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Motion
Cross Product
Cross Product
C A B
C AB sin
Cross Product
A B B A
A (B C) A B A C
Cross Product obeys the Distributive Law.
dB dA
d
Product Rule for Derivative of a Cross Product.
( A B) A
B
dt
dt dt
Cross Product
C AB sin
The above formula for the cross product is useful when the magnitudes
of the two vectors and the angle between them are known.
A B ( Ay Bz Az B y )i ( Az Bx Ax Bz ) j ( Ax B y Ay Bx )k
C A B
C x Ay Bz Az B y
C y Az Bx Ax Bz
C z Ax B y Ay Bx
Components of cross
product vector
Cross Product
Right-handed coordinate
system, in which:
Left-handed coordinate
system, in which:
i j k
i j k
j k i
j k i
k i j
k i j
Torque
Net force applied to a body gives that body an acceleration.
What does it take to give a body angular acceleration?
Force is required! It must be applied in a way that gives a twisting or
turning action.
Torque
Torque
Fl rF sin Ftan r
where
r = distance between the pivot point and the point of application of the
force.
F = the magnitude of the force.
= the angle between the force and a line extending thru the pivot and
the point of application.
Ftan = F sin( ) = the component of the force perpendicular to the line
connecting the pivot and the point of application.
L = r sin( ) = moment arm or lever arm = distance from the pivot to
the line of action of the force.
Torque
Torque
Some important points about torque
Torque has units of Nm. Despite the fact that this unit is the same as a
Joule it is customary to leave torque expressed in Nm (or footpounds).
Engineers will often use the term "moment" to describe what physicists
call a "torque".
We will adopt a convention that defines torques that tend to cause
clockwise rotation as negative and torques that tend to cause counterclockwise rotation as positive.
Torques are always defined relative to a point. It is incorrect to simply
say the "torque of F". Instead you must say the "torque of F relative to
point X".
More general definition for the torque is given by the vector (or cross
product). When a force acting at a point which has position vector r
relative to an origin O the torque exerted by the force about the origin is
defined as
rF
Torque
a1, tan r1 z
1z I1 z
2
m
r
i i
z
i
iz
i
I
i i z
This expression is the rotational form of Newton's Second Law for rigid body
motion (for a fixed axis of rotation):
I z
Valid only for rigid bodies! If the body is not rigid like a rotating tank
of water, the angular acceleration is different for different particles.
The torque on each particle is due to the net force on that particle,
which is the vector sum of external and internal forces.
According to N3L, the internal forces that any pair of particles in the
rigid body exert on each other are equal and opposite. If these forces
act along the line joining the two particles, their lever arms with respect
to any axis are also equal. So the torques for each pair are equal and
opposite and add to ZERO.
ONLY external
torques affect the rigid
bodys rotation!
Rotational Dynamics
for Rigid Bodies
2.
For each body, draw a free-body diagram isolating the body and
including all the forces (and only those forces) that act on the body,
including its weight. Label unknown quantities with algebraic symbols. A
new consideration is that you must show the shape of the body
accurately, including all dimensions and angles you will need for torque
calculations.
3.
Choose coordinate axes for each body and indicate a positive sense
of rotation for each rotating body. If there is a linear acceleration, its
usually simplest to pick a positive axis in its direction. If you know the
sense of z in advance, picking it as the positive sense of rotation
simplifies the calculations. When you represent a force in terms of its
components, cross out the original force to avoid including it twice.
Moving Axis
Differentiating this expression with respect to time shows that the speed of the
center of mass of the object will be given by
vcm R
The velocity of a point on the wheel is the vector sum of the velocity of CM and the
velocity of the point relative to the center of mass.
Thus, the point of the contact is instantaneously at rest, point 3 at the top of the
wheel is moving forward twice as fast as the center of mass; points 2 and 4 at the
sides have velocities at 45 degrees to the horizontal.
1
1
2
K Mvcm I cm 2
2
2
U Mgycm
Fext Macm
I cm z
Rolling Friction
W z d
1
W z ( 2 1 ) z
Note: similarity between these expressions and the equations for work
done by a force (W=FS).
Wtot
1 2 1 2
I z d z I2 I1
2
2
P z z
Angular Momentum
L r p r mv
Right-hand rule
Lever
arm
When a net force F acts on a particle, its velocity and linear momentum
change. Thus, angular momentum may also change.
dL d (r mv ) dr
mdv
mv r
(v mv ) (r ma )
dt
dt
dt
dt
Vector product of
vector by itself = 0
dL
r ma r F
dt
Li mi (ri )ri mi ri 2
L Li
m r I
2
i i
For points not lying in XY plane, the position vectors have components in Z-direction
as well as in X- and Y-directions. This gives the angular momentum of each particle
a component perpendicular to Z-axis. But if Z-axis is the axis of symmetry, components for particles on opposite sides of this axis add up to ZERO.
L I
For any system of particles (including both rigid and non-rigid bodies), the
rate of change of the total angular momentum equals the sum of the
torques of all forces acting on all the particles
Torques of the internal forces add to zero if these forces act along the
line from one particle to another, so the sum of torques includes only the
torques of external forces:
dL
dt
dLz Id z
dt dt I z
Conservation of Angular
Momentum
Conservation of Angular
Momentum
When the net external force torque acting on a system is zero, the
total angular momentum of the system is constant (or conserved)
dL
z dt 0, L const
Suppose acrobat has just left a swing with arms and legs extended and
rotating counterclockwise about her center of mass. When she pulls her arms
and legs in, her moment of inertia Icm with respect to her center of mass
changes from a large value I1 to much smaller value I2. The only external
force is her weight, which has no torque (goes through center of mass). So
angular momentum remains constant, and angular speed changes:
I11z I 22 z
To understand how a cat can land on it's feet, you must first know
some concepts of rotational motion, since the cat rotates as it
falls.
Relating this to the cat, if the cat stretches out it's legs and tail, it
increases it's moment of inertia; conversely, it can decrease it's
moment of inertia by curling up.
When a cat falls, as you would expect, its centre of mass follows a
parabolic path. The cat falls with a definite angular momentum about
an axis through the cats centre of mass.
When the cat is in the air, no net external torque acts on it about its
centre of mass, so the angular momentum about the cats centre of
mass cannot change.
Stretching out its legs increases its rotational inertia and thus slows
the cats angular speed.
Conservation of Angular
Momentum
Falling Cats:
More Information
Cats have the seemingly unique ability to orient themselves in a fall allowing them to
avoid many injuries. This ability is attributed to two significant feline characteristics:
righting reflex and unique skeletal structure.
The righting reflex is the cats ability to first, know up from down, and then the
innate nature to rotate in mid air to orient the body so its feet face downward.
Animal experts say that this instinct is observable in kittens as young as three to
four weeks, and is fully developed by the age of seven weeks.
Like many small animals, cats are said to have a non-fatal terminal falling velocity.
That is, because of their very low body volume-to-weight ratio these animals are able
to slow their decent by spreading out (flying squirrel style). Animals with these
characteristics are fluffy and have a high drag coefficient giving them a greater
chance of surviving these falls.
How does a
Speedometer
work?
A needle on this shaft indicates speed in mph or km/h. The magnet turns
within a movable drag cup made of a nonmagnetic metal. As the magnet
rotates, it exerts a magnetic force on the movable cup that tends to
turn it against the restraint of a spiral spring. As the magnet rotates
faster, the pull on the cup increases so needle indicates a higher speed.