LoGic—METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTS Statoraent: Statement it generally meant szoup of wards thet have anesmning hucin Logic alstement means group of words that has two torms. first terrm is user! under sebject and the seoond term under predicate. The statements in logic are called propositions or preanives Premises; The premises that hay the major Lerm 18 called major premise and the premise that hue she minor term is coiled ainor prem ‘Term: Pe predieate of major premise is called mjor term and ie denoted by P and its geet zs called rainor term and is denoted by Sand the teens which are commun in both the Dremiscs are called middle term which is docmted by M. for examplo xampl All men are mertal, (Major Promise) Root 29 aun, (Minor Premive} Ram is mortal (Conchision) Here ‘mortal ts major term 2nd ite sul ‘= not minor term her heeause it ie premive also git is middle term. Nj here is ‘Ram’. In logic unit of argui in “Balfed proposition er premise and unit tit called term. A propesiticy exOnt from a sentence thatite predieat ‘moréony the subject, i, if we say'ths taken food, jeate peither sffirma nor if We say thet man is tal affirms the man so and “L have (ken food” i Now the question ishew will we jor and minor premises in a 1up of logical statemer ts}. It is by identifying the majur and munor 1 Cais purpose study the {stand Ind ises anit idencify the predicate which bus vitafand wide concept. ILwill be the major teem and the terms which come in bath the premises In this sentence pr donies tbe subj sural then will be the middle to=me. A.terin may have word ar move tham one worl, Marcover mnttior term will he used us subject of the eoaghusi sand its predicate will be the einjor ‘Types of Syllogiam: 1. Catexorieal: Here all che proposiigt Rie Wurforical in positive or nogatike fofm und no docktfullness ia aoen af Wlheé 2 Alleraduates genes Ooiori All eligi a (inex Some m radiaces. (Cone) 2. Hypot ‘The ey this Lype uses premise of « works hard, he will vi fore the first part 15 called fant band the seconel part is called naeifGent. tr: this type of syllogieun the jor premise is hyncthetical loving sore ing and the cinoy premiea will be catogortcal. eg If he comes. | abull meet him, In this epMlogism, [the comes, Oityor) Tshall meet him. (nw 3. Disjunctive Tm this type of syllogism the major premise ix disjanctive and the ncher two premises are categoria, og. Either be is an honest man ora lee. (Major) He ia an honest mun, (Minor) He as not a thief, (Conclusion) Tn disjunctive statements two terms opposite in meaning ary ured. LE firat is affirmed the seeund must be denied. 4. Relational: Hore relations between various terme are showr orderly, e.g, A>B.B>C,C>D, SoA >D (conelusion}5. Dilemma: lu such type of ayllogismas the major premise is double hypothetical and minor premise i of disjunctive type ond the conelusivu will be cithere disjunctive or cateyorica, e If these books confirm to Quran they are reliableifthey do not they ore superfluous Bidher they eonfirn te Queaa or they do at. Fither they are relisble or zuperfluos. Inthe above example the avoond and third promiees are disjunctive. Copel ‘The verb used in thy promises in logic is called copula. Hor this purpose “is” and "are" arc generulky used and logicians do ‘not use ‘was? and "wee aa copiila because fogicians always talk in terms of the present, w ib tsi 6 ‘Types of Propositions: 1. From the qualitative point af view— rom the quality point of viow itis of two typos: A. Affirmative - de, AM graduates are men B. Negative - ie, No man is hart working . From the quantitative point of vi From the quantaty peint of view itis typos: (@ Universal—in which th universal and refere exeoplion. te, ht moxtal, () Particular - dwubjoct does pat refer to al people ure noun wil Simulsziys one 90% about 60%, etc. will be macular propositions, The words Lines, often, generally, ele, also make rupdeitions particular, ‘The propesitiona wich uwe words lke few, litle, hardly, seareely, ote. sxe cinsidered tn be negative proposition. Similasly if there are double negatives used in a pruprsition chen the proposition will hecone affitmative, Cn the busia of above divisions we can sav that there are four types of eatogomieal propoaitions in lowe. 1. Universal affirmative ~it is ealled “A | propositions, Ee, All lakcurers axe hatd-warking — All childven are true «pean Universal Negative They wr & prepositions, fe, —Nominister is ded —No human being ‘= Particular Affirms *T". propamtions. ic. ~Some men arc Itard eerh Some peoplgae labors . Particular Ne ff y arn called *O preposiguas ~Somg men, Some nin b hard-working 16 not honest, of terms ge of A prepouttions only subject isdistbuted, In ease of E" propns:t.op both eubject and predicate are disteibuted, In case of “I” proposition neither subject nor predicadi: is digstibuted. In case nf "C0" proposition only predicates distributed. Now, the question is how will the term be distributed, Takes the example of°' proposition Man is mortal’. Here the tera: mitt bisa two ‘moaning. The firsts, man reans hain boing sand the necond, 6 nan means eaidmaty. Web term ‘man’ has hean used as denotation, ‘mua meuns human being. the term wan wile distributed. On the other hard uf man means animality, i.. vonnotation of Ue terva, it wall not be distribntnd because (here ave uilier sei mals berides nan and the pzopsition will not cemain universalSimiluzly, in case of 'E’ proposition both aubject and predicate are distributed, i.c., no man is happy. Here no man refers to all human being and heppy also rofors to all without oxcoption, So bel can be distributed for logical conclusions, In the third ease of T proposition rnnithor subject nar predicate can be distributed, En, "some men are hard-working, Here neither the term men refera to ‘nil’ neither the term hard-working” refers to all sa both of them ennnet.bo distmbuted. In che last ease of “O” proposition only predicate is dastributed, i.e., some men are not honest, Hire the teray ‘men’ does not refer to all ‘but the term honest may reer toall soit cau Le distributed. Distribution of the middle or other terms helps us to arrive at logical conclusion. Types of Logical Inforences: ‘A Immediate !wierence B., Mediate Inforenoo A. Immediate Inferences: Sometimes premises are arranged m diffcront forms. Out of thom some are true and, some are false, ie, ‘some students industrious, is @ premise. [fit is considere So trus then ‘some etudents are not indi 18 also true bul if we soy that ‘no at industrious’ its also. All these ai are based on cerium rules. This immediate inference. We only two methods of imme 1. Conversion: Here we derivegonclvsitW@hy taking the following r ‘acgpunt: fa) Breda es the subject and the preposition does not any change, ie,, Afirmative asivion will lead w affirmative jusion nnd negntive proposition il lend to negative conclusion. @P*A" proposition is converted into ‘V pro-position. ‘T! propositiun is converted into T and ‘E into E'itzelE, (2) Proposition 0 can not be converted at all, Examples wil) illustrate those pointa @ All_ministers are politicians” (A Proposition). Its converted form is Some politicians are ministers (I pro-position) Some men are hard-warking. proposition) Its converted form ig Sone: () a) propeaton) Ne immartal prepusition) Some sty (Op wring ray Soe “nklligens Wnt aidents. of inforonce is kased on she les: Subjecr docs nat undergo any change t predicate is changed ante contradictory. Here contradictory dloos not mean the antonym of ste term. [t i¢ not used in louis. For waking contradictnrs of Bis tran tot should be added] before i, F-¢..contri: dictory of kind is not ‘crue? kul “nev Kind” is the real contradictory of “kind. Negative proparitions are changed into affirmative und vige-voran, fA is obverted into F and I is ubvevtes into‘A’ proposition ‘The quantity of the proposition #3 remain the same. Ifthe proposition is universal it will :emain unsversal and if it is parteular it will remain particular in the okverted form of the conclusion. Following examples will illustrate these points clearly. @) All aeligious people people, Peupusition ‘A’) w we) rapt infellisent oo @ me cauntendedNo religious ie not eustended people. ] arc two premines—ane is nmicx ane che other a mune with one conclusion, This group of Gi} Ne. man is fully impartie). (B } arguments is veclnivaliy Imowy as os-logiem proposition). ‘Anexample will Ainstewse the pornt. Tts ebyerted fem is All merumals are vertebrates. (Mejor? “All nen ae not fully impartial. (A) "She whale w a uiamme!. Giines) (fii) Some won are hard of hearing. (1). ‘The whale iss vestebrate (Conclusion Tts obverted farm ia Flere the word ‘aera? is currmon an both ‘Some men are int hard of hecving. (O) | the premises. Lt is middle tezwn. Tate dues not fv) Sume doctors are not good. (O} omar atallin the cenciusion even fon the basis Tw abverted form is, of it conclusion Lins been drawn Some doctors are good. O i Validity Table: In order to vest the validity of the conclusionswe may alzo wee the following table: | middle terms in the prerises: Uere T and t = truch arrived at-an the basia af the fand P= The rules of catego A= doubtful Wor arriving at ris following rules or canana hat ye 1, Tn every ay!logizm paler sere ae terms any eehar tier, | fags aera major tekg/th@ minor term and the Fraley? mi Gobd ch@racters are liked by the ‘All mon are honest’ is's proposition ‘A’. If its considered to be true then in the condlusion proposition, E ie., “no man is honest" will be false, "Some honest are men” will be true 3 conclusion of O propastion will also be fi ‘Now if this proposition is considered to then proposition #, Ze. ‘nu man is doubtful and proposi=ions |, ie., honest iv alzo doubtsul but the F aw was good characters in his fee ae finur terms in she ahove two premises because gootl characte” has two different nteanang in tbe two promizes. So no valid conclusicn can be drawn here, ‘The middle torm inst have the identical monning ia both dhe premises nnd itmust ie, "same men are not honegt’ is digadle to be cistrivated. “Some studenta miamaitive SW an “T' | 2 Byery catogorreal syllogism must contain proportion if it 3 co leue thea ily throe promuses - mayor, minor and conclusion of “£7 iv falew, and the conclusion. ¢.8. conciusian of A and! ition are doubtful Man is raort Mm whichia clear fom the! fcohumus of the table. Cow is mortal a Afthe sane) tig is consi-dered tohefalsc Ram is aman @ fF and © proposition will be There ave three premises excluding oo sition will ve false which is clusion sa ne conclusion can be drawn second column ofthe table, from them. {ate Inference 4. Thomiddle term must be distributed in at aving conclusion op the basis of che least one of the premises. It is a must teen in called mediate inference. There because it je the standard of comparison.Ut aust b» used im at least one prem: its universal extent, ¢8. vedimenlary rocks are stratified substances. Some metamorphic rocks aie stratified substances. Here the term stratified substances isnot distributed at ll because sedimentary rocks agree with ome part of the stratified substance and metamomphic rocks agree with another part. Thus there are (oor terms, 4, Tho tarm not distributed in the premisos ‘can not bo distributed in the conclusion. An example will illustrate the point. All rational beings are responsible for their action, ® Brutes are not rational being. ® Hates are vt responsible fr their action. @) Here the major term responsible for thefy action ie divtributad in che conclusion but # was not distributed uy ‘the mayor promise because it means that only those ave responsible for their action who are rationsl being. 5&6 Two negative premises yield no coneluaion and ifone of the premises is negative, th conclusion must he negative e x. No student distikes games, ‘No game is fully eatisfctory. No conclusion can be drawn frm ‘hese two premises ray No human being dis o Students are human be ® Sundents do not dishike @Conelusion) sAienegativotiist ative. Butdouble wremise makeaitaflr- An is not thoroughly upright, 15 man is not to be usted. 7. No conclusion can be drawn from two Particular promices. & & If one of the promisns te paurtsatiar the conclusion rust be particular Four possible Arrangements ia Layic: Figure 1 Figure’ ae 4 as M s——P igure3 Figured M eo —= » $= Subject or minor tor P= Prodirate or major ter M = Middle term ° On the basisof the fupfieifhes slivwn ubove and four types fons chore are beaded = 256 types of fTlogisins possible, But there are vllogisms whieh ure Biven belowfang Maher are invalid. These four figures, iaubers muss he kept m view. y will be voferned an later oy every naw and cher rel Figure 2 2. ASA 5. EAB KAR 6. AK aan 7. lO 4. FIO 8. A00 Figure 3 Figura ¢ AAD 10. AL 11 all 1 BAO 13. OAO 19. KIO 14, FIO ‘Some cumples wil illus-rate these points. 1. MP Allgpivitualy lave humanity. (A 87M All fndinnaare spyctuals. 4 8—P Allindianglovehumanity. 4) ‘ASA ayllogiam is here. Thus ort clusion is correct scmeding, to figure No.12, MP Allstudents are hard-working. (A) SM Anil is 9 student ao 8 P Anilis hard-working. @ Syllegiem No, 3 (AI]) is here ac- cording to Figure Nu. 1 8 PM No human bring is wnisal, E) MES Alluniwale have Hour legs. (8) S—P No man hax four legs. Ee This gonelusion is not valid because BAR is not Uuere in Figure Nu. 4 Some studenle are “sithtal. Allstadents are Indians. Sume Indian tudents are faithful. Syllogism Nv. 10 QAI) is here. Thus it is valid according to Figure No. 3 All animals like gra. Lion does not like grass Lion is not an animal. ‘Thia conchusion is valid because A0O is their in the Figure Nu. 2 40 thia conclusions ia correct, 4. My-P uls S—P 5PM sly S—P Rudes of Hypothetical Syllogisnm: it ie based on the connection hetweon a supposition or condition and its consequence, siartybythe word, if supposing, eranved thts the ete. Thepartofthesyllogism whichexpres! ‘aba ere partisans. 2 icansare not faithful whiddle torm partisans haz two stoting the result ia called eonsequeut. Ta such tyne ofsyllegism the hypothetica! premise isthe majorpremiseand thecategoral propositian is the minorpremise. Followingrulesmuctbekep! inview whilearvivingatvelidconclusionsinsuch cases, Fither affirm the antecedent ar deny the consequent ei 1. ihe were well, he would leave the place. 2. He has not Jeli the place, (Com. He ix not well Here the consequent 1 de-wed fallowsng example antecedent isl 1. It raing thday, be 5 school. 2, Ilis eaining. (Con). He shall Apt gaffe schoo). So always affirm the jent or dony the consequent ctye may be for valid eonelesions. iff take, consequent is affirmed Walid condusion will he drawn L jeu prevailed, the rich would rmiteed Lo exploit the poor. ‘are not premitted t exploit. the poor. (Con). Perfect justice is prevailing. ‘The above tute is alsa followed io disyunclive spllogieme. meaning in tho two premises, In the preminee No. 1. it mears those who are prejucicely interested in some cause but in the second premise it denoted the membersof a purlicular pariy. 2, Fallacy of composition: When we uccept s thing or term to be true ef'a whole which just hole true of itaAll the angles of 9 triangle are Jess than 180°. a) A.B and C are the angles of thie ‘tiang! @ (Conclusion) 3, Band Care less than 180% Here all the angles’ in the first premise means each and every angle talsen separately butin the nccond promizo it meane A, Band C taken collectively. It meuns whatis true of part can not be neveasarily true of the whole, 3. Fallacy of divisi It is the opposite of composition. If we consder that what istrue of the whole will be true of paris when taken separately it will also give wrong conclusion, eat: 1. All the birds fly in the sky. ® @) 2. Ostrich ig a bird, (onelusion) Ostrich fly in the ek Ostrich as an exception which does not ly in the sky. Fallacy of irrelevant conclusion: We some time assume as wrong conclusion to be right if it ie near to the right conclusion, This makes our efforcs fitilo e.g. Directions: Ji cack of # questions there are two statements fi seuerni conctusinns. Chace gh best applying togicat reason may beat vsriatce from facts. by after statement Rawson v8 like beauty. ita is a painter. It thuse who ke beauty are (o) ita tikes beauty. sometimes butchered by the rich. (1) Rich people are always antagonistin Ww taose who [ve inshums. {Conchision) Rich butcher the poor because shey hate them. b. Fallacy of Consequer Teoccure wien the conslusion doos 1 really follow from the prem:ncs and wrongly drawn duc tn lack of knowledge cg. 1. Everyone deaires bappince: g 2. Virtuous people are hy @ (Conclusion) Bveryone de Fallacy of A ‘The ay wi begirtuous wa very rarely ied as 9 rogular occurrence and () Rita doca not like beauty. (@) None of there 3. @ Gold is ductile, (i) This substance is not ductile. (a) This substance 18 not geld. @) Goldis not ductile. (©) Ductiles are not gold. @) Ai of these, 4, G) The cabinet passed the bill (ii) He is « member of the cabinet. () He iaaaod the bill. (@) The bill wae passed by him. (©) Amember of the cabinet can pass the ‘ill, (@) None of these 5. @) All reltgious corruption. people hateay pe wore wpouae (@ He is religious man. @) Corrugtion hutes religions people @ Those who hute corruption are (@) None of these 13. (i) All lawyers are uncles, G® All girls are Lawyers. seligioua (@) Al girls are uncles. @) None ofthese @ AM uncles ave girls. 6. (i) All men are liable (o commit (©) Some girls are not uncles mistakes. (@) None of the above (i) All priests are mon. (@) All priesta are liable to commit mistakes, @ Committing mistake 18 human, @) Some pricets don't commit mistake. (2) None of these 1. (If it is cloudy lion will roar. Gi) Lions dor't roar (0) it isnot cloudy, 0) It is cloudy. (© Tions rear only in cloudy night. (d) None cf the abowe 8 (i) We are dependent on our motor 14. (@ Some roots are ships. (ii) Some routs are apples. (@) Some apples are ships. (©) Somo ships are apples. (o} No root is a ship. (2) None of thest 15. () AU the Bugli ‘axe fool. (ti) Mohan speaks Eny (@) Mohan is a fool. (@) Mohan is not a fool. (} SomeEBugliahspe: wrenot foul. speaking people cars. F Gi Ourmotor cars aredependent on | 36, Water ie'a lig bret, Gi) Teo in fe) We axe dependent on perrol. @ lee isd a Tos is nut Liquid, @) Petrol is dependent on uz. () Potwolis the dependent of motor cars @) None of these 9, @) AU plancts are round, (Gi) A car wheel is round, G@) A wheel is planet, ® rete = (o) The thing which ia round is a flanet (d) Nena of these 10. (i) All tigers have four legs. Gi) No cats arc tiger (a) No cat has four lege. (®) No fo lagers avo cats, (@) Tigers are cats. (@) None ofthe above (d) None of these respected ic Wke Dhole ure vospected. India includes Bengal. (ii) Bengal does not include UP. (@) India docs not include UP. () UP is aleu a part of India. @ Bengal indludes UP. @ None of the above 19. (i) All the express trains stop here, iL () Humans can at ithout, (di) Rajdhani does not stop here. atmosphe! (@) Rajdhaw isa passenger train. (ii) Themoon is @) Rajdham is a feet train. fe) Rajdhani ns not en exproas train. (@ None of these 20, ( All chairs are stars. (ii) Some chairs are round. (2) Some rounds are stars. @) Some stens are round fe) No stor is round, (@ None of these —_ i Rome Oates @) Some men can ‘on the moun. (o) There is qo lifeossible on the moon, Bm gles are figures.1.) P. Mo &) M8 ® = Al 8 Poo @ = Au ‘Thus all the throe erliogiaims are invalid according to the Figure No. $ 2b M- Pp 3 M § P Option (@) is invelevant, (4) is correct because it follaws the rules of valid syllogism AIT. Moreover the term ‘Painters’ ix distributed in the major promise as well as in the conclusion, P s ——] $s Valid conchusion AOO is here. Option (¢) ean not be correct because nuinor term must come as a subject af the conclusion. Conclusion (@) loyically follows but be- cause of the fallacy of division xt is, invalid, ie. collective action can nat be cousidered an individual's action, Option (a) ean not be vali axdfere from fallacy of di ()and (0) ore alee iavalid. No syllogism ia @ All religious pe ‘eruption: He is a roligiousanan. (Gon.) He hal 1m, The option (a) ns to be correct is actually ne t because occigpns (0) i also nt and (¢) is irrelevant. ent is denied (which oeitive antecedent will negative. (In hypothetical cither antecedent is affirmed sequent is demied aa the case is Blah M M P 4a: 6. (a): 6a: F(a): here). fers the option (a) seems to be currect. wut bocaune of the fallacy of the middle term it is wrong. Middle term ie not Cistsibuted either ia the aapor or ininor premiscsand thus there are “pur terms, P M jana 8 Pp Tad the middle term ‘round! boos tributed the eoncluaiva wos! bean right, ie, “ATT” cos not there in figure No.2. or (B) is not true, 10. (aM 92a: P 8 —_—? Combination FRR is not there an Figure No. 3.40 ontion (0) ie not correct Giule No. 7). Moreover no conciesion can be drawn from two T’ premises. 13, oO 8 ‘Valid syllogism of AAA is hora yhieh is there in Figure No. 1 14. (d)s'Two particular promizes yield no cone clusion, (Rule No. 7}. 48. (@): Option (a) is not correct because it suffers from the fallacy of divisions Mohan speaks lnglish but ie is not dlear that Mohan dacs not speak any other language, So option (2) ix envreet. U6. (@): Option (a) seems to be correct but it ‘suffers from tho fallacy of accident anit is invalid, P M Bconchusion must he bused on probability. 18, (4): There are four torme. India, Bengal, Bengal and U.P. ‘Thus middle arm has “double meaning in both the premisrs, 19. (oP M s— Iw 8 P ‘Type 1 Direetions: One statement is given followed by several conclusions in each question. Choose the right one among Pie bernatives given, 1, He is an historian, s0 he ean not write ovels @) Novristonan can write novela () Some historians cun write novels (© Historians can seldom write novels @ Allof these ‘This aun cam t succeed because he is not truthful @) Those who enn yet success are teuthfut (@) Alltruthful persons aucceed (@ Only successful persone are truthful £8) None of these 8. He does not gota the mosque do he is aot true Musk 42) Oniy true Muatims go to the mosauy @) All tue Muslims must go.ta mosque @) Sorn2 who go to masque Muslims @) None of theve 4. Devils enemy beenuse! people G) "Phose who deus enemies ®) All those deve 2 the: ‘ple are the men are people believe in fate dno believe in fae are right which is based on Figure No. 2 20, @):M e uC 5 8 Pp Here the second premiso is the major premise and the first one is the minor one and the valid sylogiem of AJ a here, thinking people @ No right thinkiag peuple do, bekevoia fate (@ Those who believe in fate t thinking people @ Allof*hose 4. Tee obyviouely falee the aya retire voluatazily who rotire v are not Sietators (6) Mong tafliarly are other @ Dic tire voluntarily @) Alo Wiitlever shines is other than gold oldie the only yltiering substance Allof these Some students nve distur G@) Some disturbing ave wuudonts @) Somo students are not disturbing (© Both ofthe above (2) Noone of these ~All students are not geniuses G@) Many stedepts aro not genics (8) All goniusosare students (@) No students ia genius @) None of these 10, Somme doctors are not pelicemen (2) Some doctars are policomen @) Some policemen are not doctors () Both of the above (@) None of theseThe word ‘so’ declares that all historians esr not write navels ‘The sentence ix exelusive. Had he been. teuthfal he would have succeeded. It otherwise uve ai] truthful persons succeed, Duuble acgatives used in gentence make it affirmative. Option (ai cannot bx correct beosuse there may be othor reasons to yo to the mosqste dur option (6) Is corrert. [fdevil ceases ty ccerive the people he swill not remisitt Lhe enemy. So option (a) ssonly correct (Option (al is the converted form of the premuee and (bi ie Une obverted form of 1.4) 2b) 8 by: 4. (aj: 5. a: pe | Directions: Assuming the statement Hiven against each question to be true detesmine whether tne is trae, false, doubtful or irrelevant, Opiion fa) isfor true, (b) for fase, ie? Jor doxebtful, amd (a) for irrelevant. Cone::A fev [vole retuze ty 8. Statement: Some who! ‘wonfused are other th Cones: Any one W cenfesed. 4, Statement: Few pefiti 4 paliatain is very na can atop & ame able w 309 a are bther tran kings. PARI who are immensely icketers. cricketers are immensely MWGeatement: Some blinds are very antelligont. Cone.: Lncelhgents are blinds, 7?Statement: All snakes are poisonous, Conc.:No snake is nan-poisonaus, the premise and (c) is the distorted form. Irs logic always is the converted form of re Option (e) is the converted form af the pretise and option (a) is te obvexted form Option (4) means that ghitcring fhe qality of goid our iti soine t that makes gold gle Opliens a) is te Converted form nd 02 (8) is the obyerted form 6.40): Td) chi Ste): Seta). Here premise “E” is con °F which is Fogically validity ble. 10,6): Option (a) is thy uPMeeted Bor aral (bs) the converted form of mise. ° 3. State eof those who are able to ume Iuilers are uol unable to Stat@iment: Few people raad The Nines, ‘Indi Sane.: A few people read “The Tires af Gone. Those who study in the morning are other than students Statement: Only treaty breakers are cammunists. Cone. Treaty breakin is the part of com Statement: All that glitters is not gold. Conc.: Some sittering ubjecte see gold. L. Statement: All emdents are not la Cone.: No student is lazy. India’. 2, Statement: A fow o° those sghoNyre | 10, Statement: Students never study early spilling to tell their age ave fo in the morning. 70 ory AL 12. 18. Statement: Babes cannot manage trodes Cone. Few babies can manage crocodiles. 14. Statement: No marriage — is ‘unsuceossful Cones: Some marriages are suvcessful 15. Statement: Some dogs can not swim in the river. Cone.: River is for swimming. 26. Statement: No teacher commitsamstak YR. Statement: A fow acts of agerrss:on are ‘Cone: All wachers commit auistalees, not unjustified. 17. Statement: Old soldiers never die Cone.: At least one acl of aggression iv Cone.: Some ald eviiors don't dre ‘unjustified. 18, Statement: Kvery criminal hav his day. | 28. Statemont: All soldiers avy not brave Cone. Some cxininals have their day Cone-: Some 2oldiers are brave. 48 Statement: Siudents never fail w be | 80. Statement: 4 few lions are not vicious. Ailient befxe their exams Cane.;: No lion is vieiows. Cone: A lew students fail tobe diligent | Directions: Tu statements are given before their cxams. towed by 2 conclusion in each of the 20, Statement: A few of the wise lack formal | following questions. Marie (a) if cofcinstor is education. frac, (b) fata false, fo) ifit tx dowbefu and (a) Cones: Many af the wise do not Yack | ifit is rereleva, formal eduenticm, ‘SLL. During puja days pcople visit tho: Directions: Assuming the statement hhoueee where pio iz perfermed. given ugoinst each question to be false go there evenf they axe not in@jted deterauine wherher the conclusion hut follows IL far visited the house ofR is rua, false, doubtful ur irrelevant, Option (a) office colleague during pi is jor tne, (b) for jul. (c) for doubtful and (4) Cone.: In Raja's house os for irrelevont. porfoeme. BL Statement: "ew of the bravce lack | 8% [If there 1» 9 caludfity. Igaders go omslity. around the affected a Cone.: Many of Lhe braves do not or do IL. They mect theictios aiff promise 10 lack humility. help them. ° 22. Statement: Almost every ane favours Cone: Such bydpdthene visits give liquor on campus, asturancgeiviel Cone: Every one favours igor on | 88 1. Indidp students who go abroad do caxapus 28, Statement: Whoever is just never fail to ng red a job there as well ‘be happy countries want to retain Cone t The just always fail to be berry. yach minds, s9 do not let them 24, Statement: Witchcraft is seldom wife, practised legally. indus are allowed to have only une Cones : Witsheraft is always pra legally. V1. Muslims ave allowed t Cone: [in Hindus the 1 omen is almost equal bot in Mustims it Statement: At least a fow exe) logic ars tough. Come: A: ‘east.a few exercivegin jel not.tough. 1. Rabindra Nath ‘Tagore wrote many 26, Statement: All suygenc not poems, Uishoneste, TL. Rabindra Sangeet is very swect. Cone. A fave stud sshonosts, Cone: Tagore himeelf composed tunes for 27. Statement: Argumel never wort, his poemy which are known at Kabindra Cono.: Argunignts are sivays on, Sangeet, ‘PLANATORY ANSWERS is true premise H will be enerelly confused, 4.(@): The word ‘king’ makes it irrelevant. ave willing, a few must refuse ‘The correct conclusion is°No' politician ct conclusion i@ ‘politisians are can stop a popular revolt.Conclusion is doubtful, 6. (eb has been obvor.ed into", 7. (a) 8. (a): 9. (b): Few meanx ao and thus it is premmse "E. If itie oheract promine T can not be correct. The earvect conelusion is ‘Ne people read “The Timos of India 10. (b):Seudents seldom study early in the morning is the correct conelusion, LL (@): The right conchusien is shose hu do not break the wealy are not commun 12 (ak’All that” means ‘some’ and the conclusion ir an obverrad forts of the premige, 13, (b):See the validity table column firet where ‘A’ is correct but 'E’ is false. Conclusion is premise E becavee ‘few" meine ‘no. 14. (b): The stulement is the ubyerted form af ‘all marriayes are eucenssful’, IL "means that some succensful are marringos, Here the premise ‘F's (rue 50 the premise ‘I' will be false. 15. )slt’s a premiee ‘O" [te obverted 4 some dogs can eim in the vives mm awn in the iv 16. (b): If premise Fs trae pre be false but premise eoue teachers don't cor is true, If premise “Ei ise 'O' will also be true ac fo the validity alo be Leu 1. (Dh TF premise 'F is truc conclusion ‘Twill he false. ite rue form 1s a few students do not fail Lu be diligent before their exams, (premise ‘0. 20, (c): IFpromige Tus true corctusan "Oy bo doubtful but it iy near to he 22, (a): promise Ts false, conclusi be true, prentise Tis false con also be falge sexveding: table 28. (e): LE premise “Bie talfe conclusion bbe dowbeful Lut ne! true, 24. (ajJt is most likely to be truc Lecause seldom is vers uf always, 25, (a):If premi false couclusion ‘0° vn 4s False conclusion will 2m, (a): Af 8 false conclusion ‘A will is falze concluavon'T will = {e}: Rama night have gone there for other purpesee, 82. (a): Promises always give assurance, tis enly a long drawn ons, Very few muslims have more Chan one wives even if they are ullowed ve ave fou 35. (dy: act of the felloming to statements faliowed by from the statements mark (c) if bath low’ from the statements and mark (d) if ther T nor if follows, o ‘Type IV] 1. Statement: () Footballers wre goneraily healthy, (i) Rashid is & ood footballer. Cone: @ All heatchy porsans are fnotballess (FP) Rashid 3s healthy 2, Statement: en are chairs. All ebuirs axe tablen,Cones (All men ore tablee, @ Some chaivs are mon. Statement: @) All boys are rivers. G2) Some vers ave girls, Cone: (D Some givls sre boss. (BD) Sorae Vays are ginls. 4. Slatement: @) Some bags are white (i) Some non hage are wothpastys, Cone.: @) Some bags are tables. (B) Sono whites ove ba 5, Statement (@ Some pots are cups. (i) All cups ave race. Cone. : @ Some pots ove tats (GF; All pots are not rats. 6. Statement: @) Allapples are bananas. G2) Allbananas are sweets. Cone. 1 Some apples are sweets, Gi Some bananas ace apples. 7, Statement: () Same poets are fools. (8) All fools ere ich, Cone: @ Some rich are porte. (2) Some fools are poets. & Statement: () All geactuaves are cypewr} Gi) All typoweisere are boat. Cones: @ All graduates are (B) Allbosts are graductes, 9. Statement: @) All cinemaggtors 28ers stars aat stone chips. ‘honest people are mats. ‘he mata are politicians. Cone: @ Ail the honest people aro politicians 4D Some pobiticians ave honest. 11, Statement: (i) All the dogs ara cats, (i) Some entz ure white. Cone. @ Some doga are while, (BD Some cats are dogs. 12, Statement: {) Some tableo are glasees, () All trecs are taoles. Cone. (Some twees are elas (iD Some glasses ute Lzoee 18, Statement: () No man is a ect. 4) Thawoid is. a man Cones () Hamicl in nit a cat (i) Allaaen are nob a ex 14, Statement: @ Some che (i Table All buses are planee. (@ All planes are cars. 16. Statement: @ Mf foothalla are made of iron cricket bats are made of wood. Gi) Cricket bats uxe apt made of wood. Cone: @ Fonthalls ave not made of won, (@ Bootballs ure made af iron. 17. Statement: @ General rules the anny. 40 Generale wife rules hit. Cone: @ His wife vulea the army. @ Army is ruled by a General 18, Statement: 9 All bicds bavo wings. fii) Bats have no wings.@ Bats are not bicds. GD) Those who have not wings are other than birds, 19. Statement: (i) All wives are women, Gd She is a woman. Cone. (D She is a wife. 2b Only she is wife. 20, Statement: (@ Teachers are soldiers. Gi) Soldiers are farmers. Cone.: @ ‘Veachers are farmers. 7D Taxmeve wee Weachors. 21, Starement: () Some apples are yellow. (Gi) Golden is an apple. Cone: @ Goldene yellow @) Some appies are green. 22. Statement: (AL cara fly. i) Some bileca fly Cone: ) Ail cave are bikes. Some bikes do vor fy, 23. Statement: @ Some crows are dog ® All dogs are faithful. ® Some faithful are ext QD Some faithful a UA. Statement: @ All tables are ai Gi) Some anta are chi Some cooks are boys, jatement: 6) Most trains arc yentlemen. (i) Some gontlamen are tanks, @ Some tanks are trans. @ Some trains are tanks. 27, Statement: @ All Gowers are beautiful. Gi) All lowers are girls Cono.; @ Somo boautifuls ave gisks. (B) Some girls are beautifel, 28, Statement: (AD prisanars are educat Gi) No man is educated Cones GG No nian is pris GU No prisoner ie ws: ay dogs bite. ‘one. ‘Those dogs who do not bark absw bite. Barking dogs scldam bite. 1. Statement: 4) Some ollices are hotela. {i) All hotels are elu. Cone.: @ Some clubs are offices QD) Some offices are not clubs. 82, Statement: @ Some roads ure footpaths Gi) Some highways have footpaths. Cone: @) Some highways do noo ave footpaths. (B) Some highways have roade. 88. Stetement: @ AN workers are tenchers. Gi) AN writers are teuchers. Conc.: @ Sonne writers are workers. GY) Some weachers are workers. 34, Statement: @ AM Americans weither Canadiansor = Mexicans.ii) Most. of the Mexicana ave not white, Cone: @ Ne Canadian ia Mexican, AT) Some Americans ave not white. 35. Statement: 1L@): r Ss Pp Conclusion (f) is invelevant and eamclusion (77), ‘AIT combination which poems to be valid suffers rom the Fallacy of eccidont because of the word ‘generally’ used in the statement. M s 5 2 (Oe - ea on /) 3. (dp P M M. $s s—pP Both the conel because “ALN is not & valid syllog'ss according to Figure No. 4. Here may premise is ‘A’ premiso, is ‘Tone and conclusios premises. No conclusion aan be a particular promises. (Ae No.7) More-over i ‘seme bags 3 is ‘seme whites ar sion is algo not averted into nadennelus 5 (oy: @ Some slates are cups G) Some cupe are spoons, Cone.: @ Some plates are sprons, dD Sore euye are not spoans. EXPLANATORY ANSWERS Bigs 11. (bP M M 8 s—Pan cyucausion v9 correct Hecate TEs the converted fori of the statement frat but statement I can’t be correet. Lecause the major term eannot be the subject of the eanclusion. 12 es 18. (ck 16. (a): Ina hypothetical syllogism Qbavequent is denied that is re and if ‘both the causes angi affigaistive then antecedent will lao Bes hegutive tera: because cf tha conditional phrase, 17. (4): There yr terms in the two » eonelusion can ho of the fallacy of the Yonohuaion (I) is courect hecause ANE is 4 valid syllogism. According to figure No. 2 Conclusion (U) is also correct. 19. (ae M eee ir s Pr Conclusion I ia wrong because All is not valid. Codusion [Ue also wrong, because it can not be exclusive as word ‘only’ heze shows, crget because fowism and evant. Moreover infe deawn feom two ive () promuses. 21, (d): Conclusion (Dis uot MV ja noe a valid conclusion no constusi fun | is not correet beewuso the wm can uot be the eubject of ‘conclusion and coneliasiva Tria the Eouverted form ofthe second statewent of premise T intn I, (oP M me § s—pe Conclusion Tas correct because valid asllogism of TAL is hese apd second conciusinn is the converted form uf the second statemimt 24. a): P ¥ M 8 8 P Coneinaion (t} “AMI is wot valid aeenrding to figure No. 4 and Conclusion Q) makes major term as the subject of the eomelusiom so itis also @r a 25. @:P M jaa 8 Pe Crmelusion tis nol valid (LAD) aceording Wo the figure ard conclusion (11) makesve the major term as subjece of the conclusiun, 26. (d): No conclusion cam be drawn fram to particular premives. 27.) (©) 28. day — M Snel 8 P ‘Valid syllogism ABE is there in figure 2. And conclusion (I) cam not be enrrect, becanse major term is the subject cf the eoneusion. oN (r=0) Sesseeeeae: _ 29, (a) M P [resmeamane 8 yp Condlusion | is vorrect breumse valid eyllogsr of AILis there in igure No. 3 bat SMA’ is net a vahd eylloxiam necardings to the figure se conclusion IL is not eurrect, 80, (d): Middle torm dogs is net disurrbuted here 90 no conclusion can be drawn, ‘And conclusion (I) is a phrare only, BL (ox P M M s questions dere is 0 at paragraph followed by 4 Hf, Assuining the stat @) [only conch @ [fonly conclu fara in need of a gond doctor. : Miser people seldom help che ene reap here and (HI) conclusion is the obversed asnverted, fovre of the statement ((:. 82, (a): No conclusion can be drawn from two particular (|) premices 20 conchwaon A) doce mee fallow but eonstusun 148 the ubverted form of ¢he statement sevond. M M P term 38. ( 8 Middle aytribueed st all so no ep “wachers syTingism Rc Andcondusion of he statement, 34, (09: |i American a ae Mi white, | wale Americas are aleogiat Conduyion (10) also follfws cf Ube ord" used i tatement. Lede> not follow because (21 dluaion can bx: drawn from we [cular preanzsee (B}maajocLeem east tbe the eubjoctof Uueeouclucion. And conehision IL isjust tbe obverted fann of the taccarent (2) Con, 1: Thoew who are miser never belp the por Con.Ik: Foor are very varely helped by the anices, 3. Statement: Since the fechng of superiority is built in wherever thera is social development, there is x Letle tha: cam be done to arrest it excep: at the ©: of sovial development, Con. I: ‘To mainta‘ social development ‘complex shard be allowed to cone ‘tome. Con[l: Social develepment and con plex rust side by side.4. Statement: Recent rescarches have shown that pinwpley have their root cause in the liver, Con.1: The medication for pimples showld be adminisiored to the Con.fi: Iehaling of eleams is of no use for this purpose. 5. Statement: TL is written in history ‘Ucuks that most of the battles which tonic place among rulers were fought for amaea.ng wealth and beavtiful women, Word War! has a hackycound vory near toil, Con. {i If money minded people will Aourish, World War 1 may stat. Condi: In ctden days wealth and hheawiiful women were the major concern for rulers. 6. Statement: The oceans aro store house of practically every mineral including 288Lge But hike most cther minerals itis found in extremely Jow omoentration about 3 grams per 1000 tona af water. Cou. Sea water eontains silver and ion. Con.T: Gold is found about 3 grams 1000 tons of water. 7. Statement: It 1s evident historical information that gow ‘Thave wax educations] more importance antity of education |. I: Deficiency demand will have to be met by impo: nT There is no need to cut dorcatic demand of ceue oil. 9. Statoment: The disparities betwoon the problems of rich aud the poor do aot stand out clearly when we compare the attitude of the Iw maki: bodies towards these (wo utrata of the suciety. Con. T: Pectiameat do nol discriminate between rich and poor while, Formulating policies for tho Cond Law makers to not identical attitude towards the haves and have nots. 10, Statement: A maladjusted erimninul who commats crime, ofadjustme: Con. {: Some crimes cauea in adjuatmd Con. Malady nt 1. Siem tay ah R F Ip a police encomtor & prorieand 2 soldiers wore killed sind injured scriously vow: Th clack aa ot unexpected. wl: ‘The oaly injured war the torcovien 18; Statement; No uew tax hes been proposed in the budget of 1997-98. TL is still a surplus budget. Con. I: The buulyet of 1997-98 may be ‘considered 4 gore budger, Com: 1997-98 budget ts a surgiua budget because ne new tats huss boon propused. 14, Statement: It docs not matter what type of fod you eat. What matters ig whether you ein digest it Con. I: Any type of food in equally good ac long as itis digested. Con TI: The type of fond one eat. is im- material, 15. Statement: Now younced uot have an import Licence to own a vaftware computer toda, Con. I: Computer suflwarrs are made indigenously. Con.T: Duty trev computers are now available,16. 1s a 99 Statement: [Pblue is hoavy then yellow is Light, If red ix light then green is medium but blue is heavy or red is ight. Con. I: Yellow is light or green ix odin, Con.T: Yellow te 10d. Statement: The bost woy to escape froat a problem is to seve it, Con. I: Your life will Le dull sf youdon't fave a problem. Conk: Te escape [com 2 peublem demand come eolution of the problem. Statement: Good is the enemy of best Con. I: You should he good to your best enemy. Con.Tk: Best do nvt luke the yood. Stateraont: The essence of one day cricket is the ability 1 score runs fast and to bow! with a mirture of control snd sugression which adrory handled con tie the opponent. hand anid foot. Con. I: Kapil Dov who won the World ‘Cup itr 1983 had all she abner qualities, Con.T: Aggressive boveling as well as fas: scoring of runs are equally indispensable to win a uae day: exicket mateh. Staiement: Majority ules in democracy.” Con. I: In a democracy candi lected by a aio Cop.lk Majority have amend a Jaw in p demveratie art. Statement: brother is not Imown since 6 place last year by thal unluck¥bus which collided with 2 Leuck (car Paizbad. Con, T: erdwag killed im the ace jo8 of the bus and the trusk ¢ feason behind my. wrother's missing: fat: Strikos sare the imberent of workers for the purpose of raring justice. Con Com. [: Workers can nat get justice unless they go en sinc ConJI: Every worker must defend his! her inherent right. Statement: ‘Tbe greatest need of India Loday is nur of quod researelers but well teniuted teachers Con. f Indie docs not need researchers today. ith the umw popularization of rabzation a Hoy edu Statement: It is risky to wave) Fron Jammu t1 Barancula be fh zag road. Con.E Jammu and Bas ‘ox re conaceted by } ath! knowledge of Con.lk: Resnarebeva are laut attached Con.fk; ‘Pher=is ne atl a5. Statement: ain kuuwlrdge of should be anxious to ive the kuowlcdge of life jt: All that glitters is not gold. ‘one Judgemant —ahould not exclueively be made on the basis of the appearance Con.ll: Gold does net shine at all Statement: This hook is tox ooatly so be wworthlers. Con. i: ‘ken buoks fall shost of supply dir prices ge up. Conk; The higher the selling price. the superior is the quality of Ube commodty. Statement: Apart ‘rom the educat'nnal value of newspapers their sonal valiien stvmold lao be Kept into account. Con, I: People take nowspavers to be & ‘meangof impirling eduention. CoM: The entertainment value of newspapersie also of peramount. iuaportance. Statement: [ have reality of ignorance. 28. 29, jothing except the