports, contract reports, miscellaneous papers): Published by the Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Sea Technology: Published monthly by Compass Publications, Inc., Arlington, VA.
IEEE proceedings of ocean conferences: Published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Report advances in ocean engineering.
Offshore Technology Conference Preprints: Published by the Offshore Technology Conference, Dallas,
TX. Report annually on topics in ocean engineering.
Marine Board, National Research Council reports: Published by the National Academy Press, Washington,
DC.
American Gas Association project reports: Published by the American Gas Association, Arlington, VA.
American Petroleum Institute standards: Published by the American Petroleum Institute, Dallas.
Marine Technology Society conference proceedings: Published by the Marine Technology Society, Houston.
World Dredging, Mining & Construction: Published monthly by Wodcon Association, Irvine, CA.
Terra et Aqua: Published by the International Association of Dredging Companies, The Hague, the
Netherlands.
Center for Dredging Studies abstracts: Published by the Center for Dredging Studies, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.
Komar, P. D. 1983. Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. A series of
papers on coastal processes, beach erosion, and replenishment.
Bruun, P. 198990. Port Engineering, vols. 1 and 2, 4th ed. Gulf, Houston. A comprehensive treatment
on port and harbor design.
International Dredging Review: Bimonthly, Fort Collins, CO.
Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan, 1980: Published by the Overseas Coastal Area
Development Institute of Japan, 3-2-4 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Herbich, J. B., Schiller, R. E., Jr., Watanabe, R. K., and Dunlap, W. A. 1987. Seafloor Scour. Marcel Dekker,
New York. Design guidelines for ocean-founded structures.
Grace, R. A. 1978. Marine Outfalls Systems, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. A comprehensive treatment of marine outfalls.
2005 by CRC Press LLC
87-21
Herbich, J. B. 1981. Offshore Pipelines Design Elements, Marcel Dekker, New York. Information relating
to design of offshore pipelines.
Herbich, J. B. 1992. Handbook of Dredging Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York. A comprehensive treatise
on the subject of dredging engineering.