CHAPTER III

STRUCTURAL BOLTS

This chapter provides an in depth discussion of structural bolts including the

materials from which they are made, manufacturing processes, design requirements, strength, stiffness and ductility considerations and behavior of instrumented bolts.

Since the scope of the research was limited to high-strength

structural bolts, discussion of bolt types other than A325 and A490 will be limited
to providing background information.
First, a background of standard bolt grades and material properties for high
strength structural bolts will be presented, including a brief discussion of foreign
bolt specifications. Next, the dimensions and manufacturing techniques of bolts
will be discussed. This will be followed a discussion of common installation and
fabrication techniques. An evaluation of current models for predicting the strength
and stiffness characteristics of bolts is given next, followed by a brief discussion of
ductility. Finally, the results of a comprehensive testing program will be presented
followed by a discussion and conclusions.

3.1 Standard Bolt Grades

Bolts typically used for structural joining applications can be classified based
on three ASTM specifications: A307, A325, and A490. A307 bolts, or black bolts,
are available in diameters ranging from 1/4 to 4 and in Grades A, B, and C.
Grade A bolts are intended for general applications and have a specified minimum

30

tensile strength of 60 ksi. Grade B bolts are intended for flange joints in piping
systems and have a tensile strength of 60 - 100 ksi. Grade C bolts are available
as anchor bolts or studs manufactured from A36 steel with a tensile strength of 58
- 80 ksi (ASTM A307-94).
A325 bolts are available standard diameters ranging from 1/2 to 1-1/2.
Bolts with diameters up to and including 1 have a minimum tensile strength of
120 ksi and bolts with larger diameters have a minimum tensile strength of 105
ksi. A325 are available in two types. Type 1 bolts are manufactured from medium
carbon, carbon boron, or medium carbon alloy steel. A325 Type 3 bolts are made
from corrosion resistant steel with weathering characteristics comparable to A588
steel. The A325 Type 2 bolt specification was withdrawn in November of 1991,
but consisted of bolts made from low carbon martensite steel (ASTM A325-97;
Kulak et al., 1987).
A490 bolts have a specified minimum tensile strength of 150 ksi and are
available in three types. A490 Type 1 bolts are available in diameters from 1/2 to
1-1/2 and are manufactured from alloy steel. A490 Type 2 bolts are available in
diameters of 1/2 to 1 and made from low carbon martensite steel. A490 Type 3
bolts are available in diameters from 1/2 to 1-1/2 and are made from corrosion
resistant steel with weathering characteristics comparable to A588 steel (ASTM
A490-97).
3.1.1 Other Bolt Types
Structural bolts other than those described above are also available. Both
the A325 and A490 specifications have metric companions designated A325M
and A490M, respectively. The bolts are designated M16, M20, M22, M24, M27,

31

M30, and M36. The M indicates that bolt is metric and the following number is
the nominal diameter in millimeters (CISC, 1997; ISO 7411).
The International for Organization Standards (ISO) has introduced a set of
specifications for bolts, nuts and washers that is very similar to the ASTM standards. ISO 7411 governs high strength structural bolts with large widths across
the flats and ISO 7412 govern high strength structural bolts with short thread
lengths. ISO 898 governs the properties of the material from which bolts are manufactured. Property classes 8.8 and 10.9 correspond closely to ASTM material
specifications for A325 and A490 bolts, respectively. In addition to defining minimum tensile strengths for the materials, the ISO specifies minimum elongations
after fracture that the bolt material must be able to sustain, thus providing minimum ductilities in the specification. Designations for ISO bolts consist of the
specification number followed by the bolt size and property class. An ISO 7411 M16 x 80 - 8.8 bolt, for example, is a high strength structural bolt with a diameter
of 16 mm and a length of 80 mm made from material conforming to the 8.8 property class. The ISO bolts are available in the same sizes as the A325M and
A490M bolts. A 12 mm diameter bolt is also available but is not recommended for
use (ISO 7411).
The Deutsches Institut fr Normung, or the German Specification, has a bolt
specification very similar to the ISO specification. DIN 6914 is the specification
that governs structural bolts. Like the ISO bolts, they are available in grades 8.8
and 10.9 which are similar to ASTM A325 and A490 bolts, respectively (Steurer,
1996).

32

3.2 Bolt Materials

The behavior of any structural component is highly dependent on the properties of material from which it is produced; bolts are no exception. The variations in
the characteristics of different grades and types of bolts is almost entirely due to
the variation of material properties.
3.2.1 Steel Composition
Because steel is invariably the material from which structural bolts are
made, a discussion of its composition is warranted. Typical carbon steel is made
up of iron, carbon, manganese, silicon, copper, phosphorus, sulfur, and other
residual elements. The properties of a heat of steel are largely dependent on the
amount of carbon present. Low carbon steel is typically classified as steel containing between 0.02% and 0.30% carbon, medium carbon steel is typically classified as steel with carbon levels from 0.30% to 0.70%, and steel with carbon levels
greater than 0.70% is classified as high carbon steel (Pollack, 1988). Carbon is
the principal hardening element in steel. Increasing the level of carbon increases
the steels strength and hardness but at the cost of reduced ductility (AISI, 1986).
A steel is classified as an alloy if certain elements are present in levels
greater than specified limits. Typical alloying elements include manganese, phosphorous, sulfur, silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, copper, and
boron (AISI, 1986). More desirable hardening and ductility characteristics can be
achieved by using an alloy steel instead of standard carbon steel. Table 3-1 lists
chemical requirements for A325 Type 1, A490 Type 1 and A490 Type 2 bolts
(ASTM A325-97; ASTM A490-97).

33

Table 3-1: Chemical Requirements for A325 and A490 Bolts.

A325 Type 1

A490

Element

Carbon

C Boron

C Alloy

Type 1*

Type 2

0.30-0.52%

0.30-0.52%

0.30-0.52%

0.30-0.48%

0.15-0.34%

Mn, min

0.60%

0.60%

0.60%

---

0.70%

P, max

0.040%

0.040%

0.035%

0.040%

0.040%

0.050%

0.050%

0.040%

0.040%

0.050%

Si

0.15-0.30%

0.10-0.30%

0.15-0.35%

---

0.0005-0.003%

0.0005% min

* 1-1/2 diameter A490 Type 1 bolts require a carbon content of 0.35-0.53%.

Boron shall not be added intentionally.
Sufficient elements must be present so as to classify the steel as an alloy by the AISI.

3.2.2 Heat Treatment and Hardness Characteristics

To help increase strength and hardness while maintaining acceptable ductility levels, high-strength structural bolts must be quenched and tempered. A325
and A490 bolts are heated to a temperature above their transformation temperature, quenched, and then tempered to a temperature of at least 800 F except for
A490 Type 2 bolts which are tempered at a temperature of at least 650 F (ASTM
A325-97; ASTM A490-97). A325 bolts are typically tempered at 800 F and A490
bolts are typically tempered at 1200 F (Baumsta, 1998). The range of hardnesses for structural bolts is shown Table 3-2.

34

Table 3-2: Hardness Requirements for Structural Bolts.

Brinell
Type

Diameter, dB

A307
Grade A

1/2 to 4

1/2 to 1
A325
1-1/8 to 1-1/2

A490

1/2 to 1-1/2

Rockwell

Length

Min

Max

Min

Max

< 3dB

121

241

69 RB

100 RB

> 3dB

---

241

---

100 RB

< 3dB

253

319

25 RC

34 RC

> 3dB

---

319

---

34 RC

< 3dB

223

286

19 RC

30 RC

> 3dB

---

286

---

30 RC

< 3dB

311

352

33 RC

38 RC

> 3dB

---

352

---

38 RC

3.3 Dimensions of High-Strength Fasteners

Figure 3-1 shows standard dimensioning nomenclature for high-strength fasteners. Heavy-hex, high-strength bolts are specially sized so that the same size
wrench will fit both the nut and the head of the bolt. Additionally, the thread
length, Lt, of high-strength bolts is shorter than for conventional bolts to allow the
threads to be easily excluded from the shear plane when used in shear. Because
of this, connection designers must take care when specifying the lengths of bolts
to provide enough threads to avoid jamming the nut into the thread runout when
pretensioning the bolt.

35

A325

Ls
F

Lth

Hb

Lb

ID
T

Hn

OD

Figure 3-1: Nomenclature for Heavy-Hex Fastener Dimensions

3.4 Manufacturing Techniques

Bolts are manufactured in one of two basic ways; by forming or threading.
Each of these two manufacturing techniques can be broken down further into subcategories. Forming methods include cold heading, warm heading, hot forging or
forming, and turning or screw machining. Threading methods include roll threading, cut threading, and ground threading (Phebus et al., 1998). ASTM specifications require that A325 and A490 bolts be either rolled or cut while A307 bolts may
either cold or hot forged, or machined from bar stock (ASTM A307-94; ASTM
A325-97; ASTM A490-97).

36

3.5 Nuts and Washers

Nuts conforming to the A194/A194M or A563 specifications must be used
with A325 and A490 bolts. When washers are used with A325 bolts, they must
conform to either the F436 or F959 specification. When washers are used with
A490 bolts, they must conform to the F436 specification. The use of washers is
discussed further in Section 3.6.2 (ASTM A325-97; ASTM A490-97).

3.6 Bolt Installation

The installation of high-strength fasteners in structural systems must be
closely monitored to ensure that the proper pretension is applied to each bolt.
Variables that influence the installation of bolts include the type of tension control
system used, the type and size of bolts used, and the amount of lubrication
present on the bolts. Although they are permitted to be used as snug tight fasteners, high-strength bolts are usually fully tensioned. To provide adequate pretension, the bolt is tightened until the tension in the bolt approaches or slightly
exceeds the yield point of the bolt, typically 70% of the tensile strength. Table 3-3
shows the required pretensions by bolt type and size (AISC, 1994). The required
pretensions for bolts above 1 in diameter can be difficult to attain. For this reason, fully tensioned bolts larger than 1 in diameter are not often used.

37

Table 3-3: Required Pretension for High-Strength Bolts (kips) (AISC, 1994)
Diameter

A325

A490

1/2

12

15

5/8

19

24

3/4

28

35

7/8

39

49

51

64

1-1/8

56

80

1-1/4

71

102

1-3/8

85

121

1-1/2

103

148

3.6.1 Pretensioning Methods

Several methods of pretensioning are available. They include the turn-ofthe-nut method, calibrated wrench method, and use of direct tension indicators or
tension control bolts.
The turn-of-the-nut method consists of calculating the amount of nut rotation,
past the snug tight condition, that is necessary to induce the required tension in
the bolt. Rotations of 120 to 240 are typical. The calibrated wrench method
consists of using a torque wrench, either manual, electric, or pneumatic, that is
calibrated with a torque-tension tester.
The Skidmoore-Wilhelm torque-tension tester, shown in Figure 3-2, provides
an accurate measure of the bolt tension relative to the torque applied by the
wrench. The tester is a doughnut shaped hydraulic load cell that has been calibrated in some unit of force, usually kips. A cross section of the tester is shown in
Figure 3-3. It is made up of an inner piston that slides inside an outer housing.
interchangeable bushings and face plates allow a wide range of bolt sizes to be
tested. As the a bolt is tightened in the tester, forces are exerted on the face plate

38

and bushing which, in turn, create a hydraulic pressure that can be measured and
converted back into a force. The full stroke of the piston is approximately 0.25.

Figure 3-2: Skidmoore-Wilhelm Type Torque-Tension Tester

Direct tension indicators or load indicator washers, shown in Figure 3-4(a),

are washers that have raised dimples on their face that flatten out against the
base material as the nut is tightened. When the gap between the flat part of the
washer and the base material reaches a set limit, the bolt has reached its full pretension. Different washers are required for A325 and A490 of the same diameter
because of the different pretensioning requirements.

39

Hydraulic Oil

Outer Housing

Interchangable
Face Plate
Interchangable
Bushing

Hydraulic Piston

Retaining Ring

Figure 3-3: Cross section of Skidemoore-Wilhelm Torque-Tension Tester

Tension control or twist-off bolts, shown in Figure 3-4(b), are bolts that have
a spine attached to the threaded end. A special wrench holds the spine and the
nut and turns them relative to each other until the spine shears off. The bolt manufacturer calibrates the bolts so that the spines twist off when the bolt pretension
has reached the specified level.

40

(a)

(b)

Figure 3-4: DTI Washers (a) and Tension Control Bolts (b)

When using the calibrated wrench method or tension control bolts, great
care must be taken to prevent the nut from running up onto the thread runout portion of the bolt. If this happens, either the torque measurements will be erroneous, or the spine will twist-off of the tension control bolt without inducing the
desired pretension. Bolts designed for shear in the threads excluded configuration are particularly susceptible to this problem. The problem can be avoided by
using additional washers.1
3.6.2 Bolt Friction
When a high-strength bolt is tensioned by torquing, approximately 40 to 50%
of the applied torque is lost in friction between the bearing faces of the bolt and
the base material and 30 to 40% is lost due to friction between the nut and bolt
threads. This leaves only 10 to 30% of the applied torque to induce the axial pre1. The 1994 LRFD, on page 8-8, states that additional washers are permitted to be used
under the nut or under the head when circumstances permit. It is recommended by the
author, however, that shim plates be used when more than four washers are required.

41

tension (Barron et al., 1998a). Reducing the amount of friction in the bolt system
allows the same pretension to be applied with a lower torque.
The torque-tension relationship of bolts can be expressed in its simplest
form as (Novak et al., 1998)

Kd b F .

EQ 3-1

where:
T = the applied torque (k-in)
K = the nut factor
db = the bolt diameter (in)
F = the bolt pretension (kip)
The nut factor is a measure of the friction present in the bolt, nut, and washer system. The average nut factor for a 1 diameter A490 bolt as received from the supplier is 0.179, the average nut factor for the same bolt preserved with Johnson
stick wax is 0.275, and the average nut factor for a rusty 1 diameter A490 bolt is
0.389 (Novak et al., 1998). Two of the easiest ways to reduce bolt friction are to
use washers and lubricants.
Washers help to reduce the friction between the bearing surfaces of the nut
face and base material by providing a clean, smooth surface, free of mill scale and
rust. The use of washers under the turned element is required by the RCSC
specification when high-strength bolts in standards holes are tensioned by the calibrated wrench method, or when the yield strength of the base metal is less than
40 ksi (RCSC, 1996). When tension control bolts are used, the nut and washer

42

that are supplied with the bolt must be used. ASTM F436 hardened washers are
typically used with high-strength bolts.
By using commercially available lubricants, the nut factor can be reduced to
values of 0.050 to 0.100 (Novak et al., 1998). When using lubricants, it is important to lubricate both the threads and the bearing faces of the bolt head, nut face,
washers and base material.

3.7 Strength
Of the many characteristics of bolts, strength is the most important. The
possible failure modes of bolts are tensile failure, shear failure, and combined tensile and shear failure.
3.7.1 Tensile Strength
Tensile loading is the most fundamental mode of loading of bolts. The possible failure mechanisms under axial loading are tension failure of the bolt, stripping
of the bolt threads, and stripping of the nut threads. High-strength fasteners are
designed so that tension failure of the bolt will occur before stripping of the
threads. As a result, the design engineer need only be concerned with tensile
strength of the bolt.
The axial strength of a bolt can be calculated as the ultimate strength of the
bolt material multiplied by the cross sectional area of the bolt. Considering a failure in the shank of the bolt, the cross sectional area is calculated as shown in
Equation 3-2 (Barron et al., 1998a).

Ab

 d 2b
4

43

EQ 3-2

where
Ab = cross sectional area of the bolt shank (in2)
db = nominal diameter of the bolt (in)
Bolts subjected to tension rarely fracture through the shank, though, and
using the area of the shank in capacity calculations can result in an overestimate
of the bolts actual strength. Another alternative is to use the root area of the
threads in capacity calculations, as shown in Equation 3-3 (Barron et al., 1998a).

A br

 d b 1.3

4
n th

EQ 3-3

where
Abr = cross sectional area of the bolts root (in2)
nth = number of threads per inch of the bolt
Tests conducted on fasteners show that using the root area for strength calculations yields conservative results. Equation 3-4 is an empirical equation that
returns an area that is midway between the root and shank area (ASTM A490-97;
Barron et al., 1998a).

A be

 d b 0.9743

4
n th

44

EQ 3-4

where
Abe = effective cross sectional area of the bolt
It should be noted that Equations 3-3 and 3-4 are not valid for metric bolts.
Equations 3-5 and 3-6 should be used for metric bolts (Barron et al., 1998a).

A br

A be

 ( d b 1.3p b )2
4

EQ 3-5

 ( d b 0.9382p b ) 2
4

EQ 3-6

where
pb = thread pitch of a bolt (mm)
The number of threads included in the grip of the bolt has an effect on the
bolts capacity. ASTM F606 requires that heavy hex bolts be tensile tested with
four complete threads exposed within the grip. This is in contrast to the six
exposed threads required for standard bolts (ASTM A490-97).
It has been noted in the literature that the tensile strength of a bolt is, to a
small degree, a dependent on the length of threads present in the bolts grip, Ltg.
Testing has demonstrated that the ultimate capacity of bolts with fewer threads in
the grip is slightly larger than the capacity of bolts with many threads present in
the grip. The increase in capacity is not generally regarded as being sufficient to
require a certain number of threads be included or excluded from the grip. The
only requirement is that the end of the bolt be at least flush with the face of the nut
so that all of the threads within the nut are engaged. A general rule of thumb that

45

is often used is to require that two threads of the bolt stick out beyond the face of
the nut.
3.7.1.1 LRFD
An alternative method for the determination of the tensile strength of bolts is
used by the LRFD (AISC, 1994). The capacity is computed as

Bn

Ft Ab

EQ 3-7

where
Bn = the nominal tensile resistance of the bolt
Ft = the effective tensile strength of the bolt material, F t 0.75F u
Ab = the nominal area of the bolts shank
Ft is taken as 90 ksi for A325 bolts and 113 ksi for A490 bolts. Table 3-4
shows the ratios of the effective tensile area of a bolt to its gross area. Since Abe
/ Ab is approximately equal to 0.75, Equation 3-7 provides a reasonable estimate
of the bolt strength for the range of bolt sizes typically used for bolted connections.
For design, the nominal tensile resistance of the bolt, Bn, is multiplied by a resistance factor, bf, of 0.75.

46

Dia.
1/2"
5/8"
3/4"
7/8"
1"
1-1/8"
1-1/4"
1-3/8"
1-1/2"

Table 3-4: Nominal and Effective Bolt Areas

Ab
Abe
Abr
Abe / Ab
nth

Abr / Ab

13
11
10
9
8
7
7
6
6

0.6400
0.6576
0.6834
0.6971
0.7014
0.6971
0.7249
0.7097
0.7320

0.1963
0.3068
0.4418
0.6013
0.7854
0.9940
1.2272
1.4849
1.7671

0.1419
0.2260
0.3345
0.4617
0.6057
0.7633
0.9691
1.1549
1.4052

0.1257
0.2017
0.3019
0.4192
0.5509
0.6929
0.8896
1.0538
1.2935

0.7227
0.7367
0.7571
0.7679
0.7713
0.7679
0.7897
0.7778
0.7952

3.7.1.2 Eurocode
The Eurocode (1993) predicts the tensile strength of a bolt as

Bn

0.9F u A be

EQ 3-8

where
Bn = the nominal tensile resistance of the bolt
Fu = the tensile strength of the bolt material
Abe = the effective tensile area of the bolt
The ultimate strength of the bolt material is taken as 800 N/mm2 (116 ksi) for
grade 8.8 bolts and 1000 N/mm2 (145 ksi) for grade 10.9 bolts. For design, the
nominal resistance of the bolt is divided by a partial safety factor, Mb, of 1.25.
This results in a design resistance, Bn, of 0.72AbeFu.
3.7.2 Shear Strength
In its simplest form, the shear strength of a bolt is calculated by multiplying
the bolt materials ultimate strength, reduced by 40% for shear stress instead of
tensile stress, by the bolts cross sectional area.

47

The cross sectional area

depends on whether the shear plane passes through the shank of the bolt or
through its threads. When the shear plane passes through the bolts shank, Ag
should be used and when it passes through the threaded portion, Ar should be
used. The advantage of designing a connection with the threads excluded from
the shear plane becomes obvious upon examination of Equations 3-2 and 3-3.
Bolts subjected to shear through their threads have strengths ranging from 64% to
73% of the same bolts subjected to shear through their shanks. The reduced
thread length of heavy hex bolts allows the threads to be more easily excluded
from the shear plane than for standard bolts.
3.7.2.1 LRFD
The LRFD (AISC, 1994) uses a design approach for the shear resistance of
a bolt that is similar to the approach used for the tensile strength. The nominal
shear resistance is calculated as

Bv

Fv Ab

EQ 3-9

where
Bv = the nominal shear resistance of the bolt
Fv = the effective shear strength of the bolt material
Ab = the gross area of the bolts shank
When the threads of the bolt are excluded from the shear plane, Fv is calculated as (AISC, 1994)

48

Fv

0.5F u .

EQ 3-10

When the threads are not excluded from the shear plane, Fv is calculated as

Fv

0.4F u .

EQ 3-11

Table 3-4 shows the ratio of the root area of the bolts threaded portion to the
gross area of the bolt shank. Using the reduction factor of 0.67 results in a reasonable approximation of the bolts root area. As with the tensile strength, the
nominal shear strength is multiplied by a resistance factor, bf, of 0.75 to obtain the
design resistance.
3.7.2.2 Eurocode
The Eurocode (1993) uses the follow equations to calculate the shear resistance of bolts. For bolts with the threads excluded from the shear plane

Bv

0.6F u A b ,

EQ 3-12

for grade 8.8 bolts with the threads not excluded from the shear plane,

Bv

0.6F u A be ,

49

EQ 3-13

and for grade 10.9 bolts with the threads not excluded from the shear plane,

0.5F u A be

Bv

EQ 3-14

where
Bv = the nominal shear resistance of the bolt
Fu = the ultimate strength of the bolt material
Ab = the gross area of the bolts shank
Abe = the effective tensile area of the bolt
As with the tensile strength, the nominal shear strength is divided by a partial
safety factor, Mb, of 1.25 to obtain the design resistance.
3.7.3 Torsional Strength
The shear stress of a bolt subjected to torsion is described by Equation 3-15
below.

T

J

where:
= shear stress (ksi)
T = applied torque (k-in)
= radius of the point of stress (in)
J = polar moment of inertia (in4)

50

EQ 3-15

Substituting the bolts polar moment of inertia and the outer radius into Equation
3-15 yields the maximum shear stress in the bolt (Barron et al., 1998a).

max

16T

d r

EQ 3-16

where:
dr = the diameter of the root of the threads (in)
The importance of the torsional strength of fasteners becomes obvious when
using fully tensioned, high-strength bolts.

A typical 7/8 diameter A490 bolt

requires 600 to 640 ft-lbs of torque to provide adequate pretension. Assuming

that 50% of that torque is applied directly to the bolt (the other 50% being attributed to friction and axial tension) shear stresses of up 50 ksi can be generated.
3.7.4 Bending
Although bolts arent typically designed for bending, bending stresses are
often present due to misalignment, non-perpendicular holes, joint prying and other
causes. The stress in a bolt due to bending is the same as for any other typical
member and is written as

Mc
 .
I

51

EQ 3-17

where:
= bending stress (ksi)
M = applied bending moment (k-in)
c = distance from the neutral axis of the point of stress (in)
I = the moment of inertia of the bolt (in4)
Coupled with the pretension and tension due to loading, the bending stresses can
be critical. The commentary to the LRFD addresses the bending of fasteners by
using a relatively low resistance factor of 0.75 for strength calculations (AISC,
1994).
3.7.5 Combined Loading
So far, four individual modes of loading have been discussed. In connections, though, fasteners are often subjected to a combination of loadings. A combination of shear and tension, for example, is often present in connections
between diagonal bracing and beam and columns. The simple act of pretensioning a bolt induces both shear stress from the applied torque and axial stress from
the resulting pretension. In fact, tests show that the tensile capacity of a bolt is
reduced by as much as 15-20% during pretensioning (Barron et al., 1998a). For
these reasons, it is clear that combined loading conditions deserve special attention.
Tests conducted at the University of Illinois indicate that the interaction
between shear and tension in bolts can be accurately predicted by using the elliptical relationship (Kulak et al., 1987)

x   y2

2
( 0.62 )

1.0 .

52

EQ 3-18

where:
x = ratio of shear stress to tensile strength
y = ratio of tensile stress to tensile strength
This relationship can be reduced to a circular one if the ratio of shear stress to
shear strength that is shown in Equation 3-19 is used.

RT  RV

1.0

EQ 3-19

where:
RT = ratio of tensile stress to tensile strength
RV = ratio of shear stress of shear strength
The LRFD recommends a simplified, tri-linear version of the circular relationship.
Both relationships are shown in Figure 3-5.
The relationship between torsion and tension in bolts is critical because
high-strength bolts are nearly always fully tensioned by torquing.

Figure 3-6

shows the load-elongation curves for two bolts. The upper curve represents a bolt
that was loaded from the snug tight condition until failure and the lower curve represents a bolt that was fully tensioned before being loaded to failure. The fully tensioned bolt yields at a lower tension than the snug tight bolt because of the
interaction between the axial and torsional stresses. After being fully tensioned,
though, the torsion is relieved and the bolt is able to reach the full tensile strength
of the snug tight bolt. The dashed portion of the lower curve represents the
behavior of a bolt that is loaded to failure by torquing.

53

1
2

RT  RV

1.0

RT

R T  RV

1.3

0
RV

Figure 3-5: Tension-Shear Interaction Relationship for Bolts

Bolt Load

Snug Tight

Fully Tensioned

Elongation
Figure 3-6: Fully Tension vs. Snug Tight P- Curves for Bolts

54

It should be noted that well lubricated twist-off or tension control bolts dont
exhibit the behavior shown in Figure 3-6 because torsion only exists in the portion
of the bolt between the twist-off spine and the nut. When a standard bolt is tightened, a torque is applied to the shank of the bolt. It is this torsion that, combined
the applied tension, affects the behavior of the bolt. When a tension control bolt is
tightened, the torque is applied to the portion of the bolt between the twist of
spline and the nut. Any residual torsion present in the shank of a tension control
bolt is left as a result of friction between the nut or bolt head and the washers.
Because of this, the tension control bolts will tend to follow the path of the snug
tight bolts in Figure 3-6, even when they are fully tensioned.

3.8 Stiffness
The stiffness of structural joints using bolts in tension depends greatly on the
stiffness of the individual bolts. Because of this, accurate predictions of the stiffness of the individual bolts are essential to accurate models of the overall connection stiffness.
The stiffness of an axially loaded member can be expressed in the familiar
form shown in Equation 3-20.

AE

L

55

EQ 3-20

where:
k = local axial stiffness (kip/in)
A = the cross sectional area of the member (in2)
E = the modulus of elasticity (ksi)
L = the member length (in)
The stiffness of a bolt is complicated, though, by the fact that it has a changing
cross section. As shown in Figure 3-1 and Section 3.7.1, the cross sectional area
of the bolts shank is larger than that of its threaded portion. This difference in
area can be represented by considering a component spring with different stiffnesses in series. The stiffnesses are calculated by using Equation 3-20 for each
section separately. The overall stiffness is then calculated as shown in Equations
3-21(a) and 3-21(b) (Barron et al., 1998b).

1

Kb

1

Kb

1  
1

ks kt

EQ 3-21(a)

Ls
L tg

  
A b E A be E

EQ 3-21(b)

where:
Kb = the overall stiffness of the bolt (kip/in)
ks = the stiffness of the bolt shank (kip/in)
kt = the stiffness of the bolts threaded portion (kip/in)
Ls = the length of the shank (in)

56

Ltg = the length of threads included in the bolts grip (in)

Ab = the cross sectional area of the bolts shank (in2)
Abe = the effective area of the bolts threaded portion (in2)
Tests indicate that Equation 3-21(b) overestimates the stiffness of bolts. To
slightly reduce the predicted stiffness, it has been proposed by Barron and Bickford (1998b) that part of the bolt head stiffness and part of the nut stiffness be
included in the overall stiffness calculation. This adjustment is included as shown
in Equation 3-22.

1

Kb

fd b
Ls
L tg
fd b

  
  
 
A b E A b E A be E A be E

EQ 3-22

where:
f = a correlation factor
db = the nominal diameter of the bolt (in)
Recommendations for the value of the factor, f, in Equation 3-22 range from 0.3 to
0.6 (Barron et al., 1998b).

3.9 Ductility
The ductility of fasteners is important because fasteners are often the weakest link in a bolted connection. Generally, steel loses ductility as it is hardened.
Consequently, A490 bolts are generally considered to possess less ductility than
A325 bolts because they are harder.

57

The length of the threaded portion of the bolt that is present in its grip, Ltg, is
significant when considering ductility. This is true because nearly all of the yielding in the bolt takes place in its threaded portion.

When more threads are

included within the grip, more material is available for yielding and the overall
elongation capacity, or ductility, of the bolt is greater.

3.10 Individual Bolt Testing Program

The objectives of the individual bolt testing were to 1) determine the preload
of the bolts when the spline of the bolts twisted off, 2) verify the manufactures certification for strength, 3) provide information about the stiffness and ductility of the
bolts as a function of the length, and 4) provide benchmark strain-bolt force relationships for the instrumented bolts.
Several bolts were selected for testing from the lots of bolts used in the component and full scale tests. Because the strength, stiffness, and ductility of bolts is
dependent on the diameter, grade, and length, two lengths of bolts were selected
from the 7/8 in and 1 in diameter A325 and A490 lots.
Several types of individual bolt tests were performed. The first type of tests
conducted were calibration tests to determine the preload in the tension control
bolts when the spline twisted off. The second type of tests conducted were direct
tension tests to determine the bolts initial stiffness, yield point, ultimate strength
and ductility. The Skidmore-Wilhelm torque tension tester was used for both
types of tests. The third type of test conducted was an in-situ test to determine
the relationship between the bolt force and externally applied load. Finally, benchmark tests of instrumented bolts were performed to provide a relationship
between the strain in a bolts shank and the bolt force.

58

It should be noted that the results of the tests documented here can only be
rigorously applied to button head bolts. Although the behavior of hex head bolts
will, in most respects, be nearly identical, differences in stiffness and strength may
arise due to the different configuration. A comprehensive investigation of hex
head bolt characteristics that is very similar to that documented here for button
head bolts was conducted by Steurer (1996).
3.10.1 Pretension Calibration Tests
For the first type of test, the pretension calibration test, the Skidmore-Wilhelm torque tension tester was used alone as shown in Figure 3-2. The torque
tension tester is essentially a hydraulic load cell with a hole in the center to allow a
bolt to pass through. It consists of an inner piston with a 0.25 in stroke operating
inside of an outer housing. The force of the bolt being tightened causes an
increase in the internal hydraulic pressure which is then converted to force using a
calibrated pressure transducer. An analog pressure gage calibrated to read bolt
force in kips was supplied with the tester but an electronic pressure transducer
was later added to facilitate automatic data acquisition. After adding the pressure
transducer, the tester was recalibrated to its full scale capacity in a universal testing machine.
3.10.1.1 Test Method
For the pretension calibration tests, the bolt being tested was inserted
though the center of the tester from behind and the spacer plates, washers, and
nuts were installed on the bolt from the front. No more than four washers were
used together on either side of the bolt (i.e. under the head or nut). When more
washers were required for longer bolts, 1/2 in shim plates were used. After ensuring that enough washers and spacer plates were used to avoid running the nut

59

onto the shank of the bolt during tightening, the nut was tightened finger tight, and
the data acquisition system was balanced. Next the bolt was tightened using one
of two LeJeune wrenches until the spine of the bolt twisted off and the bolts pretension was recorded.
The load reading from the pressure transducer dropped slightly (~3-5%)
after the spine of the bolt twisted off but reached a constant value within 30 to 45
seconds. This constant value was the value recorded as the pretension in the
bolt.
3.10.1.2 Results
The results of 109 tests of LeJeune tension control bolts were used to verify
the pretension induced when tightening. A significant difference in pretension
was noticed between the bolts tightened using an electric wrench and the bolts
tightened using a manual ratcheting wrench. On average, the pretension in bolts
tightened with the manual wrench was 81.5% of the pretension required by the
LRFD while electric wrench induced an average of 96.1% of the required pretension. Table 3-5 shows the results grouped by type and size of bolt.
The pretension achieved was highly dependent on the condition of threads
of the bolts. After sitting the kegs for several months, the bolts tended to dry out
and lose the lubrication that was applied by the manufacturer. Informal tests of
bolts in this condition resulted in very low pretensions. As a result, all bolts tested
individually and in the component and full scale tests were well lubricated. This is
a violation of ASTM F1852-98 which states that no lubrication shall be permitted
other than that applied by the manufacturer. The author views this requirement
as impractical. The bolts used in this investigation were kept in a well controlled
environment, presumably in a much more desirable environment than would be

60

experienced on a typical job site, and the threads of the bolts still dried out resulting in increased thread friction, larger nut factors, and lower induced pretensions.
The potential drawbacks of adding additional lubrication are more than overshadowed by the consequences of not adding lubrication.

Table 3-5: Pretension Calibration Test Results

Wrench:

7/8" A325
Elect
Man

Average: 38.3 kip

St Dev: 6.5 kip
Samples:

18

Required: 39.0 kip

Ratio:

98.1%

1" A325
Elect
Man

7/8" A490
Elect
Man

1" A490
Elect
Man

37.5 kip
12.3 kip

53.8 kip
4.6 kip

42.0 kip
2.2 kip

44.3 kip
7.1 kip

36.2 kip
8.5 kip

57.8 kip
5.2 kip

47.1 kip
4.2 kip

12

28

16

15

10

39.0 kip

51.0 kip

51.0 kip

49.0 kip

49.0 kip

64.0 kip

64.0 kip

96.2%

105.6%

82.4%

90.3%

73.9%

90.2%

73.7%

3.10.1.3 DTI Washer Tests

A small number of direct tension indicator washers were obtained and an
informal investigation was conducted using standard hex head bolts. Five, 7/8
diameter and two, 1 diameter A325 bolts were calibrated using the washers. The
average preloads achieved were 44.6 kip and 58.3 kip, respectively. All of the
pretensions exceeded the required pretensions of the LRFD (AISC, 1994).
3.10.2 Direct Tension Testing
Direct tension testing was conducted to obtain reliable load-elongation data
for the bolt which included the elastic stiffness, plastic stiffness, yield point, ultimate strength and ultimate elongation.

61

3.10.2.1 Test Method

The Skidmore-Wilhelm torque tension tester was again used for the tension
testing but was attached to a hydraulic pump and placed into the test apparatus
as shown in Figure 3-7. Attaching the tester to the hydraulic pump allowed a load
to be applied to the bolt in pure tension instead of as a torqued tension. The
tester was recalibrated after attaching the pump. The test apparatus allowed the
elongation of the bolt to be measured as the force was applied to provide a forceelongation relationship for the bolt. LVDTs measured the displacement of the bolt
head and the end of the bolt. The difference in the readings from the measured
displacements provided the elongation. To avoid damaging the LVDTs with the
bolts as they fractured, the LVDTs were attached to the bolts with fishing line that
was strung over rods as shown in the figure. This allowed the LVDTs to be placed
vertically and behind plexiglass, out of harms way.
Two different procedures were used for the tension testing. Test method #1
was used for tests 1-20 while method #2 was used for tests 21-73.
3.10.2.1.1 Tension Test Method #1: The piston of the torque-tension tester
was positioned very close to its fully contracted position. The bolt was then
inserted, the spacer plates and washers were added and the nut was snugged
tight. The LVDTs were then attached to the ends of the bolt, the data acquisition
system was balanced and the bolt was loaded using the hydraulic pump to a point
slightly above its expected pretension level. This provided data points for the
elastic portion of the bolts force-elongation relationship.

Next, the load was

released from the bolt, the LVDT was detached from the nut end of the bolt, the
bolt was pretensioned using one of the LeJeune wrenches and the pretension

62

was recorded. Finally, the LVDT was reattached to the nut end of the bolt and the
bolt was loaded to failure with the hydraulic pump.

Figure 3-7: Direct Bolt Tension Test Setup

Using this method created several problems. First, positioning the piston of
the tester near its fully contracted position was a problem because if the piston
actually bottomed out while the bolt was being tightened with the wrench, the load
readings obtained were erroneous. This happened a few times. The second

63

problem with this method is that the full range of the tester couldnt be used for the
actual tension test and many of the bolts tested didnt actually fracture. Finally,
the data reduction was difficult because the force-elongation relationship was
obtained in two separate parts that had to be reconnected. This test method was
abandoned in favor of method #2 after bolt test #20.
3.10.2.1.2 Tension Test Method #2: For method #2, the piston of the tester
was position at its fully extended position, the bolt was inserted, the washers and
spacer plates were installed and the nut was snugged tight. The acquisition system was then balanced and the bolt was pretensioned with one of the LeJeune
wrenches. After recording the pretension, the load was released and the piston
was repositioned at its fully contracted position. Additional plates and washers
were added to the same bolt as needed and the nut was again snugged tight.
Finally, the LVDTs were attached to the ends of the bolt, the data acquisition was
balanced and the bolt was loaded to failure using the hydraulic pump.
Method #2 offered several advantages over method #1. First there was no
danger of bottoming out the piston of the tester while pretensioning the bolt. Second, the full range of the tester was available for the tension testing. Finally, the
reduction of data obtained using method number #2 was much easier than that
obtained from method #1.
3.10.2.2 Data Reduction
The methods used to reduce the data varied depending on the type of test
conducted and the method used. Some aspects of the data reduction were common to all of the tests. These will be discussed here while those aspects specific
to individual methods will be discussed under separate headings.

64

Because of the limited stroke of the tester, all of the bolts didnt actually fracture. All bolts which are included in this dissertation did at least reach a peak load
level and were relaxing before the limit of the tester was reached. The force-elongation data presented for those that didnt fracture include a portion of apparent
hardening at the end of the curves. This is due to the piston reaching the end of
its stroke which caused an increase in internal hydraulic pressure without actually
increasing the load on the bolt.
The hydraulic pump that was used to load the bolts was a manual pump. As
a result, the unrefined force-elongation curves contain divots that are due to a
relaxation in the system when the handle of the pump is being raised between
strokes. Although these divots may provide useful information, they have been
removed from the data. Figure 3-8 shows a plot of the unrefined data with the
smoothed data superimposed.
3.10.2.2.1 Tension Test Method #1: The reduction of the data obtained from
tension test method #1 required several steps. The elastic portion of the curve
was obtained separately from the inelastic portion. As a result, an offset was
present in the raw data. This offset was removed by examining points of common
force between both data sets. Next, the initial portion of the elastic data was
examined for linearity. Some data showed a lack of linearity in the first 5 to 10
kips, apparently due to slack in the system. This nonlinear region, if present, was
removed to avoid skewing the stiffness values obtained from the elastic portion of
the curve. After eliminating any erroneous data points, an apparent yield point
was identified and a best linear fit was made through the data up to this point.
The slope of this linear fit was recorded as the elastic stiffness of the bolt. Next,
the entire force-elongation curve was shifted to ensure that the linear fit passed

65

though the point of zero force and elongation. Finally, the data was smoothed by
removing any divots from the inelastic region.

80
70

Bolt Force (kip)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.20

Elongation (in)

Figure 3-8: Divots Caused by the Manual Hydraulic Pump

3.10.2.2.2 Tension Test Method #2:

The reduction of data obtained from

tension test method #2 was the same as that for data obtained from tension test
method #1 with the exception that the was no offset between the elastic and
inelastic parts of the force-elongation curve to be removed.

66

3.10.2.3 Results
The complete results of the individual bolt testing are presented along with
the bolt certifications in Appendix C. A discussion of the results and selected data
are presented in this section.
Fifty-five bolts were tested to failure under direct tension as described earlier. Several different quantities were examined. These include elastic stiffness,
elastic limit, ultimate strength, and ductility.
3.10.2.3.1 Elastic Stiffness: The elastic stiffness prediction shown in Equation 3-22 includes a factor for the contribution of the bolt head and nut to the bolts
overall stiffness. If the elastic stiffness of the bolt, Kb is known, the correlation factor, f, can be determined explicitly as shown in Equation 3-23 (Barron et al.,
1998b).

L s L tg
E 

 
K b A b A be

1  
1 
d b 
A

b A be

EQ 3-23

The average value of f found from the tension tests is 0.73 with a standard
deviation of 0.54. Several of the tests exhibited stiffnesses that were substantially
lower than expected. Values of f obtained from these tests are as large as 2.86.
The reason for the lack of stiffness in these tests is unknown. These tests are
undoubtedly the source of the large standard deviation in the factor, f. When the
results of seven tests which yielded values for f above 1.00 are discarded, the

67

average of the remaining tests was found to be 0.55 with a standard deviation of
0.16.
3.10.2.3.2 Elastic Limit: When considering the nonlinear behavior of bolts or
bolted connections, it is necessary to know when the elastic limit has been
reached. Manufacturer certifications and standard codes do specify an elastic
limit. They simply report or specify a minimum ultimate strength which leads to an
elastic-perfectly plastic material model.

Depending on the level of accuracy

required, this may or may not suffice. By dividing the measured elastic limit by the
bolts ultimate strength, a ratio can be defined and used to predict the onset of
inelastic behavior.
For the purposes of this dissertation, the elastic limit is defined as the load at
the last data point lying with a strain less than a 0.5% offset. The average ratio
obtained from the tension tests was 0.83 with a standard deviation of 0.04. For
the sake of simplicity, a ratio of 0.85 is recommended.1
3.10.2.3.3 Ultimate Strength: Ultimate strength is the single most important
characteristic of a bolt. A goal of the tension testing was to verify the manufacturers certified values of ultimate strength. The ultimate strength is defined as the
largest load achieved during a tension test, divided by the effective area of the
bolt. Two variations of the tests performed as part of this research from the ASTM
standard are noted. First, ASTM F606 section 3.4.1 states that 4 threads shall be
exposed between the fixture and thread runout portion of the bolt. The number
threads included in the bolts grip was a variable in our test series. Therefore, this
requirement was waived. Second, the manufacturers certification for the bolts

1. The Eurocode (1993) recommends ratios of 0.80 for grade 8.8 bolts and 0.90 for grade
10.9 bolts for Fy / Fu.

68

used in the test series indicate that a wedge tension test was used to determine
the ultimate strength. ASTM F606 section 3.5.1 states that in a wedge tension
test, a 10 wedge shall be used under the head of the bolt. No such wedge was
used in the tests. ASTM F606 section 3.4.1 permits the used of a suitable fixture
for tensile testing.
On average, the ultimate strength determined from the tension tests was 8%
higher than that reported on the manufacturers certification with a standard deviation of 4%. An examination of the manufacturers certifications for the bolts
showed that the average ultimate strength of the A325 bolts was 140.0 ksi with a
standard deviation of 3.4 ksi and the average ultimate strength of the A490 bolts
was 162.7 ksi with a standard deviation of 2.7 ksi. These values represent an
average strength that is 16.7% higher than that specified for the A325 bolts and
8.5% higher for that specified the A490 bolts.
3.10.2.3.4 Elongation: The elongation at failure of a bolt is a direct indicator
of the bolts ductility. Of the fifty-five bolts tested under direct tension, thirteen
A325 and twenty-four A490 bolts actually fractured. The other tests were stopped
because the stroke of the Skidmore-Wilhelm tester was exhausted. The percent
elongation of the fractured bolts was calculated as shown in Equation 3-24.

Lg 


Lg

EQ 3-24

69

where:
Lg = the grip length of the bolt
= the elongation at fracture measured by the acquisition system
The elongation at failure determined from the tests was 5.2% with a standard deviation of 1.6% for the A325 bolts and was 3.6% with a standard deviation
1.1% for the A490 bolts.
3.10.3 in-situ Tension Testing
A third type of test was performed on two bolts, bolts #9A and 44A. This test
was designed to obtain a relationship between the applied force and bolt force for
pretensioned bolts. It is generally accepted that the force present in bolts remains
relatively constant at the pretension load until the clamping force of the bolts is
overcome by the external loads. At that point, the force in the bolts increases at a
rate that is at least proportional to the applied load, depending on the level of prying present.
3.10.3.1 Test Method
To replicate the in-situ condition, the valve restricting oil flow from the tester
into the reservoir of the hydraulic pump was opened to allow free flow. The bolt
was then inserted into the tester, the washers and spacer plates were added and
the nut was fully tensioned using one of the LeJeune wrenches. By allowing the
oil to flow freely from the tester into the reservoir of the hydraulic pump, the piston
of the tester bottomed out as the bolt was fully tensioned. After the bolt was tensioned, the LVDTs were attached to the ends of the bolt, the acquisition system
was balanced, the valve on the hydraulic pump was closed and the bolt was
loaded to failure.

70

3.10.3.2 Data Reduction

When subjecting bolts to direct tension, there is no way to measure the force
in the bolt directly; only the force applied to the bolt can be measured. The very
nature of the in-situ test is to find a relationship between the applied load and the
bolt force. Therefore, it is recognized that the two are not equal and an indirect
method of determining the bolt force must be employed.
Two approximations must be made concerning the actual bolt force in these
tests. First, because the valve controlling the flow oil between the tester and the
reservoir of the hydraulic pump was left open while the bolt was tightened, no
direct measure of the bolts preload was possible. As a result, the average preload of six other bolts from the same lots were used as the preload of the bolts
tested. Second, the force-elongation relationship of the bolts tested in the in-situ
condition were approximated as the multi-linear representation of an identical bolt
tested under the standard tension test method. The multi-linear force-elongation
relation of bolt #9 was used for #9A and #44 was used for #44A.
The data reduction for each bolt consisted of two steps. First, the bolts estimated preload was used to calculate the initial elongation. Second, the initial
elongation was added to the actual elongation from the in-situ test. This sum was
then used to calculate the bolt force based on the approximated multi-linear loadelongation relation for each of the data points recorded.
3.10.3.3 Results
The relationship between the bolt force and the external applied load for bolt
#44A is shown in Figure 3-9. The dashed line represents the one-to-one relationship expected from a bolt with no preload. If the material clamped by a bolt is considered rigid, then there should be no increase in the bolt force until the externally

71

applied load reaches and exceeds the bolts preload. If it recognized however,
that the material clamped by a bolt is elastic, then a small increase in bolt force is
expected before the externally applied load overcomes the bolts preload1. An
examination of Figure 3-9 shows that a portion of the line representing the bolt
force actually lies below the idealized dashed line. It is recognized that this is theoretically impossible and violates equilibrium. The problem is attributed to experimental error arising from the aforementioned approximations.

100

90

80

Bolt Force (kip)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Applied Load (kip)

Figure 3-9: Bolt Force and External Load Relationship for Test 44A

1. A complete treatment of the problem is given by Kulak, Fisher, and Struik (1987).

72

100

3.10.3.4 Instrumented Bolt Tension Testing

Bolts instrumented with strain gages were used in the component tests.
Each of these bolts was calibrated in the elastic range to obtain a relationship
between the strain in the bolt and load present in the bolt. Because they were
only calibrated in the elastic range, these relationships are not representative of
the entire force range of the bolts. For this reason, five instrumented bolts were
tested to failure in the tension test setup shown in Figure 3-7.
The method used in testing the instrumented bolts was very similar to tension test method #2. The piston of the tester was positioned in the fully extended
position, the bolt was inserted, the spacer plates and washers were added and
the nut was snugged tight. Next the data acquisition system was balanced and
the nut was tightened using a spud wrench to a level near the expected pretension of the bolt while the acquisition system recorded the internal strain and
applied load. This was the method used to calibrate the instrumented bolts used
in the component tests. Next, the load was released and the bolt was tensioned
using one of the LeJeune wrenches. The load was then released again, the piston of tester positioned at its fully contracted position, and additional spacer plates
and washers were added as needed. Finally, the LVDTs were attached to the
ends of the bolt, the acquisition system was balanced and the bolt was loaded to
failure while recording the internal strain, applied load, and bolt elongation.

3.11 Discussion
Several observations can be made from the examination of the design
codes and experimental results presented in the chapter.

73

The models employed by the LRFD for bolt strengths result in values that are
approximately equal to those based on more rigorous models but require less
computation.

The conservative resistance factors used by the LRFD and Eurocode combined with the overstrength of the bolt material properties yield conservative
design values for the tensile resistance, as Table 3-6 shows.

Table 3-6: Design vs Actual Tensile Capacities for the 7/8 and 1 Bolts Used
Actual
Eurocode
LRFD
Bn
Bn / Bactual
Bn
Bn / Bactual
Bolt
Strength

7/8" A325
1" A325
7/8" A490
1" A490

64.6 kip
84.8 kip
75.1 kip
98.6 kip

38.6 kip
50.6 kip
48.2 kip
63.3 kip

0.60
0.60
0.64
0.64

40.6 kip
53.0 kip
51.0 kip
66.6 kip

0.63
0.63
0.68
0.68

The model proposed by Barron and Bickford (1998b) provides reasonable estimates of the axial stiffness of the bolts tested.

Under tensile loading, A325 bolts demonstrated 44% higher elongation at failure than A490 bolts.

The levels of pretension achieved were somewhat lower than LRFD requirements when an electric wrench was used for tightening and were significantly
lower than code requirements when a manual wrench was used for tightening.

The level of pretension achieved is largely dependent on the condition of the

threads of the bolt and nut.

74