Running head: THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

The Viability of Animated Pedagogical Agents in an Online Learning Environment

Chelsea Whitehead
Memorial University of Newfoundland and Labrador
August 7th, 2015

THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

Abstract
This paper introduces animated pedagogical agents (APAs) and examines the viability of
designing and integrating them into online learning environments. Typically depicted as the bust
of a digital character bearing human-like qualities, APAs are capable of supporting learners
through both verbal and non-verbal cues such as gestures and facial expressions (Unal-Colak &
Ozan, 2012). In the hopes of helping educators make an informed decision about using APA-led
learning environments, the purpose of this paper is to examine both the pros and cons of creating,
integrating, and implementing APAs. It begins by exploring APAs as tools for increasing student
motivation and engagement before investigating the potential they offer as tools for improving
student achievement; two factors that are likely to influence the decisions made by teachers
interested in incorporating this type of technology into their classrooms. From there, this paper
delves into design principles, exploring how APAs and the instructional website within which
they appear, should be developed and structured. After an extensive review of the literature, this
paper deduces that designing an APA-led learning environment is complex and concludes that
the viability and success of an APA-led learning environment is largely dependent on two
factors: the technological skills and efforts of its designer and the characteristics of its target
audience. Additional limitations related to developing APA-led learning environments and
suggestions for future research are also considered.

THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

Table of Contents
Abstract..2
Introduction...4
Rationale & Research Question....5
APAs as Tools for Motivation and Engagement......5
APAs as Tools for Improving Student Achievement.......9
Designing an APA......11
Considering Physical Appearance......11
Considering Verbal and Non-Verbal Cues.....13
Designing an APA-led Learning Environment......15
Considering the Delivery...16
Considering the Environment....16
Considering the Content....17
Considering the Learner....18
Considering the Cognitive Load Theory..19
Considering the Redundancy Effect.20
Limitations of APA-led Learning Environments.....21
Suggestions for Future Research.23
Conclusion...24
References...27

THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

The Viability of Animated Pedagogical Agents in Online Learning Environments

Multimedia-based tools and technologies have opened up new possibilities for teachers
and students. Many of these tools allow users to integrate audio, visual, video, and animation
together on-screen, and are capable of facilitating an enriched learning experience by
communicating information in different ways (Unal-Colak & Ozan, 2012). One such technology
being used in computer-based learning environments are animated pedagogical agents (APAs).
Yielding mixed results, research looking at APAs as an educational tool began at the end of the
1990s (Heidig & Clarebout, 2011). APAs are defined as animated digital characters that are
included in instructional applications to simulate human instructional roles (Kim & Baylor,
2006, p. 223). The literature also refers to APAs as interface agents (Morozov, Tanakov, &
Bystrov, 2004, p. 19), teachable agents (Bodenheimer, Williams, Kramer, Viswanath,
Balachandran, Belynne, & Biswas, 2009, p. 191), animated conversational agents
(Theodoridou, 2011, p. 336), cognitive tutors (San Pedro, Baker, & Rodrigo, 2014, p. 189),
computer-animated tutors (Bosseler & Massaro, 2003, p. 653), avatars (Chen, Lee, Wang,
Chao, Li, & Lee, 2012, p. 62), or simply pedagogical agents (Osman & Tien Tien, 2014, p.
395). Most commonly depicted in an image-voice combination, these computerized entities can
be designed as anything from lifeless objects and fictional characters to life-like human beings,
and are being employed by educators to lead students through tasks in virtually-created learning
environments (Meij, Meij, & Harmsen, 2015). In addition to providing verbal cues (Lin,
Atkinson, Christopherson, Joseph, & Harrison, 2013),
Animated pedagogical agents function to draw the attention of the student to a specific
aspect, to transmit non-verbal implicit information via gestures, facial expressions and

THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

voice tone, to engage the learner for longer durations by creating a fun learning
environment, and to provide guidance and motivation. (Unal-Colak & Ozan, 2012, p. 96)
Rationale & Research Question
The idea of using APAs as a means to deliver instruction is not only interesting but also
relevant and timely. As an elementary school teacher, one of my greatest challenges is
individualizing instruction to meet the diverse learning needs of my students. Therefore, the
potential of APAs acting as tutors to offer individualized, just-in-time learning (Bowman,
2012, p. 359) is an especially intriguing opportunity. The observation that APAs can encourage
students to learn more deeply in a discovery-based environment by aurally helping them to
process and understand the information more efficiently than if they were to read it on their own
(Moreno, Mayer, Spires, & Lester, 2001, p. 209), is also significant given the push towards
constructivist learning at my school. By investigating the design of pedagogical agents, the
online environment in which they appear, as well as their potential to increase motivation and
improve student performance by offering a tailored educational intervention, I aim to answer the
following research question: Is the creation of instructional websites using animated
pedagogical agents a practical option for teachers and beneficial choice for students? My goal
is to provide teachers with information that will help them make an informed decision as to
whether or not APA-led learning environments address the needs of their targeted learner(s). My
intention is to also offer ideas and suggestions for educators interested in designing their own
personalized, multimedia-based system of instruction integrating APA technology.
APAs as Tools for Motivation and Engagement
Research indicates that APAs are typically seen as either an unnecessary addition to a
multimedia-based learning environment or an important tool for fostering students motivation

THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

and understanding (Moreno & Flowerday, 2006, p. 188). Nonetheless, according to Hong,
Chen, and Lan (2014), most researchers tend to agree that APAs increase the learners level of
enjoyment. Chen et al. (2012) have adopted this view of APAs suggesting that many online
learning environments have integrated APAs because their human-like appearance and
interactive interface is capable of engaging students, capturing their attention, and encouraging
them to try harder when learning. For example, after interacting with an avatar designed to act as
a caring friend by offering encouragement and empathic feedback, computer science college
students expressed an increased level of interest in learning on questionnaires after working with
an agent and demonstrated a willingness to persevere and complete more exercises than those in
the non-agent group (Chen et al., 2012). Morozov et al. (2004) further this notion by suggesting
that the close resemblance of APAs to the type of animation seen in computer games may play a
motivational role in the classroom by helping teachers to stimulate and capture student interest.
It seems that several other researchers have reached a similar conclusion, viewing APA
technology as both motivational and engaging. For example, Osman and Tien Tien (2014) argued
that APAs in multimedia learning environments make it possible to deliver abstract science
concepts that may otherwise be inaccessible or too dangerous. They also maintained that agents
paired with supporting animations in computer-assisted learning environments could help users
visualize situations that are not easily explained verbally, making for an enhanced and engaging
learning experience. When investigating the role of an APA in an inquiry-based study of
kinematics with 13-16 year old Dutch students, Meij et al. (2015) observed a significant increase
in students self-efficacy beliefs. The more the students (in particular girls) were exposed to the
APA-led lesson offering motivational feedback, the more confident they became about their
ability to understand and manage similar assignments. This finding is especially noteworthy for

THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

science teachers who teach a subject that is typically underrepresented by girls (Meij et al.,
2015). In my opinion, it indicates that APA-led learning environments may have the power to
challenge and shift longstanding, stereotypical beliefs by encouraging females to more actively
participate in disciplines that have been traditionally male dominated, like science.
APAs have also been observed to increase the comfort level of some students,
encouraging them to ask questions that they would not have asked their classroom teacher (Hong
et al., 2014). Ninth grade Latina learners studying introductory algebra were quoted as feeling
relieved after working with an agent (Kim & Lim, 2013, p. 1170). One student even admitted
to feeling intimidated by her classroom teacher while others remarked that working with an agent
created a more positive learning experience by allowing them to access material at their own
pace without being blamed for falling behind and encouraging them to seek help when needed
without feeling guilty (Kim & Lim, 2013). Bosseler and Massaro (2003) observed a similar
pattern when using a computer-animated tutor to teach vocabulary and grammar skills with 7-12
year old children with autism. Although these students were initially reluctant to use the program
(possibly due to its unfamiliarity), the researchers felt that the patience and perpetual teaching
style of the computerized tutor Baldi, made for a more enjoyable experience than what had
been previously observed in a traditional teacher condition (p. 653). Bosseler and Massaro
(2003) arrived at this conclusion based on comments made by students using the computerized
tutoring system such as I love you Baldi as well as on their own anecdotal observations of how
the students interacted with Baldi over the course of the experiment (p. 658).
However, APA-led learning environments might not necessarily translate into motivating
and engaging experiences for all students. Secondary students learning the abstract concept of
electrochemistry in Malaysia using an interactive multimedia module with a pedagogical agent

THE VIABILITY OF ANIMATED PEDAGOGICAL AGENTS

(IMMPA), did not show any significant difference in motivation level than the control group who
learned the same material in a traditional teacher-led format (Osman & Tien Tien, 2014).
Moreover, the majority of students in both the control (i.e., without APA support) and
experimental group (i.e., with APA support) in a study of adult Spanish language learners
reported that they were satisfied and engaged with their learning experience (Theodoridou,
2011). This may suggest that the act of operating in a computer-assisted learning environment
alone (without the support of an APA) may be sufficient for improving learner motivation and
engagement. Conversely, the students who did not prefer the online learning environment in
Theodoridous (2011) study indicated that it was because the web-based learning environment
was at odds with their personal learning styles. Some users preferred traditional teaching
techniques and reported feeling more engaged and motivated when interacting with their peers in
a regular classroom (Theodoridou, 2011). This is an important discovery for educators interested
in planning and designing instructional websites; they cannot simply take a one-size-fits-all
approach and apply this type of learning to support each and every one of their learners.
It should also be noted that increased levels of engagement may not necessarily be the
advantage that they are often thought to be. In a study looking at the engagement levels of
Filipino secondary-aged students, using an intelligent tutoring system employing an APA
referred to as Scooter the Tutor to teach the mathematic concept of scatter plotting, San Pedro
et al., (2014) observed a direct correlation between engagement and carelessness (p. 193).
Interestingly, through a series of tests using a carelessness detector model that was designed,
validated, and deemed generalizable by the researchers, San Pedro et al. found that the more
students were engaged, the more likely they were to make careless errors than their confused or
bored counterparts who simply failed to understand the skill and/or attend to the material. The

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researchers explained this unexpected finding by positing that highly engaged students may
ironically become overconfident, perhaps leading them to answer more hastily, which in turn,
may cause them to provide an incorrect answer despite knowing the skill. In light of these
results, teachers should closely monitor student progress and consider having conversations
about the importance of taking ones time and putting forth ones best effort prior to the
commencement of learning in APA-led environments.
APAs as Tools for Improving Student Achievement
APAs are thought to hold promise as tools for improving learner performance, however,
much of the evidence indicates a more indirect link between APAs and achievement (Unal-Colak
& Ozan, 2012). Unal-Colak and Ozan (2012) identified that increased performance in APA-led
learning environments may be the result of a more personalized type of instruction that
effectively combines collaboration, support, and guidance with a social presence. Despite this
observation, it is my opinion that the relationship between APAs and achievement is still worthy
of note and discussion. In an investigation of Taiwanese elementary students studying English
that split students into two groups: an experimental group (i.e., a computer-assisted learning
environment facilitated by animated cartoon-like characters) and a control group (i.e., students
taught in a traditional, teacher-led classroom environment), Hong et al. (2014) reported that
when faced with speaking, reading, and writing tasks, students in the experimental group
significantly outperformed their peers in the control group. Results from a study of Turkish
undergraduate students who received instruction on stem cells in a multimedia learning
environment with the support of an agent also showed a significant difference between pretest
and posttest scores when compared to their peers who received the same instruction aurally
without an agent (Unal-Colak & Ozan, 2012).

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Yung (2009) reported comparable results after analyzing the achievement of college
students on comprehension tests about the interrelationships of the human heart and its functions
after receiving APA instruction supported with animated visual prompts. Students in the APAanimated-visual-prompts condition scored higher on comprehension questions than those in the
APA-static-visual-prompts and text-only conditions. However, the same study which also looked
at student performance on terminology tests showed that an APA was not effective. Theodoridou
(2011) reported a similar finding in her study of university students studying Spanish vocabulary.
She found no significant difference in performance between the control group and experimental
group that was supported with an APA named Laura on the recall and retention of various
vocabulary items (p. 339). Together these findings seem to indicate that an APA should be
applied to learning tasks that involve a deeper level of processing such as critical thinking and
problem solving tasks as opposed to lower level processing tasks like the rote memory recall of
facts, terms, and definitions (Yung, 2009).
Turkish sixth graders working on a space unit also demonstrated achievement after
watching tutorials and interacting with an APA (Kizilkaya & Askar, 2008). A parrot named
Peedy was used to guide students in the study through the website as well as provide
motivational support (p. 211). Students, in particular females, who interacted with Peedy,
performed significantly better on achievement tests than those in the non-agent condition.
Johnson, Ozogul, Moreno, and Reisslein (2013) also reported learning gains for engineering
students studying electric circuits in APA-led environments. In a study of precollege students,
Johnson et al. (2013) identified a link between prior knowledge and student achievement. They
concluded that the gestures used by a female agent to signal and direct the learners onscreen
attention to relevant material led to higher learning gains for those with low levels of prior

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knowledge (LPK) than those in the control group. It is important to note however that students
with a high level of prior knowledge (HPK) at the outset of the experiment did not benefit from
these social cues; in fact the researchers posited that a signaling APA may actually be more of a
distraction to learners with HPK as it is unnecessary to their learning process. This is a
significant finding for teachers interested in integrating APA technology into their classroom as it
helps them to make an informed decision when determining which students are most likely to
benefit from such a learning environment.
In contrast to the research outlined above, a study of college English Second Language
(ESL) students did not find any significant differences in learning or performance between those
in the agent group and those that in the voice-only group (Choi & Clark, 2006). While this
information is valuable to teachers, it is important to consider that this study was published in
2006 and results from more recent studies indicate that there is at least an indirect connection
between APAs and student achievement, indicating a need for continued research.
Designing an APA
Considering Physical Appearance
Designers must select an appropriate image that suits the age and learning preferences of
its intended users (Kizilkaya & Askar, 2008) as an inadequate appearance has the potential to
significantly decrease the benefits of the agent in question (Haake & Gulz, 2008, p. 6). Although
often thought to be surface factors with little to no impact on student learning, agent features
such as clothing, hairstyle, skin colour, and body shape should be considered as they may play a
role in the development of visual stereotypes of the agent, which can influence the learners
expectations, attitudes, interest, and motivation levels (Haake & Gulz, 2008). Like in the real
world, students tend to characterize agents based on their first impressions (Moreno &

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Flowerday, 2006). As anticipated, a study of university freshmen examining the impact of peerlike and expert-like agent stereotypes found that students perceived the peer-like agent to be
more open and friendly, which led to increased feelings of enjoyment when compared to
comments made by those in the expert-like condition (Liew, Tan, & Jayothisa, 2013). However,
while there was no effect on learning performance between the two groups, female students
reported feeling less anxious when the lesson was delivered by an expert-like agent, viewing the
expert-like agent as more credible and trustworthy (Liew et al., 2013). Wang and Yeh (2013) also
concluded that the sexiness of a male agent was negatively related to students perceptions of
trustworthiness. In their study, although male students were attracted to the sexy appearance of a
female agent, the explicit sexualization of the agent left both male and female students
questioning the agents level of expertise.
Similarly, research by Veletsianos (2010) suggests that designers consider creating an
APA so that its appearance reflects the content being presented. Students enrolled in
elementary/special education technology courses were presented with two APAs to view tutorials
on nanotechnology and punk rock. Derived from the same base image, both APAs wore identical
clothing, had the same face shape, facial expressions, and voice. Referred to as the scientist
and artist by the researcher, the main differences between the two were found in their facial
hair (or lack thereof for the scientist agent) and hairstyle (well-groomed, short style versus a
mohawk for the artist agent) (p. 579). Although both agents were essentially perceived as equally
knowledgeable about nanotechnology, students perceived the artist agent as more
knowledgeable than the scientist agent after viewing the punk rock tutorial.
In addition to these findings, Moreno and Flowerday (2006) found some support for the
similarity-attraction hypothesis in their study of college science students. While the proportion of

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students opting to select an APA of the same gender or ethnicity was not significant for White
American students, students of colour (Hispanics, Native Americans, African Americans, and
Asian Americans) were more likely to choose an APA of matching ethnicity. That said, those
who chose an APA of a different ethnicity outperformed both those who opted to work with an
APA of matching ethnicity and those that were assigned an APA of a different-ethnicity on
problem solving transfer measures. This observation suggests that the visual appearance of APAs
is not neutral (Moreno & Flowerday, 2006) and while students may appreciate having a choice in
selecting their APA, educators developing APA-led learning environments should take great care,
including only agent options that have been carefully designed with the target audience and
learning objectives in mind.
Considering Verbal and Non-Verbal Cues
In addition to the APAs outward appearance, designers must consider both the verbal and
non-verbal cues such as gestures and facial expressions of their chosen agent. The agents
manner of speech (i.e., its intonation and pronunciation) is important to the learning process
(Tien Tien & Osman, 2010). Consequently, designers should focus on selecting a quality, less
robotic, voice for their APA (Theodoridou, 2011, p. 345). Atkinson (2002) supports this finding
by suggesting that designers outfit their APA with a human voice, as opposed to using a text-tospeech engine or computerized voice, as it ensures that the subtle nuances of human speech are
captured and relayed to learners.
APAs also have the ability to correct wrong answers and increase users feelings of selfefficacy (Unal-Colak & Ozan, 2012) by offering immediate, high-quality verbal feedback (Kim
& Lim, 2013). As a result, designers must not only apply an appropriate voice to their agent but
structure it in a way that targets its specific audience. For example, while female ninth-graders

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studying algebra appreciated comprehensive, detailed feedback, their male counterparts were
observed to bypass long explanations, gravitating towards more specific, succinct responses
(Kim & Lim, 2013). The type of feedback (simple or elaborate) offered by the agent may also
matter as elaborate (i.e., detailed, in-depth) feedback has been shown to foster learning (Lin et
al., 2013) and has demonstrated to be more beneficial than simple (i.e., correct or incorrect)
feedback, especially when students are tasked with answering more challenging questions (Chase
& Houmanfar, 2009).
Because APAs have the potential to imitate human tutors (Atkinson, 2002), they can also
be programmed to mimic many of the non-verbal cues typically observed in every day human-tohuman conversations such as facial expressions, gestures, and body movements (Woo, 2008).
According to Woo (2009), the anthropomorphic actions of an APA makes them appear more
realistic, authentic, and humanized. By applying lifelike characteristics that closely resemble
those of a real human teacher, designers may be able to establish what is known as the persona
effect (Woo, 2009, p. 2). Believed to foster a degree of familiarity between the learner and the
agent, APAs may be able to cultivate a relationship that is similar to what would be naturally
found in a real classroom between student and teacher (Woo, 2009); a finding that in my opinion,
teachers skeptical of using APA technology in their classrooms may take comfort in.
In line with the persona effect, Chen et al. (2012) posited that an effective avatar must
both establish and maintain a relationship with the user throughout the learning experience. As a
result, they suggest that APAs offer greetings, goodbyes, words of encouragement, but most
importantly, give empathic responses. The results of their study of computer science college
students indicated that learners who received empathic replies, based on the feelings they

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revealed by selecting the emotion set that aligned with their feelings toward the task, could be
persuaded by the APA to work harder and complete more exercises.
However, an abundance of social cues (both verbal and non-verbal) may result in learners
having to split their attention and divert it away from important information, potentially having a
negative impact on student learning and attitude (Lin et al., 2013). For example, a university
student studying Spanish vocabulary reported being distracted when the APA relentlessly
followed the movements of the cursor around the screen with her eyes and head (Theodoridou,
2011). This finding further supports the interference hypothesis discussed by Moreno et al.
(2001), which holds that irrelevant and unnecessary details may distract and/or overload the
learner (p. 185). As a result, social cues given by an agent (both verbal and non-verbal) should be
limited (Moreno & Flowerday, 2006) and selected purposefully.
Designing an APA-led Learning Environment
The design of instruction, or the instructional format, has the potential to impact how
learners interact with a learning environment and experience cognitive load (Lin et al., 2013, p.
240). It is therefore not enough to simply design an age-appropriate APA, designers must also
focus their efforts on the online environment in which the APA is to appear. A proponent of
making ones own materials, Mann (2005) outlines several factors for designers to consider when
developing an educational website. Referred to as the DECL (i.e., delivery, environment, content,
and learner) factors, Mann advises designers to take into account a range of variables such as the
way in which the material will be sequenced and presented, the setting and school climate it will
be used in, as well as the mental operations the users will be required to perform, and tasks they
will be required to complete, as each has the potential to impact student motivation and learning
in online environments.

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Considering the Delivery

According to Mann (2005), designers must pay special attention to the way in which the
material is delivered. This statement is supported by the work of Yung (2009) who found that
college students learning with the support of an APA that provided verbal and visual prompts,
outperformed those in the text-only and verbal-only conditions on comprehension test questions
related to the functions of the heart. Moreno et al. (2001) reached a similar conclusion in their
study of seventh-grade language arts and science students tasked with designing a plant that
could survive in 8 different environments. They observed that students in the agent group learned
more deeply, scoring higher on transfer tests than those in the non-agent group who had to read
and decipher the information presented onscreen. Results derived from Experiment 1 in
Atkinsons (2002) study of undergraduate learners engaged in solving word problems also
revealed that the voice-plus-agent group expressed significantly lower levels of perceived
difficulty understanding examples than those who were provided with the same information via
text. This evidence has important implications for designers as it implies that information is best
presented onscreen aurally from an APA with supporting images, as opposed to written text. It
also suggests that the combination of APAs and related images can not only facilitate learning
but also potentially foster an increased sense of self-confidence in learners that online learning
environments supported with printed text do not. Teachers should also consider delivery
variables such as the ease at which the educational website is navigated, any logistical concerns
around layout and the way in which the website pages are organized and sequenced, as well as
the overall appearance of the website including the appropriateness of font and template choices
when designing computer-assisted instruction (Mann, 2005).
Considering the Environment

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Another factor capable of impacting the success of an APA-led website is the

environment within which it is applied (Mann, 2005). Based on Manns (2006) research,
educators will need to consider the school setting and school climate. It is thus my interpretation
that this includes an evaluation of whether or not the institution has the tools and resources
needed to integrate an APA-led learning environment (computer lab or classroom computer,
wireless Internet, printer, headphones, etc.) as well as an assessment of the level of support (or
opposition) that can be anticipated from all parties including students, co-workers,
administration, and parents.
Considering the Content
According to Mann (2006), designers must also consider the content of their instructional
website. Outlining three variables: the mental operations required to learn the content, the tasks
involved, and the learning domain, Mann also encourages designers to focus their attention on
the buy-in-factor (p. 237). So, while ensuring that the content is clear, accurate, up-to-date, and
reflective of the curriculum is important, designers should aim to create a website that students
want to use. Based on personal experience, this is often achieved through the integration of
videos, online games, animations, and graphics; however, these decisions should be made
carefully. For example, when it comes to incorporating graphics into your APA-supported
website, Craig, Gholson, and Driscoll, (2002) recommend that relevant images appear either with
sudden- onset when needed or with animation as determined by the designer, if the goal is to
direct student attention. They further reasoned that images should not be presented statically if
the goal is to improve student achievement, as static images not only proved ineffective in
attracting the attention of undergraduate psychology students learning about lightning but also
failed to help improve student performance. It should also be noted that the visual presence of an

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APA was not found to split the users attention (Craig et al., 2002), nor was it found to harm
learning in an otherwise intelligible multimedia lesson (Moreno & Flowerday, 2006, p. 192).
Considering the Learner
Building an APA is complex (Unal-Colak & Ozan, 2012). First, the characteristics of the
intended learner must be considered given the multitude of cognitive and non-cognitive
variables such as prior knowledge, motivation, and interest level that exist (Heidig & Clarebout,
2011, p. 45). With these variables in mind, it is critical that teachers working to design an APAled website know their students (Tien Tien & Osman, 2010). They should have a good grasp on
their students attitudes, capacities, demographics, and competencies (Mann, 2005) before
designing any form of instructional support. For example, Unal-Colak and Ozan (2012) found
that Turkish undergraduate students preferred the support of an APA depicted in a full body shot
of a person bearing real human features as opposed to the full body shot of an animated human
or headshot of a real human. Conversely, Hong et al. (2014) reported that elementary-aged
students seemed to prefer interacting with and learning from more cartoon-like characters. In
reaction to the findings discussed above, designers should also consider variables such as the
learners level of prior knowledge (Johnson et al., 2013) and personal learning style
(Theodoridou, 2011) as they have shown to affect student motivation and performance in APAled learning environments.
Lastly, although Heidig and Clarebouts (2011) synthesis of APA research produced
several studies that reported mixed results on the use APAs in computer-assisted learning
environments, only Domagk (2010) identified a real disadvantage to using an APA on
performance. In her study using an APA to help identify the visual perceptions of college
education and/or psychology students in a computer-assisted environment, Domagk found that

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while the unappealing appearance and voice of the agent did not affect student motivation, it did
hinder transfer performance. Despite Domagks results, it is my opinion that these findings do
not necessarily draw a discouraging picture that Heidig and Clarebout (2011) suggest (p. 30).
Instead, I would argue that they serve to emphasize the value of knowing ones students,
underlining the importance of accounting for the varied characteristics of the intended learner(s)
when designing APA-led instruction.
Considering the Cognitive Load Theory
Any audio integrated into an online learning environment must have a function (Mann,
2005). Whether the audio comes from the APA or a hyperlinked audio clip, sound in an
educational website is typically used to help students navigate the site, develop an understanding
of the skills or learning objectives in question, and/or to provide feedback (Mann, 2005).
Students, however, process both these audio prompts alongside images (such as the embodied
APA or explanatory diagrams) that appear on the website. This can be a challenge as users are
required to process the material through one of two channels (audio or visual) by first selecting
the relevant information from each channel before organizing it into their working memory
alongside their prior knowledge (Lin et al., 2013). Known as the cognitive load theory (CLT),
this theory maintains that humans naturally manage information through dual (audio/visual)
sensory channels, however the process of doing so is also believed to limit the capacity of their
working memory (Lin et al., 2013). This means that when developing an APA-supported
educational website, designers must make a concerted effort not to overload its audiences
cognitive load by incorporating only information and multimedia-based elements relevant to the
task at hand. Designers should note that it is also possible to cognitively under-load the learner
by providing the learner with too few multimedia-based elements (Mann, 2009).

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According to Mann (2009), there are three sources of cognitive load that can affect
working memory and reduce learning effectiveness: intrinsic load (i.e., related to the normal
complexity of processing content from a variety of interrelated elements in multimedia
environments), extraneous load (i.e., related to an ineffective website design), and germane load
(i.e., related to the effort needed to build schemata or mental models) (p. 6). Thus the challenge
faced by designers implementing APA technology is to include only those features that are
pertinent to the learning process so as not to overload (or under-load) the learner; a notion further
supported by Moreno and Flowerdays (2006) recommendation to limit the use of both verbal
and non-verbal social cues given by an APA in online learning environments.
Considering the Redundancy Effect
The possible effects of redundancy (i.e., the simultaneous presentation of audio as text)
should also be taken into consideration when designing APA-led learning environments as it can
interfere with learning (Craig et al., 2002). For example, in a study of undergraduate psychology
students at the University of Memphis, the redundant use of audio and text was observed to
hinder learning and negatively impact student performance when tasked with explaining how
lightning forms (Craig et al., 2002). The same study consequently found that students who
received instruction aurally from an APA outperformed both those in the agent-plus-printed-text
condition and printed-text-only condition. In contrast, Spanish-learning university students
expressed that they liked reading the text and hearing the pronunciation at the same time
(Theodoridou, 2011, p. 345), so although it may have been redundant, the simultaneous
combination of text and audio clip did not negatively affect student attitude. However, despite
the comments made by students in Theodoridous (2011) study, it is my professional opinion that

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designers choose not to duplicate information presented by an APA aurally as text, so as not to
unnecessarily distract or overload the learner.
Limitations of APA-led Learning Environments
Designing an APA-led learning environment is not without more practical challenges
either, such as bandwidth requirements and accessibility concerns (Bowman, 2012). Morozov et
al. (2004) also caution that the software used to develop APA technology can be expensive. In
fact, Mann (2009) claims that computer-aided instruction is more expensive than hiring an
instructor (p. 1). Furthermore, a statement that prompted the researchers to ask whether there
were other, less expensive options capable of providing equally as effective instructional support,
Clark and Choi (2005) argue that the method employed by the agent (as opposed to the agent
itself), may be the reason for the increase of student learning in online environments. Given these
possibilities, teachers looking to integrate APA technology into their classroom must not only
consider alternatives but also be financially aware. Depending on the software they choose and
the budget they have to work with, teachers may need to explore funding options before getting
started. With this in mind, it is important to note that free software exists. In fact, Schroeder and
Adesope (2012) contend that recent advancements in technology have begun to make agentbased systems more accessible and affordable to educators (p. 43). APA generators such as Voki
(2015) are available and can be easily embedded in website builders such as Weebly (2015) and
Wix (2015) at no cost. Individual school boards may also have web-building software available
for teachers to access and customize for educational purposes. Thus, in light of the potential costs
involved, it will be important for educators thinking about integrating APA technology into their
classroom to research their options beforehand.

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In addition to cost, designing APA-led learning environments can be a massive

undertaking (Unal-Colak & Ozan, 2012, p. 99). For instance, designing a detailed virtual tutor
that effectively embodies many of the external and internal qualities of a real human requires a
great deal of time, effort, and consideration (Chen et al., 2012). Speaking from personal
experience, one must also account for the time needed to explain to students how the
instructional website is navigated and how its specific features function. Considering the work by
Chen et al. (2012) around empathic avatars that provide encouraging feedback capable of
persuading learners to work harder, it would be important for educators to spend time helping
students understand the different types of emotions. Once students are able to accurately identify
their feelings and emotions, they will be better prepared to select the most appropriate emotion
set, thus ensuring that they receive the most individualized support possible. It should also be
noted that computer-aided instruction modules have a short shelf life (Mann, 2009, p. 1).
Given the rate at which technology continues to change, designers must seriously weigh the time
APA-led learning environments take to develop, with the potential they hold for increasing
student motivation and learning (Mann, 2009).
Tsou, Wang, and Li (2002) also acknowledge the very real possibility that teachers
interested in designing APA-led learning environments lack the technological skills to do so. As a
result, teachers may need to seek additional training such as a masters degree in educational
technology to accomplish their goal. This would of course add more money and time to the
process. On the other hand, teachers wanting to design and implement APA technology into their
classroom may be able to capitalize on the skills of a knowledgeable colleague or board-level
technology specialist, reducing the need of more formalized training.

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Lastly, teachers should familiarize themselves with any technology-related privacy

policies or restrictions prior to designing an instructional website. School boards often have rules
and regulations in place to protect students and manage potential liabilities. For example, the
Personal Information International Disclosure Protection Act (PIIDPA) adhered to by the
province of Nova Scotia restricts schools from using technological tools that house information
on servers outside of Canada (Technology Integration, 2012). Therefore, it is critical for teachers
who create instructional websites with dynamic tools like APAs, blogs, and social media, to do
so with care. Interactive games that reinforce student skills and website building software could
also be called into question under PIIDA regulations, once again raising the importance of first
doing ones research.
Suggestions for Future Research
Several questions have surfaced since completing my research on the viability of APAs in
online learning environments. In regards to the design of the APA-led environment, I wonder
about the positioning of the APA and whether or not it makes a difference where it is located on
the webpage. Should it be located in the same place on each page for consistency purposes?
Would being able to anticipate where the APA is located increase the efficiency with which it
could be accessed, potentially having a positive effect on student learning and performance?
Would having the APA in a different location on each page of the website serve to engage
students, or would it act as a distraction? Secondly, much of the current research around APAs in
online learning environments centers on adult learners. While I did find some research that
focused on upper elementary and secondary students, there was very little that explored this topic
from a lower elementary perspective. This was surprising given that the many of the young
learners that I work with are not only familiar with these types of tools but come to school

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24

knowing many of the technological skills needed to access and utilize them successfully. Lastly,
like Theodoridou (2011), I wonder if certain learning domains are more suited to APA-led
learning environments. Does the abstract nature of science make it an ideal candidate? Does the
higher-level thinking required to solve complex mathematic problems make APA-supported
learning environments the perfect complement? At the end of the day I contend, when answered,
questions like these will serve to strengthen the existing research, which will in turn help
educators design an increasingly effective online learning environment that meets the needs of
their students.
Conclusion
Although research on animated pedagogical agents is still in its early stages
(Theodoridou, 2011), APA-led learning environments have the potential to play a powerful role
in the classroom. Faced with continued advancements in technology, APAs appear to be a
promising tool in the resolution of urgent educational issues (Kim & Lim, 2013, p. 1170). First
of all, they can help to distribute the teachers workload by freeing them up to focus on the
learning needs and processes of individual students (Hong et al., 2014). Secondly, when paired
with multimedia elements embedded into an interactive instructional website, well-designed
APAs are capable of motivating and engaging learners; they are a dynamic tool that can
positively change learning attitudes and behaviors (Chen et al., 2012, p. 70). In fact, when given
the choice, Moreno and Flowerday (2006) concluded that learners were more likely to choose to
learn with an APA than without. However, this is not to say that an APA-led learning
environment is the best option for all students. While APA-led learning environments have the
ability to capture student attention (Chen et al., 2012), persuade students to try harder (Hong et
al., 2014), and even encourage risk-taking (Kim & Lim, 2013), increased levels of student

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25

enjoyment and engagement are not experienced by all students. Some students still prefer to
learn in a traditional, teacher-led format where they can interact in person with their peers
(Theodoridou, 2011).
It is difficult to determine whether an APA itself can improve student achievement.
Surrounded by multimedia elements, it has been my experience that APAs exist in an online
environment that students already find exciting. Likened to animations in a computer game
(Morozov et al., 2004), APAs appeal to the interests of many learners. Agents can be designed to
offer encouragement (Chen et al., 2012), meaningful feedback (Kim & Lim, 2013), and even use
non-verbal cues to direct student attention to important information (Woo, 2009), providing
support that can scaffold student learning in ways similar to that of a real teacher (Osman, &
Tien Tien, 2014). However, given the motivational draw of an agents interactive features and the
computer-assisted platform used to showcase it, it is difficult to separate the benefits of the APA
from that of the learning environment. The process of determining the value of adding an APA to
an online learning environment is even more difficult when you consider the sizeable number of
variables at play including the characteristics of the learner, the skills of the designer, and the
content of the lesson. Furthermore, despite the fact that APAs in computer-assisted environments
are always available, ready to deliver instruction at any time, to virtually any place, they are
likely far inferior [when compared to] a real and competent teacher (Bowman, 2012, p. 360).
For these reasons, I cannot conclusively state that APAs are effective tools for improving
academic performance. Nor can I wholeheartedly confirm that APAs will motivate your learners
as this is not necessarily the case. Yet, like Kim and Lim (2013), I agree that advanced learning
technologies like APAs hold great potential and might design supportive learning contexts that
help close [the] motivational and achievement gaps (p. 1164). In my opinion, the answer to the

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question of whether or not APA-led learning environments are viable, will differ from educator
to educator. They may be practical for some educators and beneficial for some learners.
Educators with the time, skills, and resources needed to design an effective learning environment
with agent support, may be able to successfully deliver a tailored-form of instruction that proves
beneficial to their students. It is therefore my opinion that, at the end of the day, the success of
integrating APA-led technology into the classroom will be determined by two main factors: the
skills and efforts of the educator designing the APA-led learning environment and the
characteristics of the learners using it. Although APAs (at this point in time) are not a
replacement for real human teachers (Bowman, 2012), educators with the availability and know
how can create individualized systems of instruction using APAs that benefit learners, so long as
it is customized to fit the students environment, specific abilities, skills, attitudes, learning styles
and preferences. Thus it is my hope that the research explored in this paper will help teachers
make an informed decision as to whether or not APA-led learning environments are not only the
right fit for them, but also the right fit for their students.

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