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Dams areconstructed either to divert the water flow or impound the water, or
both.People build dams for different usages. The impounded water that backs up
against astorage dam forms an artificial lake (the reservoir). The stored water is then
made availablefor irrigation (agriculture), town and city water supplies (drinking and
sanitation), and otheruses, such as producing electricity for homes and industries.
Dams have been promoted as an important means of meeting perceived needs forwater
and energy services and as long-term, strategic investments with the ability to deliver
multiple benefits. Some of these additional benefits are typical of all large public
infrastructure projects, while others are unique to dams and specific to particular
projects. Regional development, job creation, and fostering an industry base with export
capability are mostoften cited as additional considerations for building large dams.
Other goals include creating income from export earnings, either through direct sales of
electricity, or by selling cash cropsor processed products from electricity-intensive
industry such as aluminium refining. Clearly,dams can play an important role in meeting
peoples needs.
Dams may be classified according to height, intended purpose, structure, the type
of material used in their construction and by their shape.For instance Dams
according to height and size can be classified in to three categories small, large and
major dams. A large dam, according to the International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD), is 15 meters (50 ft.) or more high from the foundation. If dams are between 5
15 meters and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million cubic meters, they are
also classified as large dams. A major dam is over 150 meters in height.
Austral-Asia
South America
Eastern Europe
Africa
Western Europe
North & Cen. America
Asia
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
Figure 1.1: Regional distribution of large dams at the end of the 20th century (Source:
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) and World Commission on Dams (WCD)
By number of
large dams
China
United States
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
India
Spain
Japan
Canada
Korea
Turkey
Brazil
France
Irrigation
China
India
United
States
Korea
Spain
Turkey
Japan
Mexico
South Africa
Albania
By function
Flood
Water supply
control
United States
China
United
United
Kingdom
States
Hydropower
China
United
States
Spain
Japan
Australia
Thailand
South Africa
Brazil
France
Germany
Canada
Japan
Spain
Italy
France
Norway
Brazil
Sweden
Japan
Brazil
Germany
Romania
Mexico
Korea
Canada
Turkey
Table 2 shows the top 10 countries in the world with the most number of large dams,
according to ICOLD and WCD.
seal these fissures by injecting grout into the rock under high pressure to create a grout
curtain in the rock.
In addition, an investigation of the area by geologist of the U.S. Geologic Survey
indicated that it was seismically active: five earthquakes had occurred within 30 miles
(50 km) of the dam site in the previous five years, two of which had been of significant
magnitude. This information was provided to the Bureau of Reclamation in a
memorandum, but the geologists' concerns were considerably watered down in the sixmonth re-drafting process before the USGS sent the final version of the memo to the
USBR in July 1973.
In 1973, when the dam was only half-built, but almost $5 million had already been spent
on the project, large open fissures were encountered during excavation of the key
trench near the right end of the dam, about 700 feet (210 m) from the canyon wall. The
two largest, near-vertical fissures trend generally east-west and extend more than 100
feet (30 m) below the bottom of the key trench. Some of the fissures are lined by calcite,
and rubble fills others. Several voids, as much as 6 inches (15 cm) wide, were
encountered 60 to 85 feet (18 to 26 m), below the ground surface beyond the right end
of the dam and grout curtain. The largest fissures were actually enterable caves. One of
them was eleven feet (3.4 m) wide and a hundred feet (30 m) long. Another one was
nine feet (2.7 m) wide in places and 190 feet (60 m) long. These were not grouted
because they were beyond the keyway trench and beyond the area where the Bureau
had decided grouting was required. This necessitated using twice as much grouting as
had been originally anticipated 118,000 linear feet were used in total. Later, the report
of a committee of the House of Representatives which investigated the dam's collapse
felt that the discovery of the caves should have been sufficient for the Bureau of
Reclamation to doubt its ability to fill them in with grout, but this did not happen: the
Bureau continued to insist, even after the dam had failed, that the grouting was
appropriate.
On June 3 and 4, 1976 three small springs were discovered downstream of the dam,
although the water running through the leaks was clear, and such leaks are not
unexpected for anearthen dam.At the time, the reservoir was almost at capacity, with a
maximum depth of 240 feet (73 m). The only structure that had been initially prepared
for releasing water was the emergencyoutlet works, which could carry just 850 cubic
feet per second (24 m3/s). The main outlet works and spillway gates were not yet in
service.
Recreation
Most dams are built for several purposes. This produces a broad range of domestic and
economic benefits from a single investment. An additional local benefit is the
employment opportunities during the multiple year construction of a reservoir project.
Effective management of the worlds water is essential to sustaining the existing
andfuture population of the world. As the worlds population continues to grow so does
theneed for more dams, especially in developing nations and the vast arid regions of
theworld. Basin-wide planning for water management is the key element to providing
optimum water supply and other benefits. While dams provide significant benefits to
oursociety, their impacts on the surroundings include:
Resettlement and relocation
Socioeconomic impacts
Environmental concerns
Sedimentation issues
Safety aspects
However, these concerns and impacts can be reduced or eliminated by careful
planning, and the incorporation of a variety of mitigation measures.
Flood control
Dams and reservoirs can be effectively used to regulate river levels and flooding
downstream of the dam by temporarily storing the flood volume and releasing it
later.The most effective method of flood control is accomplished by a number of
multipurpose dams strategically located in a river basin. The dams are operated by a
specific water control plan for routing floods through the basin without damage. This not
only eliminates flooding, but provides other benefits such as water supply, irrigation,
hydropower and water quality. The number of dams and their water control
management plans are established by comprehensive planning for economic
development and with public involvement. Flood control is a significant purpose for
many of the existing dams and continues as a main purpose for some of the major
dams of the world currently under construction.
Hydropower
The availability of energy is essential for the socio-economic development of a nation.
Itis advantageous to use energy that is clean, efficient, dependable and renewable.
Hydropower meets all of these requirements. In countries, where a vast amount of
development still lies ahead, good conditions often exist for renewable energy
sources.The technically most advanced and economical source of renewable energy is
hydropower.
Less than 20% of the worlds estimated feasible hydropower potential has been
developed. The greatest amount of potential remains to be developed in Asia, South
America and Africa. Hydropower projects produce energy with a high rate of efficiency
and without burdening future generations with pollution or waste. Hydropower projects
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can be developed with very small capacities for local consumption or with very large
projects as part of a regional or national system. As part of a multipurpose project,
hydropower can also help to finance other functions of a reservoir or river, such as
irrigation water for food supply, drinking water, flood protection, improved navigation or
recreation.
Inland navigation
Natural river conditions, such as current, changes in river level, ice, and changing river
channels all create major problems and obstacles for inland navigation. The advantages
of inland navigation over highway and rail are the large load carryingcapacity of each
barge, the ability to handle cargo with large-dimensions and fuel savings. Enhanced
inland navigation is a result of comprehensive basin planning and development utilizing
dams, locks and reservoirs that are regulated to provide a vital role in realizing regional
and national economic benefits.In addition to the economic benefits, a river that has
been developed with dams and reservoirs for navigation may also provide additional
benefits of flood control, reduced erosion, stable ground water over the length of the
system and recreation.
Recreation
The attractiveness of reservoirs for tourism is often a significant benefit, in addition to
the other purposes of a dam. This is very significant in areas where natural surface
water is scarce or non-existent.Recreational benefits associated with lakes, such as
boating, swimming, fishing, bird watching and nature walks, are taken into account early
at the planning stage, alongwith other objectives achieve a balanced project. The
operation of the dam andreservoir can enhance tourism.
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APPURTENANT STRUCTURES. Any physical feature other than the dam, such as the
spillway, outlet, powerhouse, penstock, tunnels, etc.
BEDROCK. The solid rock foundation of a dam, usually overlain by soil or other
unconsolidated superficial material.
COFFERDAM. A temporary structure constructed around part or all of the excavation
for a dam or other appurtenant features to facilitate construction in the dry.
CONSTRUCTION JOINT. The surface between two consecutive placements of
concrete that develops bond strength
CONTRACTION JOINT GROUTING. Injection of grout into contraction joints.
CREEP. Deformation over a long period of time under a continuous sustained load.
CUTOFF. An impervious construction placed beneath a dam to intercept seepage flow.
DEAD LOAD. The constant load on the dam resulting from the mass of the concrete
and other attachments.
DEFLECTION. Linear deviation of the structure due tothe effect of loads or volumetric
changes.
DEFORMATION. Alteration of shape or dimension due to stress.
DIVERSION CHANNEL OR TUNNEL.A structure to temporarily divert water around a
dam site during construction.
GALLERY. A long, narrow passage inside a dam used for access, inspection, grouting,
or drilling of drain holes.
GROUT. A mixture of water and cement or a chemical solution that is forced by
pumping into foundation rocks or joints in a dam to prevent seepage and to increase
strength.
GROUT CURTAIN. A row of holes filled with grout under pressure near the heel of the
dam to control seepage under the dam
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HEEL OF DAM. The location where the upstream face of the dam intersects the
foundation.
INSTRUMENTATION. Devices installed on and embedded within a dam to monitor the
structural behavior during and after construction of the dam.
INTAKE STRUCTURE.The structure in the forebay that is the entrance to any water
transporting facility such as a conduit or tunnel.
LIFT. The concrete placed between two consecutive horizontal construction joints.
NONOVERFLOW SECTION.The section of the dam that is designed not to be
overtopped.
OUTLET STRUCTURE. A structure at the outlet of acanal, conduit, or tunnel for the
purpose of discharging water from the reservoir.
OVERFLOW SECTION. That portion of a dam, usually occupied by a spillway, which
allows the over flow of water. Also referred to as spillway section.
PORE PRESSURE. The interstitial pressure of water within the mass of rock or
concrete.Also called neutral stress and pore-water pressure.
POROSITY. The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the material.
PRINCIPAL STRESS. Maximum and minimum stress occurring at right angles to a
principal plane of stress.
ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE (RCC). A relatively dry concrete material that has
been consolidated through external vibration from vibratory rollers.
SPILLWAY. The structure over or through which reservoir flood flows are discharged.
SPILLWAY CHUTE. The outlet channel for the spillway discharge.
TAILRACE.The channel or canal that carries water away from a dam. Also sometimes
called afterbay.
TOE OF DAM.The location where the downstream faceof the dam intersects the
foundation.
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UPLIFT PRESSURE. The upward water pressure in the pores of concrete or rock or
along the base of the dam
WATER STOP. A thin sheet of metal, rubber, plastic, or other material placed across
joints in concrete dams to prevent seepage of water through the joint
a) Embankment Dams
They are constructed of earth fill. Upstream faces are similar and moderate angles,
giving a wide section and a high construction volume relative to height.
b) Concrete Dams
They are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are dissimilar, general steep
downstream and near vertical upstream slopes, and dams have relatively slender profile
dependent on the type. Other type such as timber, steel, etc dams in some cases may
be constructed.
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Dam
Embankment
Concrete
Gravity
Arch
Arch-Gravity
Massive
buttress
Rockfill
Earth fill
Combination
are resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted to the abutments. It is structurally
more efficient than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing the volume of concrete
required. A particular derivative of the simple arch dam is the cupola or doublecurvature arch dam, which is the most sophisticated of concrete dams, and is extremely
economical in concrete.
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