The Length, Time and Velocity Scales

of Turbulence
Tony Burdens Lecture Notes, Spring 2008

These lecture notes are intended to make life easier for the lecturer and the students
by reducing the amount of text that is first written on the blackboard and then copied
into note books. These notes should be complemented by reading in text books such
as Turbulent Flows by S.B. Pope or A First Course in Turbulence by H. Tennekes
and J.L. Lumley. When developing an understanding of turbulence it is a good idea to
read in several different books. Literature recommendations are included at the end of
each chapter in these notes.

The velocity scale of the turbulence

In this lecture the velocity scale of the turbulence as a whole is denoted by uT . In
general, uT ' K 1/2 where K = 12 hu0i u0i i is the mean kinetic energy in the turbulence.
Examples of uT can be found in the classical turbulent flows which have been studied
earlier in the course. In a turbulent boundary layer uT ' u , the friction velocity. More
generally in thin shear layers, u2T ' (/L)U0 U (in the notation of the lecture notes).
The length scale of the turbulence
In this lecture the length scale of the turbulence as a whole is denoted by lT . Later
on in this course, we will be able to say that lT has the same order of magnitude as
the integral length scales. Examples of lT can be found in the classical turbulent flows
which have been studied earlier in the course. In self-similar wake flows lT l1/2 , the
width of the wake, and in a turbulent boundary layer lT y, the distance to the wall.

The Reynolds number of the turbulence is defined to be the dimensionless expression,

ReT =

l2 /
viscous time scale
u T lT
= T
=

lT /uT
convective time scale
rate of change due to inertia etc.
rate of change due to viscous stresses

example: the earths planetary boundary layer

lT 1 km, uT 1 m/s
1

ReT 108

The energy-bearing eddies

An eddy is a loose concept that is used when discussing the scales of motion in
turbulence and in particular the swirling structures that can be observed in turbulent
flow. If an eddy has length scale l and velocity scale u then its time scale is l/u. This
is possibly the only firm property of an eddy. In some qualitative discussions the words
eddy and scale are interchangeable.
When ReT is large, we can talk about the so called energybearing eddies. These
are the rather large, most intensive, eddies, that are directly generated by shear in the
mean flow. We shall see that the kinetic energy in the turbulence is concentrated to
these eddies.
Since the energy-bearing eddies dominate the influence of the turbulence on the
mean flow the scales uT and lT are used to characterize both these eddies and the
turbulence itself.

High-Reynolds number turbulence

When ReT is large, viscosity has a negligible effect on the large eddies with scales uT
and lT . In terms of the ratio of time scales in the definition of ReT above, the viscous
stresses are quite simply too slow compared to the inertial forces which thus dominate
the evolution of the large eddies. The mechanism that is generating the turbulence is
putting energy into the eddies with scales uT and lT and inertial effects, represented by
the non-linear convective terms in the Navier-Stokes equation, spread the energy in the
turbulence over a broad range of length scales.
The upper bound to these length scales is determined by the dimensions of the
flow. In turbulent flow in a pipe, the upper bound to the length scale is of the order of
magnitude of the diameter of the pipe. In a turbulent boundary layer, the upper bound
is of the order of magnitude of the thickness of the boundary layer. In general, lT is a
bit smaller than these upper bounds.
The lower bound to the length scales is set by the influence of viscosity. These small
eddies, i.e. the eddies at the viscous cut-off, are the subject of the rest of this chapter.
When ReT  1, the mechanism that is generating the turbulence is putting energy into
the eddies with scales uT and lT , but all the viscous dissipation of the energy is taking
place in the small eddies. In this slightly idealized situation the mean rate of viscous
dissipation of the kinetic energy in the turbulence becomes a particularly important
quantity and it can be used to characterize the turbulence.

Viscous dissipation general definition

= the mean rate of viscous dissipation of the mean kinetic energy (per unit mass) of
the turbulence. This energy is converted into heat, i.e. inner energy, but leads to a
negligible temperature rise at low Mach nos, e.g. in incompressible flow.
The mathematical expression for was derived as a term in the Kequation. Its
detailed form is not relevant for the arguments presented in this lecture.

The small scales in high-Reynolds number turbulence

When ReT  1, the large scales are unaffected by the viscous stresses but inertial
processes, described by the non-linear terms in the Navier-Stokes equation, spread the
energy to smaller and smaller scales. This process continues until a scale is reached at
which the viscous stresses are comparable to the inertial processes. These small scales,
denoted u0 and l0 , satisfy,
u0 l 0
' 1.
Resmall =

Viscous stresses have a significant influence on these smallest scales and the (local)
viscous dissipation can be estimated by,
2

small '

u0
u0
u0
=
,
'
t0vis
l0 2 /
l0 2

where 1/t0vis ' /l0 follows from the viscous term in the Navier-Stokes equation.
Since ReT  1, most of the viscous dissipation is taking place at these small scales
and we can write,
' small .

Quasi-equilibrium in high-Reynolds number turbulence

We assume now that the time scales of eddies scale with their length scales so that small
eddies have short time scales and larger eddies have longer time scales.
Since the small scales, u0 and l0 , have short time scales, they can be expected to
continuously adjust to, and fit in with, the slower processes in the large scales. This
implies that the rate at which energy is dissipated into heat in the small eddies will be
determined by the rate at which energy is transfered from the large eddies to the small
eddies,
small ' f
where f = the mean rate of transfer of energy (per unit mass) from the large energycontaining eddies to the small energy-dissipating eddies. This flow of energy in the so
called cascade of energy from large scales to small scales is a central concept in the
understanding of the physics of high-ReT turbulence.
2
2
Combining the viscous estimate, small ' u0 /l0 , with the quasi-equilibrium estimate, small ' f , we can say that the intensity of the small scales is determined by the
rate of transfer of energy from the large scales to the small scales,
u0
l0 2

' small ' f

u0
f
2 ' .
0
l

Using Resmall ' 1 to eliminate l0 , we find,

2

u0 u0
2

'

u0 ' (f )1/4 .

In this situation the small scales are said to be in quasi-equilibrium with the large scales.
The scale of the small eddies is also determined by f ;
u0
l0 2

' f

 2
' f
l0 2 l0

l '

3
f

1/4
.

The simple equations presented above,

Resmall ' 1

' small ' f ,

and

embody the essential physics of the small scales of high-ReT turbulence and it is worth
making sure that you have grasped their full significance.

The viscous dissipation revisited in high-Reynolds number turbulence

If the small scales are in quasi-equilibrium with the large scales, then what is determining
f , the transfer of energy from the large scales to the small scales? The only answer we
can formulate at this stage is a little bit vague but turns out to be generally true. The
transfer of energy out of the large scales is in balance with the other processes taking
place in the large scales and this interaction determines uT and lT . Consequently, we
can make the estimate,
' f

u2T

u2T
u3T
'
=
.
lT /uT
lT

tlarge

Remarkably, this estimate for the viscous dissipation is independent of the viscosity
itself! This circumstance is a consequence of the assumption of quasi-equilibrium of the
small scales in high-ReT turbulence.

The Kolmogorov microscales

The small velocity and length scales, u0 and l0 , can be given precise definitions by
replacing ' by = in two of the above relationships;
Resmall =
and

u0 l 0
' 1

u0
' 02
l

uK lK
= 1

becomes

becomes

u2K
2 .
lK

Together these lead to


= lK =

1/4
,

1/4

uK = ()

and

For the sake of completeness note that we can write

tK
l0 '

 1/2
lK
=
=
.
uK

and

u0 ' uK .

Example An electric beater (elvisp) delivers energy to one litre of water at the rate
of 10 Watt.
=

10 Watt
= 10 m2 /s3
1 kg

och = 106 m2 /s

= 0.02 mm.

Scale relations
The quasi-equilibrium estimate, ' u3T /lT , implies that the contrast between the large
and small scales increases with the Reynolds number of the turbulence;

3/4
ReT ,
lT

Example

tK
1/2
ReT
lT /uT

and

uK
1/4
ReT .
uT

the earths planetary boundary layer

lT 1 km

och

ReT 108

1 mm.

Exercises (inl
arnings
ovningar)
1. Derive the expressions for lK , uK and tK using dimensional analysis and assuming
that they only depend on and . Why should they only depend on and ?
Under which conditions?
2. How much power in the form of turbulent kinetic energy can a gas absorb before
the small scales violate the criterion for a continuum?

The Equilibrium range of scales

(High ReT )

When ReT  1, the smaller scales are in quasi-equilibrium with the large energy-bearing
scales. In terms of the length scale, l, of an eddy the smaller scales can be defined by,
l  lT .
This range of length scales is characterized by the mean rate of transfer of energy from
the large scales to the small scales, f ' , together with the viscosity, . This assertion
is just Kolmogorovs first hypothesis.

The Inertial sub-range of the Equilibrium range

3/4

When ReT  1, lT ReT 

range of length scales, l, satisfying,

(High ReT )

which means that there will be a substantial

 l  lT .
In this range, l  implies that viscous processes are negligible (hence the name
inertial). This range of length scales is characterized by the mean rate of transfer of
energy from the large scales to the small scales, f ' , but is independent of the
viscosity, . This assertion is just Kolmogorovs second hypothesis. Now, dimensional
analysis yields,
u(l) ' (l)1/3 ,
for the velocity scale of the eddies in the inertial range and,

1/3
l/u ' l2 /
,
for the time scale. Note that the Kolmogorov scales, = lK , uK and tK also satisfy
these relations. This is consistent with the fact that they determine the bottom end
of the inertial subrange.

The physical dissipation and the pseudodissipation

The true viscous dissipation can be rewritten in the form,








0
u0i u0i
u0i u0l
u0i u0l
0 ui
= 2sil
=
+
= +
,
xl
xl xl
xl xi
xl xi
where the pseudodissipation, or so called isotropic dissipation, is given by,

 0
ui u0i
.
=
xl xl
The true viscous dissipation, , and the so called isotropic dissipation, , can be shown
to be identical in homogeneous turbulence. The arguments presented in this lecture
can be used to show that and are equivalent even under inhomogeneous conditions
provided that the Reynolds number is high, ReT  1.
Using the continuity condition,


2
u0i u0l
= +
= +
hu0i u0l i.
xl xi
xi xl
Typically in inhomogeneous turbulent flow, at least in simple shear flow, the lengthscale
of the turbulence, lT , will be of the same order of magnitude as the lengthscale of the

inhomogeneity. In that case, using the definition of ReT and the equilibrium estimate
for ' f ,

1 2
u3T
1
2
1
2
u

u
=
hu0i u0l i
Re1
T
T f ' ReT ,
2
xi xl
(linhom )2 T
lT
u T l T lT

so,

Re1
T .

The rate of strain

At high ReT , the viscous dissipation of the kinetic energy, the rate of strain, and the
vorticity in the flow are all dominated by the Kolmogorov micro-scales. For example,
' ' small =

u2K
2 .
lK

For the rate of strain we find,

hsil sil i = Sil Sil + hs0il s0il i .
Since sil is symmetric, the dissipation can be rewritten, at high ReT ,


0

u2
0 ui
= 2sil
= 2 hs0il s0il i
where
= 2K = 2
xl
lK
tK

hs0il s0il i =

1
2 t2K

i .e.

1/2

hs0il s0il i

' tK

The small, dissipating Kolmogorov scales dominate the fluctuating rate-of-strain field.
Using the estimate,
 2
uT
0 0
Sil Sil

Sil Sil Re1

T hsil sil i .
lT
The small, dissipating Kolmogorov scales dominate the whole of the rate-of-strain field
on average. This is significant, for example, in turbulent combustion where the stretch
or strain in the small scales is much more likely to locally extinguish the combustion
than the strain of the energy-bearing eddies or the mean flow.
The rate of viscous dissipation of the kinetic energy in the mean flow, 21 U 2 , can
also be rewritten,
2Sil

Ui
1
0 0
= 2Sil Sil Re1
T 2 hsil sil i = ReT ,
xl

and is thus found to be much smaller than the dissipation of K at high ReT .

Literature
Recommended course reading
Sec. 6.1.1, The energy cascade, in Turbulent flows by S. B. Pope, C.U.P., 2000.
Sec. 6.1.2, The Kolmogorov hypotheses, in Turbulent flows by S. B. Pope, C.U.P.,
2000.
Sec. 13.8, Turbulence production and cascade, in Fluid Mechanics by P.K. Kundu
& I.M. Cohen.

Alternative recommended reading

Sec. 1.6, Vortex Stretching, in An Introduction to Turbulence and its Measurement
by P. Bradshaw
Ch. 2 in Turbulence and Random Processes in Fluid Mechanics, M.T. Landahl &
E. Mollo-Christensen, Cambridge University Press (1986).
Section 33, Fully developed turbulence, in Fluid Mechanics by L.D. Landau and
E.M. Lifschitz.
Ch. 3, Space and time scales of turbulence, pp 5761, in An introduction to turbulent
flow, J. Mathieu & J. Scott, C.U.P., (2000).
Sec. 1.5, Lengthscales in turbulent flows, in A First Course in Turbulence, H. Tennekes & J.L. Lumley, MIT Press (1972).