LoGic—METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTS Statoraent: Statement it generally meant szoup of wards thet have anesmning hucin Logic alstement means group of words that has two torms. first terrm is user! under sebject and the seoond term under predicate. The statements in logic are called propositions or preanives Premises; The premises that hay the major Lerm 18 called major premise and the premise that hue she minor term is coiled ainor prem ‘Term: Pe predieate of major premise is called mjor term and ie denoted by P and its geet zs called rainor term and is denoted by Sand the teens which are commun in both the Dremiscs are called middle term which is docmted by M. for examplo xampl All men are mertal, (Major Promise) Root 29 aun, (Minor Premive} Ram is mortal (Conchision) Here ‘mortal ts major term 2nd ite sul ‘= not minor term her heeause it ie premive also git is middle term. Nj here is ‘Ram’. In logic unit of argui in “Balfed proposition er premise and unit tit called term. A propesiticy exOnt from a sentence thatite predieat ‘moréony the subject, i, if we say'ths taken food, jeate peither sffirma nor if We say thet man is tal affirms the man so and “L have (ken food” i Now the question ishew will we jor and minor premises in a 1up of logical statemer ts}. It is by identifying the majur and munor 1 Cais purpose study the {stand Ind ises anit idencify the predicate which bus vitafand wide concept. ILwill be the major teem and the terms which come in bath the premises In this sentence pr donies tbe subj sural then will be the middle to=me. A.terin may have word ar move tham one worl, Marcover mnttior term will he used us subject of the eoaghusi sand its predicate will be the einjor ‘Types of Syllogiam: 1. Catexorieal: Here all che proposiigt Rie Wurforical in positive or nogatike fofm und no docktfullness ia aoen af Wlheé 2 Alleraduates genes Ooiori All eligi a (inex Some m radiaces. (Cone) 2. Hypot ‘The ey this Lype uses premise of « works hard, he will vi fore the first part 15 called fant band the seconel part is called naeifGent. tr: this type of syllogieun the jor premise is hyncthetical loving sore ing and the cinoy premiea will be catogortcal. eg If he comes. | abull meet him, In this epMlogism, [the comes, Oityor) Tshall meet him. (nw 3. Disjunctive Tm this type of syllogism the major premise ix disjanctive and the ncher two premises are categoria, og. Either be is an honest man ora lee. (Major) He ia an honest mun, (Minor) He as not a thief, (Conclusion) Tn disjunctive statements two terms opposite in meaning ary ured. LE firat is affirmed the seeund must be denied. 4. Relational: Hore relations between various terme are showr orderly, e.g, A>B.B>C,C>D, SoA >D (conelusion}5. Dilemma: lu such type of ayllogismas the major premise is double hypothetical and minor premise i of disjunctive type ond the conelusivu will be cithere disjunctive or cateyorica, e If these books confirm to Quran they are reliableifthey do not they ore superfluous Bidher they eonfirn te Queaa or they do at. Fither they are relisble or zuperfluos. Inthe above example the avoond and third promiees are disjunctive. Copel ‘The verb used in thy promises in logic is called copula. Hor this purpose “is” and "are" arc generulky used and logicians do ‘not use ‘was? and "wee aa copiila because fogicians always talk in terms of the present, w ib tsi 6 ‘Types of Propositions: 1. From the qualitative point af view— rom the quality point of viow itis of two typos: A. Affirmative - de, AM graduates are men B. Negative - ie, No man is hart working . From the quantitative point of vi From the quantaty peint of view itis typos: (@ Universal—in which th universal and refere exeoplion. te, ht moxtal, () Particular - dwubjoct does pat refer to al people ure noun wil Simulsziys one 90% about 60%, etc. will be macular propositions, The words Lines, often, generally, ele, also make rupdeitions particular, ‘The propesitiona wich uwe words lke few, litle, hardly, seareely, ote. sxe cinsidered tn be negative proposition. Similasly if there are double negatives used in a pruprsition chen the proposition will hecone affitmative, Cn the busia of above divisions we can sav that there are four types of eatogomieal propoaitions in lowe. 1. Universal affirmative ~it is ealled “A | propositions, Ee, All lakcurers axe hatd-warking — All childven are true «pean Universal Negative They wr & prepositions, fe, —Nominister is ded —No human being ‘= Particular Affirms *T". propamtions. ic. ~Some men arc Itard eerh Some peoplgae labors . Particular Ne ff y arn called *O preposiguas ~Somg men, Some nin b hard-working 16 not honest, of terms ge of A prepouttions only subject isdistbuted, In ease of E" propns:t.op both eubject and predicate are disteibuted, In case of “I” proposition neither subject nor predicadi: is digstibuted. In case nf "C0" proposition only predicates distributed. Now, the question is how will the term be distributed, Takes the example of°' proposition Man is mortal’. Here the tera: mitt bisa two ‘moaning. The firsts, man reans hain boing sand the necond, 6 nan means eaidmaty. Web term ‘man’ has hean used as denotation, ‘mua meuns human being. the term wan wile distributed. On the other hard uf man means animality, i.. vonnotation of Ue terva, it wall not be distribntnd because (here ave uilier sei mals berides nan and the pzopsition will not cemain universalSimiluzly, in case of 'E’ proposition both aubject and predicate are distributed, i.c., no man is happy. Here no man refers to all human being and heppy also rofors to all without oxcoption, So bel can be distributed for logical conclusions, In the third ease of T proposition rnnithor subject nar predicate can be distributed, En, "some men are hard-working, Here neither the term men refera to ‘nil’ neither the term hard-working” refers to all sa both of them ennnet.bo distmbuted. In che last ease of “O” proposition only predicate is dastributed, i.e., some men are not honest, Hire the teray ‘men’ does not refer to all ‘but the term honest may reer toall soit cau Le distributed. Distribution of the middle or other terms helps us to arrive at logical conclusion. Types of Logical Inforences: ‘A Immediate !wierence B., Mediate Inforenoo A. Immediate Inferences: Sometimes premises are arranged m diffcront forms. Out of thom some are true and, some are false, ie, ‘some students industrious, is @ premise. [fit is considere So trus then ‘some etudents are not indi 18 also true bul if we soy that ‘no at industrious’ its also. All these ai are based on cerium rules. This immediate inference. We only two methods of imme 1. Conversion: Here we derivegonclvsitW@hy taking the following r ‘acgpunt: fa) Breda es the subject and the preposition does not any change, ie,, Afirmative asivion will lead w affirmative jusion nnd negntive proposition il lend to negative conclusion. @P*A" proposition is converted into ‘V pro-position. ‘T! propositiun is converted into T and ‘E into E'itzelE, (2) Proposition 0 can not be converted at all, Examples wil) illustrate those pointa @ All_ministers are politicians” (A Proposition). Its converted form is Some politicians are ministers (I pro-position) Some men are hard-warking. proposition) Its converted form ig Sone: () a) propeaton) Ne immartal prepusition) Some sty (Op wring ray Soe “nklligens Wnt aidents. of inforonce is kased on she les: Subjecr docs nat undergo any change t predicate is changed ante contradictory. Here contradictory dloos not mean the antonym of ste term. [t i¢ not used in louis. For waking contradictnrs of Bis tran tot should be added] before i, F-¢..contri: dictory of kind is not ‘crue? kul “nev Kind” is the real contradictory of “kind. Negative proparitions are changed into affirmative und vige-voran, fA is obverted into F and I is ubvevtes into‘A’ proposition ‘The quantity of the proposition #3 remain the same. Ifthe proposition is universal it will :emain unsversal and if it is parteular it will remain particular in the okverted form of the conclusion. Following examples will illustrate these points clearly. @) All aeligious people people, Peupusition ‘A’) w we) rapt infellisent oo @ me cauntendedNo religious ie not eustended people. ] arc two premines—ane is nmicx ane che other a mune with one conclusion, This group of Gi} Ne. man is fully impartie). (B } arguments is veclnivaliy Imowy as os-logiem proposition). ‘Anexample will Ainstewse the pornt. Tts ebyerted fem is All merumals are vertebrates. (Mejor? “All nen ae not fully impartial. (A) "She whale w a uiamme!. Giines) (fii) Some won are hard of hearing. (1). ‘The whale iss vestebrate (Conclusion Tts obverted farm ia Flere the word ‘aera? is currmon an both ‘Some men are int hard of hecving. (O) | the premises. Lt is middle tezwn. Tate dues not fv) Sume doctors are not good. (O} omar atallin the cenciusion even fon the basis Tw abverted form is, of it conclusion Lins been drawn Some doctors are good. O i Validity Table: In order to vest the validity of the conclusionswe may alzo wee the following table: | middle terms in the prerises: Uere T and t = truch arrived at-an the basia af the fand P= The rules of catego A= doubtful Wor arriving at ris following rules or canana hat ye 1, Tn every ay!logizm paler sere ae terms any eehar tier, | fags aera major tekg/th@ minor term and the Fraley? mi Gobd ch@racters are liked by the ‘All mon are honest’ is's proposition ‘A’. If its considered to be true then in the condlusion proposition, E ie., “no man is honest" will be false, "Some honest are men” will be true 3 conclusion of O propastion will also be fi ‘Now if this proposition is considered to then proposition #, Ze. ‘nu man is doubtful and proposi=ions |, ie., honest iv alzo doubtsul but the F aw was good characters in his fee ae finur terms in she ahove two premises because gootl characte” has two different nteanang in tbe two promizes. So no valid conclusicn can be drawn here, ‘The middle torm inst have the identical monning ia both dhe premises nnd itmust ie, "same men are not honegt’ is digadle to be cistrivated. “Some studenta miamaitive SW an “T' | 2 Byery catogorreal syllogism must contain proportion if it 3 co leue thea ily throe promuses - mayor, minor and conclusion of “£7 iv falew, and the conclusion. ¢.8. conciusian of A and! ition are doubtful Man is raort Mm whichia clear fom the! fcohumus of the table. Cow is mortal a Afthe sane) tig is consi-dered tohefalsc Ram is aman @ fF and © proposition will be There ave three premises excluding oo sition will ve false which is clusion sa ne conclusion can be drawn second column ofthe table, from them. {ate Inference 4. Thomiddle term must be distributed in at aving conclusion op the basis of che least one of the premises. It is a must teen in called mediate inference. There because it je the standard of comparison.Ut aust b» used im at least one prem: its universal extent, ¢8. vedimenlary rocks are stratified substances. Some metamorphic rocks aie stratified substances. Here the term stratified substances isnot distributed at ll because sedimentary rocks agree with ome part of the stratified substance and metamomphic rocks agree with another part. Thus there are (oor terms, 4, Tho tarm not distributed in the premisos ‘can not bo distributed in the conclusion. An example will illustrate the point. All rational beings are responsible for their action, ® Brutes are not rational being. ® Hates are vt responsible fr their action. @) Here the major term responsible for thefy action ie divtributad in che conclusion but # was not distributed uy ‘the mayor promise because it means that only those ave responsible for their action who are rationsl being. 5&6 Two negative premises yield no coneluaion and ifone of the premises is negative, th conclusion must he negative e x. No student distikes games, ‘No game is fully eatisfctory. No conclusion can be drawn frm ‘hese two premises ray No human being dis o Students are human be ® Sundents do not dishike @Conelusion) sAienegativotiist ative. Butdouble wremise makeaitaflr- An is not thoroughly upright, 15 man is not to be usted. 7. No conclusion can be drawn from two Particular promices. & & If one of the promisns te paurtsatiar the conclusion rust be particular Four possible Arrangements ia Layic: Figure 1 Figure’ ae 4 as M s——P igure3 Figured M eo —= » $= Subject or minor tor P= Prodirate or major ter M = Middle term ° On the basisof the fupfieifhes slivwn ubove and four types fons chore are beaded = 256 types of fTlogisins possible, But there are vllogisms whieh ure Biven belowfang Maher are invalid. These four figures, iaubers muss he kept m view. y will be voferned an later oy every naw and cher rel Figure 2 2. ASA 5. EAB KAR 6. AK aan 7. lO 4. FIO 8. A00 Figure 3 Figura ¢ AAD 10. AL 11 all 1 BAO 13. OAO 19. KIO 14, FIO ‘Some cumples wil illus-rate these points. 1. MP Allgpivitualy lave humanity. (A 87M All fndinnaare spyctuals. 4 8—P Allindianglovehumanity. 4) ‘ASA ayllogiam is here. Thus ort clusion is correct scmeding, to figure No.12, MP Allstudents are hard-working. (A) SM Anil is 9 student ao 8 P Anilis hard-working. @ Syllegiem No, 3 (AI]) is here ac- cording to Figure Nu. 1 8 PM No human bring is wnisal, E) MES Alluniwale have Hour legs. (8) S—P No man hax four legs. Ee This gonelusion is not valid because BAR is not Uuere in Figure Nu. 4 Some studenle are “sithtal. Allstadents are Indians. Sume Indian tudents are faithful. Syllogism Nv. 10 QAI) is here. Thus it is valid according to Figure No. 3 All animals like gra. Lion does not like grass Lion is not an animal. ‘Thia conchusion is valid because A0O is their in the Figure Nu. 2 40 thia conclusions ia correct, 4. My-P uls S—P 5PM sly S—P Rudes of Hypothetical Syllogisnm: it ie based on the connection hetweon a supposition or condition and its consequence, siartybythe word, if supposing, eranved thts the ete. Thepartofthesyllogism whichexpres! ‘aba ere partisans. 2 icansare not faithful whiddle torm partisans haz two stoting the result ia called eonsequeut. Ta such tyne ofsyllegism the hypothetica! premise isthe majorpremiseand thecategoral propositian is the minorpremise. Followingrulesmuctbekep! inview whilearvivingatvelidconclusionsinsuch cases, Fither affirm the antecedent ar deny the consequent ei 1. ihe were well, he would leave the place. 2. He has not Jeli the place, (Com. He ix not well Here the consequent 1 de-wed fallowsng example antecedent isl 1. It raing thday, be 5 school. 2, Ilis eaining. (Con). He shall Apt gaffe schoo). So always affirm the jent or dony the consequent ctye may be for valid eonelesions. iff take, consequent is affirmed Walid condusion will he drawn L jeu prevailed, the rich would rmiteed Lo exploit the poor. ‘are not premitted t exploit. the poor. (Con). Perfect justice is prevailing. ‘The above tute is alsa followed io disyunclive spllogieme. meaning in tho two premises, In the preminee No. 1. it mears those who are prejucicely interested in some cause but in the second premise it denoted the membersof a purlicular pariy. 2, Fallacy of composition: When we uccept s thing or term to be true ef'a whole which just hole true of itaAll the angles of 9 triangle are Jess than 180°. a) A.B and C are the angles of thie ‘tiang! @ (Conclusion) 3, Band Care less than 180% Here all the angles’ in the first premise means each and every angle talsen separately butin the nccond promizo it meane A, Band C taken collectively. It meuns whatis true of part can not be neveasarily true of the whole, 3. Fallacy of divisi It is the opposite of composition. If we consder that what istrue of the whole will be true of paris when taken separately it will also give wrong conclusion, eat: 1. All the birds fly in the sky. ® @) 2. Ostrich ig a bird, (onelusion) Ostrich fly in the ek Ostrich as an exception which does not ly in the sky. Fallacy of irrelevant conclusion: We some time assume as wrong conclusion to be right if it ie near to the right conclusion, This makes our efforcs fitilo e.g. Directions: Ji cack of # questions there are two statements fi seuerni conctusinns. Chace gh best applying togicat reason may beat vsriatce from facts. by after statement Rawson v8 like beauty. ita is a painter. It thuse who ke beauty are (o) ita tikes beauty. sometimes butchered by the rich. (1) Rich people are always antagonistin Ww taose who [ve inshums. {Conchision) Rich butcher the poor because shey hate them. b. Fallacy of Consequer Teoccure wien the conslusion doos 1 really follow from the prem:ncs and wrongly drawn duc tn lack of knowledge cg. 1. Everyone deaires bappince: g 2. Virtuous people are hy @ (Conclusion) Bveryone de Fallacy of A ‘The ay wi begirtuous wa very rarely ied as 9 rogular occurrence and () Rita doca not like beauty. (@) None of there 3. @ Gold is ductile, (i) This substance is not ductile. (a) This substance 18 not geld. @) Goldis not ductile. (©) Ductiles are not gold. @) Ai of these, 4, G) The cabinet passed the bill (ii) He is « member of the cabinet. () He iaaaod the bill. (@) The bill wae passed by him. (©) Amember of the cabinet can pass the ‘ill, (@) None of these 5. @) All reltgious corruption. people hate