Georeferencing Concepts

GIS differs from other information systems

because they contain spatial data.
Spatial data include coordinates defining
location, shape and extent of geographic
objects.
To use GIS effectively requires an
understanding of how coordinate systems are
established
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There are two major problems in mapping

geographic features. What are they?
1. The Earth has an irregular shape which affects
how we define coordinate systems used to
represent geographic features in GIS

Geodesy the science of measuring the

shape of the Earth

2. A curved surface (e.g., portions of the earth) gets

distorted when represented on a flat map

Map projections transforming

coordinates from a curved Earth to a flat
map

So if we want to do a study that

involves analysis of the location,
shape or extent of geographic
features we need to

Model the shape of the Earth

Develop an appropriate coordinate
system for representing our area of
interest on a flat map
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There are five important components to

model the shape of the Earth and to
develop a coordinate system for a flat
map. Does anyone know what these
concepts might be?

Ellipsoid
Spherical or geographic coordinate
system
Datum
Projection
Units
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What is an Ellipse? An Ellipsoid?

Why is it needed?

Ellipsoids
(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

An ellipse is a 2-dimensional shape that is oval in shape. The shape is

similar to a circle but flattened.

An ellipsoid is actually a three-dimensional (mathematical) representation

of an ellipse; it is created by rotating an ellipse
about an axis.

Ellipsoids (sometimes called spheroids) provide a model of the shape of

the Earth. To georeference something in GIS, we need to define this 7
model.

There are a number of standard ellipsoids (mathematical functions) used

to describe the shape of the earth. Here is the WGS-84 ellipsoid.
(Note: ArcView refers to this as a spheroid the terms ellipsoid and
spheroid are sometimes used interchangeably even though ellipsoid is a
special type of spheroid)

b
a

Source: Peter Dana

http://www.colorado.edu/geog
raphy/gcraft/notes/datum/datu
m_f.html
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Many different ellipsoid models of the Earth since 1830

Source: Peter Dana

http://www.colorado
.edu/geography/gcra
ft/notes/datum/datu
m_f.html

Commonly
used for North
America:
Clarke 1866
WGS 72
WGS 84
GRS 1980

WGS 84
standard
used in
GPS
systems

OK. Ellipsoids mathematically

model the 3-D shape of the Earth.
Whats next?
What is a Spherical or
Geographic Coordinate System?
Why is it needed?
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What is a Spherical or
Geographic Coordinate System?
a reference system used to locate and
measure geographic features on the
surface of a sphere-like object, like the
earth.
We need to be able to place geographic
features on the ellipsoid.
What is arguably the most widely known
geographic coordinate system?
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Longitude/Latitude System (A Spherical System)

(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

Prime meridian
0 o Longitude
Equator
0 o Latitude
(Parallels)
Latitude range from 0to 90in the northern hemisphere, goin g from
the equator to the North Pole. In southern hemisphere, they range from
0to -90, going from the equator to the South Pole .
Longitude values range from 0to 180in the eastern hemisphere,
beginning at the prime meridian in Greenwich, England, and traveling
east across Europe, Africa, and Asia. In the western hemisphere,
longitude values range from 0to -180, starting at the prime meridian
and traveling west across the Americas.
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Longitude/Latitude System
(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

Spherical coordinate systems are measured in degrees, minutes,

seconds (DMS) or degrees decimal (DD).
How would you convert the above longitude into degrees decimal?
DD = 55 + 30/60 + 30/3600 = 55.5083333
Why is DD useful?
Because computers can do processing on them they cant in DMS
format
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Longitude/Latitude System
(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

The network of converging long/lat lines is called a graticule.

It cannot be called a grid because the lines dont converge in right angles.

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OK, now weve got (1) a model

of the Earths shape and (2) a
coordinate system for it.
What is a datum?
Why is this concept important?

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Datum
(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

The geographic coordinate system (long, lat) is based on one longitude

location the Greenwich observatory. Other long/lat locations need to be
measured a Geodetic Survey.
A geodetic datum is a set of control points whose geometric
relationships are known, either through measurement or calculation
(Dewhurst, 1990). From these measurements we know distance, area,
direction, etc. between locations on the Earth.
Datums have two components:
The reference ellipsoid
A set of survey points Both the shape of the spheroid and its position
relative to the earth are important.
Remember, the Earth is not a smooth sphere, (e.g., the Himalayan
mountains and the flat deserts), so different datums work better in different
places on the Earth.
There are two types of datums: (1) Earth-centered and (2) Local.

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NOTE: Some people use ellipsoid

and spheroid interchangeably!

Earth-centered Datum
(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

(this is really an
ellipsoid)

An earth-centered datum establishes the origin of the ellipsoid at the earth's

currently known center of mass.
Earth-centered datums define an X, Y, and Z, Cartesian coordinate system with
respect to the center the reference ellipsoid
The origin of the 1983 North American Datum (NAD83) is very close to the earth's
center of mass and is the most commonly used datum for North America. The World
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Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84) is the datum upon which GPS measurements
are based.

Local Datum
(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

A local datum is aligned so that it closely corresponds to the earth's

surface for a particular area.
An example is the 1927 North American Datum (NAD27) which uses
Meades Ranch, Kansas as the point of origin for all measurements.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meades_Ranch,_Kansas

Earth-centered versus Local Datum

(Source: ESRI virtual campus)

Notice how the ellipsoid shifts, conceptually, with respect to the

Earths surface.
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Various datums fit various locations of the Earth better

See the list of datums at:
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/datum/edlis
t.html
Datums use different ellipsoids. If 2 maps used for GIS
input use different datums, you will run into compatibility
problems because of the different ellipsoids used (what
Bolstad calls datum shift).
For example, one dataset using the North American
Datum 1927 and another using Indian datum
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10

Peter Danas website shows methods to convert data using one datum to
another http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/datum/
Source: Peter Dana
21
datum.html#DConv
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/datum/datum_f.html

OK, we now have:

1. A earth model
2. A geographic coordinate system
3. A datum defining where these
coordinates are on the model of the
Earth
What are Map Projections and why do
we need them?
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11

Why do we need map projections?

(source: ESRI virtual campus)

We want to represent locations identified in the geographic coordinate system

and place them a flat surface (map).
Map projections transfer the spherical Earth coordinates onto a twodimensional (planar) coordinate system.

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What is the fundamental problem with

wanting to represent a curved surface
on a flat piece of paper?

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12

The fundamental problem

(source: ESRI virtual campus)

Sphere graticule lines

dont line up in right angles
Cartesian coordinate
system lines meet in right
angles
Converting a graticule to a grid results in some kind
of distortion either SHAPE, AREA, LENGTH, or
DIRECTION).
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Why do we need map projections?

(source: ESRI virtual campus)

Cartesian coordinate systems, such as:

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) or
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS),
are commonly used to locate features and are found on many maps.
You convert spherical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates using a
map projection.

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13

What are the ways we can project

the curved Earth surface on a flat
map?
Using a cylinder (Cylindrical)
Using a plane (Planar)
Using a cone (Conic)

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Cylindrical projections result from projecting a spherical

surface onto a cylinder

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14

Cylindrical Equal-Area projections (tangent to a line of latitude)

They have straight meridians and parallels, the meridians are equally
spaced, the parallels unequally spaced

Area is true; Shape and scale get distorted near the upper and lower
regions of the map. (Anyone see the West Wing episode on this?)29

Transverse Mercator projections result from projecting the sphere

onto a cylinder tangent to a meridian (line of longitude)

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15

Equator

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is used to define

horizontal, positions world-wide by dividing the surface of the Earth into 6
degree zones, each mapped by the Transverse Mercator projection with a central
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meridian in the center of the zone

Question on UTM projection and Distortion

UTM is a global coordinate system
Common projection for data spanning large
regions (e.g., several state plane zones)
Many US federal gov data are in UTM because
many agencies manage land spanning large areas
and UTM is a well known, standard system
UTM zones are 6 degrees wide so many studies
will fit in this that would not fit in a state plane
zone (for example)
So UTM is a useful projection for broad study
areas (larger than 1 state, or possibly crossing state
boundaries) as long as it is within one UTM zone.
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Equator

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is used to define

horizontal, positions world-wide by dividing the surface of the Earth into 6
degree zones, each mapped by the Transverse Mercator projection with a
central meridian in the center of the zone.

If maps are limited to the thin, vertical region near the meridian
of tangency they will be relatively free of distortion
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Mercator shapes are true, but area gets distorted (conformal).

Question on UTM projection and

Distortion
UTM is sometimes however not compatible for
regional studies that cross UTM zones.
This is because coordinate values are not
continuous between zones. The coordinate system
for UTM zone 15 is different than zone 16, for
example.
In other words, each UTM zone is its own
projection. Combining will result in distortion in
location and shape of the objects from a different
zone than the one being used.
UTM was designed to map areas within that
particular zone
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17

Planar Projections

(tangent case)

35

An example of a planar projection (tangent)

Often used for air route distances.

Distances measured from the center are true.
Distortion of other properties increases away from the center point.
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Conic Projections
Generated by projecting a spherical surface onto a cone

37

Distorts scale and distance except along standard

parallels. Areas are proportional and directions are
true in limited areas. Used in the United States and
other large countries with a larger east-west than
north-south extent.

38

19

Area, and shape are distorted away from standard

parallels. Directions are true in limited areas. Used
for maps of North America.

39

40

20

Unprojected maps include those that are formed by considering

longitude and latitude as a simple rectangular coordinate system.
Scale, distance, area, and shape are all distorted with the distortion
increasing toward the poles.
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42

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State Plane Coordinates

The State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) uses a unique set of
projection parameters for each of the 50 states
Uses either a Transverse Mercator or Lamberts conformal conic
projection
Originally designed to provide a permanent record of land survey
monuments in the United States.
Zones, measured in feet, not meters.

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Summary
Geodesy science of modeling the shape of the earth
Map projections transformation of coordinates from a curved Earth to
a flat, paper map.
Ellipsoid 3-D model of the earth (flattened)
Spherical or geographic coordinate system system of locations on
a 3-D ellipsoid (Long/Lat)
Geodetic Datum set of measured or calculated points on the Earth.
Provides a frame of reference for measuring locations on the Earth or
places the geographic coordinate system on the ellipsoid.
Map projections Systematic rendering of locations from a curved
Earth to a flat map surface.
The process of projecting will always distort one or more of four
spatial properties: shape, area, distance, and direction.

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Summary (source -- ESRI Virtual campus)

- The choice of map projection is important when you are working
with small (broad) scale maps, like world maps
- The choice of datum is important when working with large (fine)
scale maps, such as city maps
- When using map input for building GIS layers, you need to make
sure they are in compatible map projections.

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A final word on distortion

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Suggestions from Theobald (1999: 42) on

Selecting a Projection

If you are making a fairly detailed map, for example a city, or requirements for
accuracy is minimal, then you may not have to worry so much about which
projection to use.
If you are making a map of a regional to continental to global scale OR are
interested in precise shape, area or distance measurements then you should
choose carefully the projection.
For many study areas there is already standard projects, such as State Plane for
county or city governments or UTM for state governments.
Three factors to consider related to accuracy: Latitude of area, extent and
theme
Latitude:
Low-latitude areas (near equator) use a conical projection
Polar regions use a azimuthal planar projection
Extent
Broad in East-West (e.g., the US) use a conical projection
Broad in North-South (e.g., Africa) use a transverse-case cylindrical
projection
Thematic
If you are doing an analysis that compares different values in different47
locations, typically an equal-area projection will be used.

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