Tantra Agama Part four Vaikhanasa continued

12 Oct
Continued from Part Three
Vaikhanasa Literature- continued
68.1. Vaikhanasa-kalpa sutra ascribed to Sage Vaikhanasa and the various texts collectively
called Vaikhanasa Shastra composed by his four disciples are together taken to be the cannon of
the Vaikhanasa tradition. Scholars date these texts as being around third or fourth century. But,
the next significant reference to Vaikhanasas appears in the inscriptions dated around ninth
century (during the time of Raja Raja Chola).The developments, if any, within the Vaikhanasa
tradition between the period of the Vaikhanasa Shastra and the ninth century are rather hazy and
virtually unknown. It was only after this period that a number of significant texts were produced
detailing temple and domestic rituals. The authors of these texts were mostly the temple priests
serving at the major Vishnu temples following the Vaikhanasa mode of worship.
68.2. The reasons for recording those texts appear to be two-fold. One, to prescribe in detail and
to establish templeworship sequences and procedures; and the other to assert and defend the
identity of the Vaikhanasa tradition in the face of the challenges it was facing from the Sri
Vaishnava sect that was beginning to gain ascendency.
68.3. By about the 11th century, Sri Vaishnavas established themselves as the dominant sect
among the Vaishnavas. And, their way of worship (pancharatra) took charge of most Vaishnava
temples in South India, and made it open to a larger participation by larger segments of the
community. As a result of this development, the Vaikhanasas, rooted in orthodoxy, appeared to
have been increasingly marginalized as temple priests. In order to distinguish themselves and to
assert their identity as hereditary temple ritual- specialists following the pristine Vedic practices
they interpreted certain pre-natal rituals (say, Vishnu Bali) to serve as the boundaries of their
group. those set of rituals and the texts that highlighted the superiority of
Vaikhanasa parampara, pantha (tradition) and its siddantha (ideology) attempted to transform
the self perception of a close knit group of priestly class placed in a fluid historical and local
setting.
69.1. The Vaikhanasas scholars of this period strove to define and defend their unique identity
through their unique practices, and by means of their texts on temple worship rituals and the
domestic rituals. Among these, Nrsimha Vajapeyin, Bhatta Bhaskaracharya, Anantacharya and
above all Sreenivasa-makhin are prominent.
69.2. Nrsimha Vajapeyin (described as the disciple of Varadacharya and son of Madhavacharya)
is held in high regard as a great scholar well versed in Vedic srauta rituals (he having performed
the Vajapeya yajna), in Vaikhanasa temple worship-rituals, and in Tantra-mantra shastra.
His Bhagavad archa prakarana details the daily worship procedures at the temple. He also
prepared an elaborate and an excellent gloss on the seven chapters of Grihya sutra, three

chapters of Dharma sutra and on the one chapter of Pravara sutra. Nrsimha Vajapeyins gloss
provides main framework for the elaborations in the later texts. It also lucidly presents the
significant aspects of temple-worship sequences, in concise form.
69.3. His disciple, Bhatta Bhaskaracharya wrote commentaries on Daivikaand Manusha sutras
and also on Khila (appendix) mantras of Rig-Veda.
69.4. However, the most prolific writer among them was Sreenivasa-makhin (also known as
Sreenivasa Dikshita or Sreenivasa-adhvari) hailed as the Vedanta Deshika of Vaikhanasas. He
enjoys a preeminent position in the Vaikhanasa lore. It is said; he was the son of Govindacharya
and Rukminiyamma of Vaikhanasa Brahmin family of Kaushika gotra. He was born at
Venkatachala (Vrsagiri), the present Tirumala. Sreenivasa-makhin served as the priest in the
temple of Sri Venkateshwara on the Tirumala hills. He is said to have lived after Nrsimha
Vajapeyin, Bhatta Bhaskara and Anantacharya. And, his period is said to be around the 1112th century.
69.5. Sreenivasa-makhin in his famous work Dasha vidha hetu-nirupana , the descriptions
of the tenfold reasons (or arguments why Vaikhanasas are superior) outlines the situation of the
Vaikhanasas as obtaining and provides the strategies to establish the superiority of Vaikhanasas
over rival traditions, the Vaishnava sects in particular. Dasha vidha hetu nirupana,
perhaps, came about as a reaction to the perceived threats from the more aggressive Pancharatra
sect, which at that time was gathering strength and gaining ascendency.
70.1. Dasha vidha hetu nirupana emphasized the merits of Vaikhanasa tradition,
highlighting its distinctive features and merits; demarcated Vaikhanasa from the rival traditions,
particularly the Pancharatra; and put forth elaborate reasons why Vaikhanasa is superior to other
traditions.
70.2. At the commencement of the text (2. 5 -9) Sreenivasa-makhin presents in abstract form ten
reasons why Vaikhanasa is superior to other traditions: (i) Vaikhanasa-sutra is established by
Sage Vaikhana an incarnate Vishnu who is the cause of the world; (ii) it is the first among all the
sutras; (iii) it follows the ways of Sruti (Vedas) in all its ritual-actions;(iv) it encases all its
ritual-actions in Vedic mantras; (v) it has niseka as its first life-cycle ritual; (vi)it prescribes
eighteen kinds of bodily life-cycle rituals (samakaras) that purify body and mind ; (vii) it
presents unity of ritual-actions and their associated components ; (viii) it is accepted by Manu
and other Sutra-kaaras; (ix) it extols the absolute supremacy of the glorious Narayana who is
the only cause of the entire universe; and (x) those who ardently follow the Vaikhanasa dharma
as expounded in its sutra are dearest to the adorable Narayana.
70.3. Sreenivasa-makhin cites, in support of his arguments, passages from various Grihya and
Dharma sutras, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Upanishads, Puranas and various other texts that are
generally held in acclaim. He says the worship at home (griha archa) which is done for
securing individual and family welfare; and worship in temple (alaya -archa) which is done for
the good of the whole community are both important. But, for icon-worship the temple is said to
be the most suitable place.

70.4. The central issue that runs through Dasha-vidhahetu-nirupana is establishing the
eligibility (adhikara) of the Vaikhanasas, gained by birth, to act as temple- priests (archaka) in
Vishnu temples, to worship on behalf of the devotees, and to mediate between god and the
devotees. Sreenivasa-makhin argues that the Vaikhanasa worship of the deity installed in temples
is for the good of all (sarve janah): the individual, the community (loka), the state (rastra), the
glory of the ruler (rajan) and the welfare of the ruled (praja). It prays for timely rains, for
abundance of food, the well being of the animals (dvi pade, chatush pade) and of the whole of
nature. The worship of the deity installed at the temple is thus benign (soumya) and
beneficial/auspicious (Sri Kara) to all. It contributes to the spiritual uplift of all the worshiping
devotees. This worship is regarded as Kriya-yoga.
70.5. Sreenivasa-makhin explains that the Vaikhanasa tradition accommodates those who prefer
to worship the form-less (amurtha-archana) through yajna, as also those who worship Vishnu
through his icon (samurtha bhagavad yajna). It is explained; the two are not substantially
different. Yet; according to Sreenivasa-makhin, in the present age of Kali the Agama inspired
worship is most suitable, since the srauta and smarta rituals are beyond the capability of most of
the people. He however adds; the temple must be properly constructed; the and the icon
appropriately installed in it; and it should be effectively consecrated. The worship should be
carried out with single-minded devotion by priests well trained in conducting worship
sequences.
71.1. Among the other Vaikhanasa texts, the significant ones is, Archana navanita (the essence
of worship) by Keshavacharya who also prepared a gloss (vritti) on Vedanta Sutras of
Badarayana, from the standpoint of view of Lakshmi-vishitadvaita. As mentioned earlier,
Bhaskara Bhattacharya a disciple of Nrsimha Yajapeyin wrote commentaries
on Daivika and Manusha sutras. And, Prayoga vidhi on procedural aspects of icon worship by
Sundara-raja, a writer of later period, is well known.
71.2. One work that includes much of the older material is the renowned Vaikhanasa-mantra
prashnam (daivikacatustyam) or Mantra Samhita. This book contains all the Vedic mantras
needed in temple worship rituals. Most of these are taken from Yajur Veda .The first half (Ch. 1
4) contain mantras of Grihyasutra. The second half called daivikacatustyam (Ch 5 8)
includes portions relating to temple-ritual taken from the handbooks of the four rishis: Atri,
Bhrgu, Kashyapa and Marichi.
Vaikhanasa Philosophy
72.1. Vaikhanasa is essentially a religious system that preaches worship of Vishnu-icon with
devotion and a sense of complete surrender. Its texts are primarily ritual texts (prayoga shastra)
containing elaborate discussions on various layers of temples-worship-sequences and their
significance; as also instructions on practical aspects concerning yajnas and domestic ritual
procedures. The major thrust of Vaikhanasa texts is to provide clear, comprehensive and detailed
guidelines for Vishnu worship. The jnana-paada segment of Vaikhanasa Agama texts is ,
therefore, rather brief as compared to discussion on rituals. It does not go about setting out a
detailed philosophical doctrine of its own. However, Vaikhanasa, Surely, prescribes its way of

life (dharma) and its outlook (darshana) on God, Man and the relation between the two; and the
ways that lead Man towards God.
72.2. During the medieval periods, the Vaikhanasa scholars, most of whom were temple-priests,
provided a philosophical basis for worshipping Vishnu icons installed in temples; and to
harmonize icon-worship with the Vedic practices of performing Yajnas. These works derive their
authority from the Kalpa-sutra of Sage Vaikhana and the Vaikhanasa Shastra texts composed by
his four disciples.
72.3. Sreenivasamakhin, a Vaikhanasa Acharya, produced several works bringing out the
characteristic features of Vaikhanasa philosophy. Among his works of this genre, the better
known are: Lakshmi- vishistadvaitabhashya; Vaikhanasamahima-manjari; and paramathmika
Upanishad bhashya. Another author who attempted a clear presentation of Vaikhanasa
philosophy was Raghupathi Bhattacharya (also known as Vasudeva). His work Mokshopaayapradipika spread over twelve chapters discusses the nature of Brahman, the ways of attaining
Brahman in his manifest form through worship rendered with intense devotion and a sense of
absolute surrender (prapatti purvaka bhagavad aaradhanam). Raghupathi Bhattacharya
explains the Vaikhanasa doctrine employing the terms of Samkhya ideology. And, his work is
seen by some as an attempt to bring about a sort of rapprochement between Vaikhanasa and
Pancharatra traditions.
73.1. Sreenivasa-makhin in his Lakshmi vishistadvaita- bhashya, which is a commentary on
Badarayanas Brahma sutras, states that Vishnu alone is the highest Reality (eka eva paratattvah). Both the authors, Sreenivasa makhin (Tatparya chintamani) and Raghupathi
Bhattacharya, explain that Brahman (Narayana) the Paramatman is of dual nature. He is visible
and invisible; perfectly bright and pure; immutable. He is both nishkala (devoid of forms and
attributes) and sakala (with forms and attributes). The two aspects, truly, are one; and are
inseparable. The former aspect (nishkala) is all-inclusive. It pervades everything, in and out,
like ghee in milk, oil in sesame seed, fragrance in flower, juice in the fruit and fire in the wood. It
has the nature of space (akasha) in which everything resides; and which resides in everything.
That precisely is the nature of Vishnu (vyapanath Vishnuh) who permeates the entire existence.
Because of being extremely subtle, he cannot be described as real or unreal.
73.2. Vimanarchana kalpa ascribed to Sage Marichi mentions that Vishnu may be approached
in one of the four ways: recitation / repetition of the sacred name of Vishnu (japa), attentive
repetition of prayer; huta, sacrifice; arcana, service to images, or dhyana, yogic meditation. Of
the four, the Marichi Samhita says, archana leads to the realisation of all aims.
73.3. Further it is said; the worship of the Vishnu can be either internal (antaryaga) or external
(bahiryaga). The Grihya sutras explain: the Godhead is formless nishkala; perfectly pure and
bright filled with lustre tejomaya; beyond comprehension achintya; and is of the nature of pure
existence, consciousness and bliss sat-chit-ananda; and abides in the heart-lotus hridayakamala - of the devotee.
But, because of the limitations of the human mind the worship of Brahman without form,
nishkala, is beyond the capability of us who live ordinary lives. The human mind finds it easier

to deal with forms, shapes and attributes than with the formless absolute. And therefore, when an
icon is properly installed and consecrated; and it is worshipped with love and reverence, a sense
of devotion arises from within and envelops the mind and heart of the worshipper. By constant
attention to the icon, by seeing it again and again and by offering it various services of
devotional worship, icon that is beautiful will engage the mind and delight the heart of the
devotee. Enlivened by loving worship, devotion, and absolute surrender (parapatti) , the icon
will no longer be just a symbol. The icon invested with love and devotion will be transformed
into a true divine manifestation. And, its worship ensures our good here (aihika) and also our
ultimate good or emancipation (amusmika). The archa with devotion is therefore the best form of
worship. And, Archa is dearer to Vishnu.
73.4. That is the reason, though the nishkala aspect is the ultimate, the worship of Vishnuicon (samurtha-archana) with devotion is recommended as the best way for all, especially for
those involved in the transactional world. Yet, the devotee must progressively move from
gross sthula towards the subtle sukshma.
74.1. Vishnus visista (aspected) nature becomes manifest when the devotees churn him within
their hearts by contemplation and devotion. It is like igniting fire by churning the wood. And,
like sparks that fly from the burning fire, Vishnu shines forth in varieties of forms. He appears
variously, to satisfy the aspirations of the devotee. Vishnu who is all-pervasive now becomes
manifest in all his splendour. This is the Sakala aspect of Vishnu. The devotees must visualize,
invoke and worship his divine form (divya mangala vigraha).
74.2. When Vishnu is visualized as a worship-worthy icon, he usually is imagined in a human
form with distinguishable features (sakala). Vishnus form, seen in minds eye, for contemplation
(dhyana) and worship (archa) is four armed, carrying shanka, chakra, gadha and padma. His
countenance is beatific radiating peace and joy (saumya), delight to behold soumya-priyadarshana, his complexion is rosy pink wearing golden lustrous garment (pitambara). To
meditate upon a beautiful image of Vishnu with a delightful smiling countenance and graceful
looks is the greatest blessing.
75.1. Sreenivasa-makhin in his Lakshmi vishistadvaita- bhashya, explains that Vishnu the
highest Reality (eka eva para-tattvah) is distinguished by Lakshmi (Lakshmi visistaNarayanah). Isvara associated with Lakshmi (Lakshmi visita isvara tattvam) is Vishnu.
Lakshmi (Sri) is not as an independent reality (tattva) but is an aspect that is inseparable from
Vishnu (Srisa or Narayana), like moon and moonlight. Vishnus power (maya) and splendour is
Sri (Lakshmi); and, she is mula-prakrti the original source of energy and power (shakthi) that
enlivens all existence. She is the cause of all actions by all beings.
75.2. Vishnu is Purusha and Lakshmi is Prakrti; the whole of existence proceeds from the union
of the two. And, Purusha abiding in Prakrti experiences the qualities that result from Prakrti.
The Vaikhanasa, therefore, calls its ideology as Lakshmi-visita-advaita (the advaita, non-duality);
and its doctrine of Isvara associated with Lakshmi as Lakshmi visita isvara tattvam.
[The Lakshmi-Visita-advaita varies significantly from the philosophical and religious positions
taken by Sri Ramanuja in his Sri Bhashya.]

75.3. As said; Lakshmi is inseparable from Vishnu. The non-duality (advaita) refers to the unity
of Vishnu with Lakshmi. The Ultimate Reality is Vishnu with Sri. Those devoted to him are
Vaishnavas. The sakala aspect is the excellent form of Vishnu in association with Lakshmi (Sri)
who is Prakrti the shakthi of Vishnu. For the purpose of devotion and worship, the sakala aspect
is brilliant. For, in his sakala form, Vishnu responds most gracefully to devotional worship and
contemplation.
76.1. Sreenivasa -makhin explains that in the Pranava (Om-kara), O-kara represents Vishnu; U
Kara, Lakshmi and Ma-kara, the devotee. The Om-kara binds the three together. Lakshmi (Ukara) bridges the transcendental Narayana the Supreme Self and the individual soul
(pratyagatma). In other words, Lakshmi leads the devotee to the grace of Narayana.
76.2. If Vishnu (purusha) grants release from the phenomenal fetters (Mukthi), Lakshmi (Prakrti)
presides over bhukthi the fulfilment of normal aspirations in ones life. The two must be
worshipped together.
76.3. Therefore, the worship of Narayana alone or the worship of Lakshmi separately is not
suggested. The proper worship is the worship of Narayana with Sri or Lakshmi as his aspect
(visista).
77.1. Further, the Vaikhanasas evolved the theory of the five aspects (swarupas): of Godhead:
Vishnu as sarva vyapin, the one who pervades all existence and in whom everything resides; as
Purusha the pure consciousness, the principle of life; as Satya, that which sustains the universe;
as Acyuta the time-invariant aspect of all matter; and, as Aniruddha the ultimate constituent of all
existence.
[If Vishnu is considered as the primary deity Adi-murti, then the four aspects are regarded as
components of that single unit. This is the notion of chatur-murti. If on the other hand, Vishnu is
also counted along with the other four, then we have the pancha-murti concept. But, the first four
forms of icons, chatur-murti, are regarded important.]
77.2. According to Vaikhanasa ideology, the four aspects of Vishnu
-Purusha, Satya, Achyuta and Aniruddha- are the four stages of emanations of Vishnu. In this
scheme; Purusha is identified with Dharma (virtue); Satya with Jnana (wisdom); Acchuta with
Aishvarya (sovereignty); and Aniruddha with vairagya (dispassion).
77.3. In the Vaikhanasa temple layout, the four aspects of Vishnu are visualized as four deities
located around the main icon of Vishnu: Purusha to the East; Satya to the South; Acchuta to the
West; and, Aniruddha to the North (pragadi chatur dikshu).
77.4. The four virtues or planes of Vishnu are also regarded the four quarters (pada) of
Brahman: aamoda, pramoda, sammoda and vaikuntaloka (sayujya) . The highest of which
is parama pada, Vaikunta the abode of Vishnu (Vishnod paramam padam).
[The Vaikhanasa regard the icon worship as the royal way for achieving emancipation from the
worldly confines; and for leading the individual to Vishnus grace. Its faith is that when the

individual jiva that frees itself from the fetters of the transactional world enters into the sphere of
Vishnu vishnuloka through four successive stages; each stage being designated a plane of
Vishnu-experience Vaishnava-ananda. The first stage is aamoda where the jiva experiences the
pleasure of residing in the same plane as the Godhead is Vishnu (saalokya)- associated with
Aniruddha. The next stage is pramoda where the jiva experiences the great delight of residing in
proximity to with the Godhead Maha-vishnu (saamipya)-associated with Acchyuta. The stage
higher than that is saamoda where the jiva experiences the joy of obtaining the same form as the
Godhead sadaa-Vishnu (sa-rupya) associated with Satya. The highest plane is vaikunta
loka where the individual jiva experiences the supreme joy of union with the Godhead Vyapinarayana (sayujya) - associated with Purusha.]
78.1. In the Vaikhanasa temple, the immovable (Dhruva-bimba or dhruva-bera) main idol that is
installed in the sanctum and to which main worship is offered (archa-murti) represents the
primary aspect of the deity known as Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva). The other images in the temple
which are worshipped each day during the ritual sequences are but the variations of the original
icon (adi-murti). These other forms are emanations of the main idol, in successive stages. And,
within the temple complex, each form is accorded a specific location; successively away from
the Dhruva bera.
78.2. Just as the Vishnu of Rig-Veda takes three strides (trini pada vi-chakrama Vishnuh), the
main idol (Dhruva bera) installed in the temple too takes three forms which are represented
by Kautuka-bera, Snapana-bera and Utsava-bera.
The Kautuka bera (usually made of gems, stone, copper, silver, gold or wood and about 1/3 to
5/9 the size of the Dhruva-bera)receives all the daily worship(nitya-archana); the Snapanabera (usually made of metal and smaller than Kautuka) receives ceremonial bath (abhisheka)
and the occasional ritual- worship sequences(naimitta-archana); and, the Utsava-bera ( always
made of metal ) is for festive occasions and for taking out in processions . To this, another icon is
added .This is Bali bera ( always made of shiny metal) taken out , daily , around the central
shrine when food offerings are made to Indra and other devas, as well as to Jaya and Vijaya the
doorkeepers of the Lord ; and to all the elements.
78.3. And, on occasions when a movable icon is used for daily worship, special rituals, and
processions and for food-offering, it is known as Bhoga-bera.
These five forms together make Pancha bera or Pancha murti.
78.4. And again it is said, Purusha is symbolized by Kautuka bera; Satya by Utsava bera;
Acchuta by Snapana bera; and Aniruddha by Bali bera.
78.5. To put these together in a combined form:

The main idol (Dhruva-bera) which is immovable represents Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva).

Purusha symbolized by Kautuka-bera is an emanation of the Dhruva-bera. Kautukabera is next in importance, and is an exact replica of the Dhruva-bimba. it is placed in the
sanctum very close to Dhruva bera.

Satya symbolized by Utsava-bera (processional deity) emanates from Purusha

represented Kautuka-bera. And, Utsava-bera is placed in the next pavilion outside the
sanctum.

Achyuta symbolized by Snapana-bera emanates from Satya represented by Utsavabera. Snapana-bera receives Abhisheka, the ceremonial bath; and, it is placed outside the
sanctum in snapana-mantapam enclosure.

Aniruddhda symbolized by Bali-bera emanates from Achyuta represented by Snapanabera. The food offerings are submitted to Balibera. And, it is placed farthest from
the Dhruva-bhera residing in the sanctum.

These different icons are not viewed as separate or independent deities; but are understood as
emanations from the original icon, Dhruvabimba.
Symbolisms
79.1. The symbolisms associated with the four murtis (chatur-murti) are many; and are
interesting. As said earlier; the four are said to compare with the strides taken by
Vishnu/Trivikrama. The main icon represents Vishnu who is all-pervasive, but, does not move
about. When the worship sequences are conducted, the spirit (tejas) of the main idol moves into
the Kautuka,-bera, which rests on the worship pedestal (archa-pitha). This is the first stride of
Vishnu.Again, at the time of offering ritual bath, the tejas of the main idol moves into
the Snapana-bera which is placed in the bathing-enclosure (snapana mantapa). This is the
second stride taken by Vishnu. And, the third stride is that when the Utsava-bera is taken out in
processions. This is when the tejas of the Main idol reaches out to all.
79.2. In Marichis Vimana-archa-kalpa the five forms, five types of icons, the panchamurti (when Vishnu is also counted along with the other four forms) are compared to five types
of Vedic sacred fires (pancha-agni): garhapatya; ahavaniya; dakshinAgni; anvaharya;
and sabhya. These in turn are compared to the primary elements (earth, water, fire, air, and
space). And, the comparison is extended to five vital currents (prana, apana, vyana,
udana and samana).
79.3. Further it is explained; the Vaikhanasa worship-tradition retained the concept of PanchaAgni, but transformed them into five representations of Vishnu (pancha murthi): Vishnu,
Purusha, Satya, Achyuta and Aniruddha. And, that again was rendered into five types of temple
deities as pancha-bera: Dhruva, Kautuka, Snapana, Utsava and Bali.
[The Vaikhanasa concept of five forms of Godhead parallels with that of Pancharatara which
speaks of: Para, Vyuha, Vibhava, Antaryamin and Archa. Of these, Para is the absolute form, the
cause of all existence and it is beyond intellect. Vyuha are the emanations from Para for

sustaining creation. The Vyuha, in turn, assumes five worship-worthy forms: Vishnu, Purusha,
Satya, Achyuta and Aniruddha. Vibhava represent the Avatars for destroying the evil, uplifting
the virtuous and maintain balance in the world. Antaryamin is the inbeing who resides as jiva in
all creatures. And, Archa is the most easily accessible form; the form which protects the devotees
and eliminates their sorrows. This is the form that is worshipped in the temples.]
Vaikhanasa Temple context
80.1. The earliest Vaikhanasas are projected as a group of hermits affiliated to Krishna
Yajurveda - Taittiriya Shakha, having their own Kalpa-sutra and deeply devoted to worship of
Vishnu. They are not referred to as professional temple-priests. And, of course, there is no
mention of temples either. But, by about the ninth century (during the time of Raja Raja Chola)
they are largely identified as a community of temple priests. Thereafter, they gain prominence
not only as ritual-specialists who worship Vishnu on behalf of others but also as administrators of
temples and managers of its estates.
80.2. But, the history of the Vaikhanasas during the intervening period (that is, between the time
of Kalpa sutra, before 3rd or 4th century, and the time of the inscriptions) is rather hazy. Though
the Vaikhanas texts of the later period claim that they derive their authority from the Kalpasutra and also make frequent references to Vedic passages, they are mostly temple ritual-manuals
elaborating upon details of worship sequences carried out in temples.
80.3. And, it is not clear, how the followers of a Vedic branch rooted in Vedic rituals turned into a
community of temple priests.
81.1. After they were established as temple priests, the Vaikhanasas produced many texts on
temple rituals as also prescribed domestic rituals for governing the conduct of their followers.
Through these texts and ritual practices they aimed to distinguish themselves from other ritual
traditions as also from other Vaishnavas.
81.2. The Vaikhanasas make a clear distinction between the worship carried out at home (grihaarchana) and the worship carried out as a priest at a temple (alaya-archana) for which he gets
paid. The worship at home performed dutifully is motivated by desire for spiritual attainments
(Sakshepa); and it is for the upliftment of self (atmartha). And, on the other hand, while he
carries out worship at the temple, as a priest, he is not seeking spiritual benefits for self, but is
only discharging his duty (nirakshepa).Here, he conveys the prayers of the worshipping devotees
to the god installed at the temple; and offers worship on their behalf (parartha). It is mainly for
the fulfilment of the desires of those who pray at the temple.
This distinction seems to have come about following the proliferation of temples and with the
advent of temple-worship-culture. Rig Vedic culture was centred on home and worship at home.
And, the worship at temple appears to have come as a departure from the practice of worship at
home. It was seen as an act of devotion and also as duty
81.3. The Vaikhanasa treat the worship at home (atmartha) as more important than worship at the
temple. A Vaikhanasa-priest is therefore required to worship the deities at his home, before he

sets out to temple to conduct worship there (parartha) as a priest employed by the temple
management.
81.4. There is an alternate explanation offered to the term parartha. It is said; the term parartha
which ordinarily means worship on behalf of others, truly is parartha-yajna, that which is
concerned with what is superior or excellent; and that which prays for the wellbeing of the
entire community. Worshipping divine images installed in temples is like the sun which illumines
the entire world, while worship at home is like a domestic lamp. And, parartha worship leads to
final liberation.
82.1. Having said all that, it also needs to be mentioned that the status of temple-priests in the
Indian context has always been an uncomfortable issue and a dicey proposition. The standing of
a temple priest is high insofar as he acts as an intermediary between devotees and god; and offers
worship on behalf of the devotees. However, the social rank of the priestly class among
orthodox Brahmins is not high. That is perhaps because, their practice of accepting payment for
worship god is rather looked down; and is not considered virtuous. Further, their practice of
receiving gifts which are ritually polluting is also not viewed with favour. The implication is
that, while the priest accepts the gifts he also takes upon himself the impurities of the giver.
82.2. Traditionally, a person who receives remuneration for worshipping a deity is not held in
high esteem. The old texts sneer at a person displaying icons to eke out a living. That perhaps
led to a sort of social prejudices and discriminations among the priestly class. But, with the
change of times, with the social and economic pressures and with a dire need to earn a living, a
distinct class of temple-priests, naturally, crystallysized into a close knit in-group with its own
ethos and attitudes.
82.3. Devalaka is a term used in the old texts as a derogatory reference to a person who is
desirous of money, and who is hired to perform worship. Sreenivasa makhin argues
vigorously why the term Devalaka should not be slapped on the hereditary Vaikhanasa temple
priests. He draws a distinction between a Devalaka and an Archaka who is guided
by Vaikhanasa- Grihya sutra and Dharma sutra.
82.4. Sreenivasa makhin does not question the traditional definition of Devalaka and its
negative import. But, he provides an alternate interpretation to the term to mean: one who
carries out acts not prescribed by Sruti or Smrti; or acts in a way contrary to their spirit.
Following that interpretation, he excludes Vaikhanasas from the scope of the term Devalaka, for
the reason that Vaikhanasas are indeed the servants of god and are born for the sole purpose of
offering worship to Vishnu. Their loving devotion (bhakthi) towards Vishnu is free from pride or
greed. He worships Vishnu according to Vedic traditions; and, is not motivated or distracted by
material or personal desires. These indeed are the prime characteristics of a true Vaikhanasa
Archaka.
When a Vaikhanasa priest accepts remuneration for his priestly duties, it is just incidental to his
main purpose of his life. And, therefore, a Vaikhanasa priest worshipping Vishnu in temple and
accepting remuneration there for, cannot in any manner be equated with a Devalaka (Dashavidha-hetu-nirupanam; 65.5-6).

82.5. Further, Sreenivasamakhin explains: Vaikhanasa, a born-priest (janmathah archaka) is

guided by Vaikhanasa- Grihya sutra and Dharma sutra, which are within the orthodox Vedic
culture. He undergoes several samskaras (life-cycle-rituals) , follows the Vedic mode of
performing yaja-yagnas , and tends to sacred fires such as aupasana-agni at home and
observes sandhya, ishti, charu-homa etc, all through his life. He dedicates his life to worship of
Vishnu. The Vaikhanasa Archaka serves in a temple not because it is a means of livelihood, but,
primarily because he regards it as the fulfilment of the very purpose of his existence. The
worship of Vishnu, for him is more than mere duty (as detailed in Tatparya Chintamani of
Sreenivasa makhin while commenting upon Vaikhanasa- Grihya sutra: 3.14).
82.6. He remarked; an Archaka need not be a scholar. More than book learning, what is more
important is his devotion to the deity of his worship and his commitment to his calling. An
Archaka renders a sacred service to the society as a mediator between the god and the
worshipping devotee. He deserves respect and good care.
82.7. The guidelines that Vaikhanasas texts frequently refer to are neither static nor closed
systems. The Vaikhanasa tradition like any other tradition did absorb innovations and
modifications that arose in the context of changing times and circumstances. The causes for
change may have arisen either from within the system or from outside events. And, therefore,
whatever might have been the past understanding, one should recognize that in the present-day
the temples are public places of worship and the priests are professionals trained and specialized
in their discipline; and they do constitute an important and a legitimate dimension of the templeculture. There is absolutely no justification for looking down upon the priestly class or their
profession, for the mere reason they now receive remuneration.
83.1. The Vaikhanasa community is regarded orthodox for yet another reason. They consider the
life of the householder as the best among the four stages of life. Because, it is the householder
that supports, sustains and carries forward the life and existence of the society. There is not much
prominence for a Yati or a Sanyasi in this scheme of things. They decry a person seeking
salvation for himself without discharging his duties, responsibilities and debts to his family, to
his guru and to his society.
83.2. The Vaikhanasa worship is considered more Vedic, the various and mantras / suktams from
the Vedas are in Sanskrit and there is a greater emphasis on details of worship rituals and yajnas.
Depending on the ritual being performed, various panca suktam or sets of five suktams are
recited. For instance; the pancha-suktams could be Vishnu, Purusha, Narayana, Sri and Bhu
suktams; or, Vishnu, Nrusimha, Sri, Bhu and Ekakshara suktams. There is also another set of ten
suktas (dahsa suktam): Rudra, Dhruva, Durga, Ratri, Saraswatam, Viswajit, Purusha,
Aghamarshana, Godana and Atma suktams. The set of fifteen suktas (pancha-sutams + dasha
suktams) together make Panca dasha suktam.
Among these suktas, the Atma sukta is particularly unique to the Vaikhanasa paddathi of worship
ATMA SUKTA

84.1. Although the Vaikhanasa try to distance themselves from Tantra, there are many ritual
sequences in their worship practices that derive inspiration from Tantric ideology. In fact, the
worship sequences conducted at the temple are a combination of several elements: Vedic
practices together with its mantra; Tantra ideology and its techniques; Agama concept of divinity
and its elaborate (Upachara) worship sequences; and the popular festivities (janapada) and
processions (Utasava) where the entire community joins in celebration, singing, dancing,
playacting, colourful lighting, spectacular fireworks, offerings of various kinds etc.
81.2. The tantra, practiced within the privacy of the sanctum, says that the communication with
the divine is not possible unless the worshipper identifies himself with the worshipped. It is said;
one cannot truly worship god unless one realizes the divinity within (naadevo bhutva devam
pujayet). The mantra that is recited by the Vaikhanasa priest, in that context, is the famous Atmasukta. This a significant step based in the Tantra ideology, where the worshipper regards his body
as a Yantra in which the deity resides. He then invokes divine presence in himself, evoking his
identity with Vishnu, and transfers the Vishnu in him to the idol to be worshipped. This is a
deeply intimate tantric process that is special to the Vaikhanasa mode of worship. The priest
conducts these symbolic sequences in the privacy of the sanctum, with the notion that he and
Vishnu are indeed one; and that he as the priest has an enduring divine presence within him.
81.3. As a prelude to worship per se, the worshipper literally breathes life into the deity. The idol
is transformed to divinity itself. The worshipper does this by extracting the power or the lustre
(tejas) of the divinity residing in his heart by means of inhalations and exhalations
(ucchvasa and nishvasa), and investing it upon the deity. At the same time, the worshipper draws
the presence of the Highest Spiritual being (paramatma) into his own individual being (jiva).This
process symbolizes invoking the divine residing in ones heart, extracting it (bahir agatya) and
transferring it with ease (sukham thistathu) in to the deity in front (asmin bimbe).The
transferred Tejas stays in the deity until the worship is formally concluded.
81.4. Invoking the deity (avahana) through reciting the Atma sukta, arousing the divinity within
him by the ritual sequence of nyasa (placement of divine presence in the structure of the icon as
also in the worshipper) is a very important worship ritual based in Tantra
ideology. Nyasas collectively called bhagavad-aaradhana adhikara-yogyata-siddhi confer on
the worshipper the competence to worship the deity.
82.1. Atma-sukta is a collection of nine verses in tristubh chhandas (Vaikhanasa samhita:
mantra prashna: 5.49). It is unique to Vaikhanasa worship sequence. The hymn is called Atmasukta not only because it commences with the words Atmatma (the self of the self) , but also
because it concerns transforming the individual self into cosmic Self. Here, the meditation on
Vishnus nish-kala aspect is followed by a request to Vishnu to assume his sa-kala form within
the idol so that the devotee may submit his worship. The purpose of Atma-sukta is to invoke the
presence of Vishnu who is the Purusha the Cosmic person, in the worshipper, and transfer
that Tejas into the idol. It is meant to enlarge the consciousness of the worshipper so that he may
identify himself with the object of his worship in its cosmic aspect (sa-kala). The recitation
of Atma-sukta is followed by the hymn Purusha sukta.

82.2. The worshipper, initially, beseeches the deity and avers: I am thine (tavevaham); and
finally identifies himself with the deity: I am you (tvamevaham) and says we are never apart.
82.3. Towards the end of the Atma-sukta the worshipper declares that in his pure heart-lotus
(vimalahrutpundarIka), the Yajna vedi (altar), sanctified by goddesses Savitri and
Gayatri, enters (pravishta) Vishnu in his cosmic aspect (sakala) along with Lakshmi (saLakshmi) in all his glory. May my virtuous merit (punya) provide Vishnu the space to reside.
SavitrI GayatrI maryada vedI |

hrutpundarIka vimale pravishta: |

sakala: salakshmI: savibhutikango | yatsava punyam mayyadhishtanamastu || 8 ||

May the essence of all the gods reside in me; may the essence of all the great sages reside in me;
may I become the personification of the fruits of all the austerities (tapo-murti) and of all the
virtuous deeds (punya-murti).
savasham devanamatmaka: | savasham muninamatmaka I
stapomurtiriha punyamurtirasan || 9 ||

Taruna-alaya
83.1. A unique feature of Vaikhanasa temple construction is the erection of a Taruna-alaya. That
is, before the construction of the main temple is undertaken a mini-sized temporary temple
(termed as Taruna-alaya) is built for Vishnu on the construction. The main temple to be
constructed is termed as Bala-alaya. The mini temple (Taruna-alaya) is intended to gather
spiritual power while the construction is in progress.
83.2. Vimanarchana Kalpa ascribed to Sage Marichi says that the Taruna-alaya should be built
in the north-east/north-west (Indra) direction of the main temple site in the same premises. The
symbolic temple could a small one (say, within 100sft).
Vaikhanasa alaya- nirmana vidhi also recommends that a Taruna-alaya should be built first.
And, if that requirement is satisfied then the auspicious Bala-alaya which comes up is termed
samurtham. If on the contrary, the prescription is not followed, the Bala-alaya would be called
harakam.
83.3. The basic idea of the Vaikhanasa faith is that when Vishnu is worshipped in a temple
according to the Vaikhanasa scriptures regularly, at least once each day, it will ensure the
prosperity (sarva-sampathkari) of the whole world.
In the next part of the article lets talk about the other major Vaishnava Agama viz, The
Pancharatra; and also about its apparent differences from the Vaikhanasa.

Continued in Part Five

References and Sources

1. A History of Indian Literature: Epics and Sanskrit religious literature By Jan Gonda
2. Vishnus children: Prenatal life-cycle rituals in South India By Ute Hsken; Harrassowitz
Verlag . Wiesbaden (2009)
3. Sri Vaikhanasa Bhagavad Sastram by Shri Ramakrishna Deekshitulu
http://www.srihayagrivan.org/ebooks/031_sva_v1p1.pdf
4. Agamas and the way of life Dr. V. Varadachari, 1982. Agamas and South Indian Vaishnavism.
Chapter X pages 407-426.
5. Agama Kosha by Prof. SK Ramachandra Rao; Kalpataru Research Academy (1994)
3 Comments
Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12, 2012 in Agama, Tantra

Tags: Agama Tantra, Atma sukta, Atri, Balaalaya, Bhrigu, Dasha vidha hetu - nirupana,
Kashyapa, Lakshmi vishistadvaita- bhashya, Marichi, Nrsima vajapeyin, Sreenivasa makhin,
Taruna-alaya, Vaikhanasa, Vaikhanasa temple worship

Tantra Agama part Three Vaikhanasa

12 Oct
Vaikhanasa
43.1. Among the Vaishnava Agamas that glorify Vishnu as the Supreme Principle, and as the
Ultimate Reality, to the exclusion of other deities, the Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra are prominent.
Some say, Vaikhanasa is the older tradition that is rooted in the orthodoxy of the Vedic
knowledge. The Pancharatra, in contrast, is regarded relatively less conservative, a bit more
liberal and closer to the Tantra ideology.
There are several explanations to the term Vaikhanasa.

Vanaprastha
44.1. According to one interpretation, Vaikhanasa is the ancient word for Vanaprastha (life of a
forest dweller or hermit). Vanaprastha, according to the scheme of mans lifespan as developed
during the later Vedic age*, is the third stage (ashrama) in a mans life. It is the stage prior to and
in preparation for Sanyasa the last stage of total withdrawal from the world.
The Varnashrama system expanded by Dharmashastras, mention that after fulfilling his family
responsibilities and social obligations, say at the age of sixty or thereafter; and at the end of his
well-lived family-life , a man retires into forest , along with his wife (sa-pathnika), to lead a
peaceful and contemplative life of a recluse , away from the worldly conflicts and its snares.
The two live like trusted old friends; and, lead a happy, contented and tranquil life. It is the
fulfilment of the long journey they travelled together. As his sense of detachment ripens, the man
finally accepts sanyasa; and,the wife returns home, to the family of her sons.
44.2. Vanaprastha, in its concept, is not an end by itself; but is deemed as a step to reach mans
highest aspiration, the liberation. The characteristic of its ascetic mode of life is detachment and
contemplation. Yet; it is the stage of life marked by selfless friendship, open-heartedness,
mellow glowing wisdom and compassion towards all, including animals and plants. It is the
maturity of life when positive attitudes and social virtues ripen. Vanaprastha is not distracted by
motives of personal gain (artha) or desire for pleasures (Kama). But, he does not lead a harsh
and an arid life of self-mortification. That is because; he views the body and spirit as equal
expressions of the divine. Vanaprastha stage is conceived as a well balanced rounding off to a
worthy life.
[* Prof. PV Kane in his monumental History of Dharmashastras (pages 417 419) explains the
concept of ashramas (in the sense of different stages in mans life) is not found either in the
Samhitas or in the Brahmanas. According to him, a germ of the idea occurs in an obscure form in
Aittereya Brahmana (Ait. Br. 33. 11), which decries a person who moves away from life and the
world: 'what (use is there) of dirt, what use of antelope skin, what use of (growing) the beard,
what is the use of tapas? O! Brahmanas! Desire a son; he is a world that is to be highly praised.'
The idea appears again in Chandogya Upanishad (Ch. Up. 2. 23. 1). And it comes out a little
more clearly in Jabalopanisad and in Svetasvataropanisad (VI. 21) which speaks of those who
had risen above the mere observances of asramas. The concept of mans life span spread over a
well-knit scheme of four stages (ashramas) was fully developed in Dharmashastras of Manu
(Manu 6. 1-2; 33 etc).
The theory of asramas was truly an idealist concept. Owing to the exigencies of the times, the
conflicts of interests and distractions of life, the scheme could not, even in ancient times, be
carried out fully by most individuals. And it surely has failed in modern times, though the fault
does not lie with the originators of this concept. ]
44.3. The later texts and Puranas elaborated on the scheme and devised sub-classifications under
each stage (ashrama). For instance, Srimad Bhagavata (15.4) classifies the third stage
Vanaprastha- into four types Vaikhanasa; Valakhilya; Audumbara; and Phena.

Vaikhanasa valakhilyau-dumbarah phenapa vane I

Nyase kuticakah purvam bahvodo hamsa-niskriyau II
44.4. Following that sub classification, the Gaudiya-Kanthahara, a twentieth century text
ascribed to Atulakrsna Datta of Gaudiya Vaishnavas tradition explains Vaikhanasas as those
hermits (Vanaprastha) who retire from active life and live on half-boiled food (ardha-pakvavratya). Similarly Valakhilya is one who discards the stock of food he has with him (purva
ancita anna tyagah) the moment he gets a fresh stock of food (nave pane labdhya); Audumbara
is one who lives on what he gets from the direction towards which he walks (prathamam disam
pasyanti) after sunrise (prathar uttha); and, Phenapa lives on fruits (phaladbhir jivantah) that
drop from the trees on their own accord (svayam patitaih).
44.5. However, what is interesting is that Vaikhanasa-smarta-sutra, a division of the primary text
of Vaikhanasas (Vaikhanasa Kalpa Sutra) does not mention a category of hermits called as
Vaikhanasa.
Apparently, the perceptions on the stages of mans life had undergone a huge change between the
period of Kalpa Sutras and the period of the later Puranas.
[Incidentally, Vaikhanasa is also the name of mythical group of saintly hermits who were slain at
Muni-marana (death of sages) by one Rahasyu Deva-malimluc (Panchvimshathi Brahmana:
14.4.7).]
45.1. As regards the question of equating Vaikhanasa directly with Vanaprastha stage of life,
Professor PV Kane clarifies; there is nothing in the Vedic literature expressly corresponding to
the Vanaprastha. And the germ of the idea of equating Vanaprastha with Vaikhanasa might have
arisen at a later stage in the Sutras.
45.2. Max Muller in his commentary on the Laws of Manu mentions that Manu (4.21) refers to
the Sutra of Gautama which talks of the hermit in the forest who may subsist on flowers, roots,
and fruits alone. Max Muller, however, asserts that it may not be correct to simply straightaway
translate hermit as Vaikhanasa, because the term Vaikhanasa doesnt merely mean a hermit.
Vaikhanasa here has to be understood, he says, as referring to only those hermits who are
abiding by the Vaikhanasa opinion (vaikhanasamate sthithah). And he explains: here the term
Vaikhanasa denotes a shastra or a sutra promulgated by Vaikhanasa, in which the duties of
hermits are described in detail. He reminds: Manus discussion on Vanaprastha also mentions a
Vaikhanasa rule (Manava Dharmashastra: 6.21).
45.3. In support of his argument, Max Muller cites Haradatta the commentator of Apastambha
and Gautama (3.2) who opines: the Vanaprastha is called Vaikhanasa because he lives according
to rules (sutra) formed and taught by Vaikhanasa.
He also mentions of Kullaka Bhatta (6.21), another commentator of Manu, who says that
Vaikhanasa were a distinct group who were rooted in their own doctrine (Vaikhanaso
vanaprasthah taddarma pratipadaka shastra darshane sthitah)

Tandya Mahabrahmana (14. 4. 7) says: Vaikhanasa sages were the favourites of Indra
(vaikhanasa vaa rushyah Indrasya priya aasan).
45.4. Max Muller states that Bahudayana does refer to a Vaikhanasa sutra and gives a short
summary of its content in the third chapter of the third prashna of his Dharmashastra. He
describes Vaikhanasas as a group that abides Vedic authority (shastra parigrahas sarvesham
vaikhanasam: Bahudayana Dharmasutra: 3.3.17). Bahudayana also describes the forest
dwelling hermits as those who devotedly tend sramanakagni.
Sramana
46.1. It needs to be mentioned ; a distinguishing feature of Vaikhanasa, as given in the early
texts , is their pre-occupation with tending a sacrificial fire known as sramanaka-agni ( instead
of tretagni which is usually tended by householders). It appears, sramanaka-agni was no
ordinary fire. But, it was the fire born out of Vedic rituals; and was one with the worshipper
(Agnim apy atma-sat krtva).
46.2. The term Sramana, in the ancient context, referred to a mendicant who leads a life of
restraint and discipline (tapo-yoga); but continues to be in Vedic fold tending sacrificial fires
with a sense of duty and not by desire to gain material rewards. And, the terms Sramana and
Sramanaka came to be equated with Vaikhanasa and their scriptures.
46.3. Haradatta, the ancient commentator also talks about kindling the sramanaka-agni
(sramanakena agnim adhya); and says it followed the doctrine of the Vaikhanasas
(vaikhanasam shastram sramanakam ).The Sramanaka method of invoking sramanaka-agni
perhaps involved icon worship along with the usual fire rituals. That perhaps distinguished the
Vaikhanasas from the other hermit (Vanaprastha) groups.
[Some say; the Vaikhanasa (Sramanaka) prescription of the abstract worship of one fire (ekagni)
perhaps led to the doctrine of ekayana; and to the formation of ekantinah group (or
Bhagavatas).]
Disciples of Sage Vaikhana
47.1. It is said; Vaikhanasa is the name of a community as also the name of the philosophy they
follow. It is also said; Vaikhanasa community derived its name from its founder (a manifestation
of Brahma or Vishnu): sage Vaikhanasa of Angirasa gotra, affiliated to Krishna-Yajurveda
-shakha. He is credited with organizing worship of Vishnu in image form (samurtha-archana),
which, in effect , was the transformation of the Vedic mode of worship through
shapeless(amurtha) ritual-fire . The feature of his teaching, while it is rooted in the pristine
Vedic tradition, is that it extolled a strong devotion towards Vishnu and worship of Vishnu icon.
Vaikhanasa, perhaps, was amongst the earliest Vaishnavas mentioned in the Narayaniya section
of Mahabharata. They are described as peaceful, benign (soumya), self possessed,
(bhavitathmanam), highly evolved (utcchyante) and satttvic in their food- habits (Mbh. Shanthi
parva).

[An interesting interpretation of the term Vaikhanasa is derived from the root khanana meaning
digging into. According to Ananda samhita ( ascribed to Marichi ) the task of : digging into
or deeply inquiring into the meaning of the Vedas and related texts , for the benefit of all
mankind was accomplished by the founder sage of this spiritual heritage ( parampara );
and , therefore he was aptly addressed as Vaikhana: (Khananam tattva -mimamsa nigamaarthanam khananad iti nah srutam) .]
***
47.2. Thus, the term Vaikhanasa includes in itself several shades of meaning: the forest-dwelling
hermit in the third stage of his life; a great sage who was the founder of Vaikhanasa tradition, an
incarnate Brahma or Vishnu; and, the set of the sutras named after him. Perhaps the earliest
hermits following this tradition were all of these. But, in the later stages, the followers of the
tradition identified and distinguished themselves as disciples of Vaikhana the adept in Vishnuworship (Vishnu puja visharada) and those guided by the instructions of Vaikhanasa -kalpa
sutra, which in all its aspects is devoted to Vishnu.
Principles of Vaikhanasa tradition
48.1. The Vaikhanasas are distinguished by their uncompromising devotion to Vishnu as the
Vedic God par excellence; and, are rooted in the faith that Vishnu who pervades all existence
(vyapanath Vishnuh) alone is worthy of worship. The early Vaikhanasas retained Vishnu in his
pristine Vedic context; and preferred the expression Vishnu over Narayana or Vasudeva
(although they are synonyms), because Vishnu is the one that occurs in the Vedas. They
steadfastly held on to the Vedic image of Vishnu; and, also clung to the Vedic orthodoxy. They
remained faithful to Vedic principles and traditions. And, proudly asserted that they are the
surviving school of Vedic ritual propagated by the sage Vaikhana; and above all, they are the
children of Vishnu.
48.2. The Vaikhanasa tradition asserts that it is the most ancient; and traces its origin to Vedas.
Vishnu, they declare, who is the Supreme god adored by the Vaikhanasas is not only a Vedic god,
but is also the very personification of Yajna (Yajna-purusha). Their principal text calls upon its
followers: that after the customary offerings made to Agni, Vishnu must be worshipped morning
and evening, for that means the worship of all gods (Girhya smarta- sutra: parshna 4, khanda
10). That is because; all gods reside in Vishnu.
49.1. The teachings of sage Vaikhana provide for worship of the Supreme Being having
attributes (sa-kala) and also for worship of the one without attributes (nis-kala); with form
(samurtha) and without form (amurtha).
The Yajna, the worship of the divine through fire, is a-murta; while the worship offered to an
icon is sa-murta. According to Vaikhanasas, though yajna might be more awe-inspiring, archa
(worship or puja) the direct communion with your chosen deity is more appealing to ones heart,
is more colourful and is aesthetically more satisfying.

As regards the term formless (nis-kala), it is explained, suggests a state of pure-blissfulexistence (satchidananda rupi), beyond the intellect (achintya) and wondrously lustrous
(tejomaya) that abides in ones heart lotus (hrudaya pundarika).
Sakala, on the other hand, is when the Godhead is visualized as an icon, a human form with
distinct features, seated in a solar orb (arka-mandala) or in sacred- water pot (jala-kumbha) or as
worship worthy icon (archa-bera).The Vishnus Sakala form for contemplation (dhyana) and
worship (pranamet) is four-armed (chaturbhuja) holding four ayudhas : conch, disc, mace and
lotus (shanka, chakra, gadha and padma); beaming with blissful countenance dear to look at
(saumyat priya darshanh) ; having rosy pink complexion (shyamala) ; and, wearing yellow
silk garments (pitambara).
Along with icon form of Vishnu, the text suggests techniques for visualising contemplating and
worshipping the most adorable form of Vishnu. It also elaborates on four aspects of Vishnu as:
Purusha, Satya, Acchuyta, and Aniruddha.
49.2. Vaikhanasa view point is that icon-worship was an integral part of Vedic culture; and it was
not a later innovation. It says; Godhead is described by the performers of Vedic Yajnas as YajnaPurusha; and as Vishnu by those who know the final import of the Vedas (Vedantins).
Vaikhanasa regard themselves as those who moved from the first stage of Vedas to its final
import (Vedanta); and therefore are the Vedantins. The ancient smriti- kara Bahudayana
(Dharma sutra: 3.3.17) calls Vaikhanasas as a group that abides Vedic authority (shastra
parigrahas sarvesham vaikhanasam).
49.3. Vaikhanasas assert, their method of worship is indeed truly Vedic. It was explained; when
Bhagavata-purana (11.27.7) speaks of three varieties of worship (tri -vidho makhahah) :
vaidika, tantrika and misra (mixed), the vaidika refers to the Vaikhanasa mode of worship.
49.4. Further, the Agamas are regarded as Vaidika, because they accept the ultimate authority of
the Vedas and employ Vedic mantras in all types of rituals. The worship practices at home as
described by the Vaikhanasa Grihya-sutra closely follow the vidhi-s prescribed in Bodhayana
Grihyasutra, Apastamba sutra, and Atharvaveda- parishistha. They are also said to resemble
mantra prashnas of Taittariyakas and Brahmana of Sama-vedins. And, these perhaps represented
the earliest surviving textual references on icon-worship.
50.1. The householder was required to perform regularly a group of five sacrifices (panchamaha-yajna). These were the sacrifices rendered to gods (deva); the ancestors (pitr); animals,
birds and elements (bhuta); fellow beings (manushya); and, Veda- study (Brahma). These were,
however, not Yajnas proper, But, were meant as means for developing the sense of detachment
and compassion towards all .
50.2. Sage Vaikhana observed that Vishnu is the very essence of existence (sat), consciousness
(chit) and bliss (ananda); and, he can be attained either by Yajnas or by icon-worship. If one does
not perform Yajnas then one must contemplate on Vishnu who is the very personification of
Yajna. And, one must worship Vishnu, the Supreme god, constantly with devotion, in his home

or in a temple. That will surely lead to the highest realm of Vishnu (Vaikhanasa grihya sutra:
4.12.8-11).
50.3. Following that, the concept of Yajna was re-defined. The Yajnas and icon worship were
regarded as complimentary; and the icon worship was not viewed as distinct from or contrary to
Vedic rituals. It was explained that Yajna which involves offering through Agni is, in fact, the
worship of formless God (amurtha-archana). But, Yajna is by itself Vishnu (yajno vai Visnhuh).
In converse, it meant that worship of Vishnu icon was also a Yajna (samurtha-bhagavad-yajna),
which in turn was the worship of all gods (sangathi deva- pujanam yajnah). The two forms of
worship are not essentially different. Therefore, the rewards of the Yajna are also obtained by
worshipping and meditating upon the icon of Vishnu (murtha-archana). It was also explained
that worship of Vishnu is in effect the worship of all gods as the whole existence resides in him
(vishnau-nitya-archa sarva deva-archa bhavathi: Vaikhanasa grihya sutra: 4.10.1).
50.4. Thus, the Vaikhanasa teachings provide both for worship the form-less (amurtha-archana)
through performance of yajnas and for worship of Vishnu through his image, with equal
dedication and devotion. This dual spiritual heritage, blended harmoniously, underline the
twofold character of Vaikhanasa worship -tradition (archana- sampradaya).
51.1. The characteristic of Vaikhanasa view point is that the path way to final emancipation is not
devotion alone, but worship of icon (samurtha-archana) performed with devotion (bhakthi) and
sense of absolute surrender (prapatthi). It says, devotion may at times be a passing mood, but
worship-sequences (kriya-yoga, upasana) rendered with utmost diligence when combined with
devotion leads to fulfilment of human aspirations.
A sense of devotion envelops the mind and heart when the icon that is properly installed and
consecrated is worshipped with love and reverence. By constant attention to the icon, by seeing it
again and again and by offering it various services of devotional worship, the icon is invested
with divine presence and its worship ensures our good here (aihika) and also our ultimate good
or emancipation (amusmika).
And therefore, archa with devotion is the best form of worship, because the icon that is
beautiful will engage the mind and delight the heart of the worshipper. That would easily
evoke feeling of loving devotion (bhakthi) in the heart of the worshipper. The icon is no longer
just a symbol; the icon is a true divine manifestation enliven by loving worship, devotion, and
absolute surrender (parathion). And, Vishnu is best approached by this means.
The very act of worship (archa) is deemed dear to Vishnu. It points out that such upanasa is the
same as Vedic Yajna; nay but is superior to Yajna Worship (bhavad-samutha-archana) is indeed
more effective and purposeful than mere knowing scriptures.
The major thrust of Vaikhanasa texts is to provide clear, comprehensive and detailed guidelines
for Vishnu worship. The Vaikhanasa texts are characterized by their attention to details of
worship-sequences. It is not therefore surprising that Vaikhanasas describe their text as Bhagava
archa-shastra.

51.2. The icon worship (archana) is held by Vaikhanasas as being superior to all other modes of
worship because it includes in itself the special attitude of devotion (bhakthi), the offerings
(huta) to god, recitation of mantras, repetitions of the sacred mantra (japa) and meditation upon
the glory of god (dhyana). The Vaikhanasa texts hold the view that icon-worship is best suited
for the present age of Kali. The well made icon of Vishnu pleases the eyes; delights the heart;
engages the mind; fills the worshipper with loving devotion; and, blesses with a great sense of
joy and fulfillment.
That is the reason the texts advise that icon worship must be resorted to by all, especially by
those involved in the transactional world. In these texts, the Nishkala aspect continues to be
projected as the ultimate, even as they emphasize the relevance and importance of the sakala
aspect. The devotee must progressively move from gross sthula to the subtle sukshma.
51.3. Yes; Vaikhanasas valued icon worship very highly; but, at the same time they did not give
up performance of Yajnas altogether. They learnt to combine the two streams of worship
harmoniously. The Vaikhanasa tradition represents the passing stage of transformation from pure
Vedic Yajna-Yagas to their combination with icon-worship.
Antiquity
52.1. The Vaikhanasas as a group of religious practitioners are of great antiquity. It is likely they
were a separate forest dweller community that existed some time before the beginning of the
Common Era. According to Max Muller, the ancient Vaikhanasa Sutra which is an important
portion of the sacred law preceded Manu Smriti.
52.2. Max Muller opines that the work of Vaikhanasa must be extremely ancient. And, it is not
advisable to assume that it had any connection with Vaikhanasa sutrakarana a sub division of the
Taittiriyas which is one of the youngest schools adhering to Krishna Yajur Veda.
52.3. Dr. Nagendra Kumar Singh in his Encyclopaedia of oriental philosophy and religion (page
891) observes: it is likely that the Vaikhanasa literature documents the communitys transition
from a Vedic School of ritual observance to a School of those engaged in religious performances;
and particularly in devotional worship of Vishnu-icon (archana).
53.1. The scholars cite many internal evidences that go to suggest the antiquity of the Vaikhanasa
tradition. It is said; the Vaikhanasa worship practices carried out within the inner and surrounding
shrines mention only five avatars of Vishnu: Kapila, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana/Trivikrama and
Hayashirsha (Hayatmaka). There is no mention of the ten Avatars (dashavatara-s) in the core
Vaikhanasa texts. Perhaps, the concept of dashavataras was then yet to be developed, evolved
and elaborated.
53.2. Atma Sukta hymn is unique to the Vaikhanasa mode of worship. It seeks to evoke in the
worshipper his identity with Vishnu in his cosmic form as Purusha. Its composition having a
typical mix of Vedic and classic features suggest that it dates back to the late Vedic era; and, is
definitely older than the Puranas. This hymn mentions only three Avatars explicitly: Varaha,
Kapila and Hayashirsha. It identifies the Varaha the boar that blesses (varado) with the upward

breath (udana); Sage Kapila the personification of penance (tapasam ch murthim) with the
spreading breath (vyana); and the horse-headed Hayashirsha with the downward breath (apana).
53.3. Similarly, there is no mention of Vibhavas or Avatars such as Vasudeva and his Vyuha
(group) of Vrishni clan of Sankarshana, Pradyumna, Aniruddha et al, as in the Pancharatra
tradition .This again suggests that Vaikhanasa is older than the Pancharatra, perhaps on account
of its Vedic associations.
54.1. Further, the association of Kumara and Kaumara mantra with Vaikhanasa tradition is also
interesting. The Kaumara mantra: Om aghoraya mahaghoraya nejameshaya namo namah (as
provided in Vaikhanasa samhita, mantra prashna: 5.49) is said to represent the earliest form
of the tantric school Kaula vidya. It is also said; Vaikhanasa were the earliest to adopt the tantra
technique of worshipping Vishnu icons.
54.2. We find that the later Vaikhanasa Grihya sutra include practices of praying to Kumara
while conducting certain life-cyclerituals (samskaras). For instance; the Vaikhanasas invoke
Kumara for blessing the infant during its namakarana ceremony (naming the infant).The
newborn is blessed with mantra: be invincible (sarvatra-jayo bhava) like Kumara, son of
Shankara (Shankarir iva sarvatra-jayo bhava: Vaikhanasa smarta sutra 3.19.20).Invocations are
also made to protect the child from Kumara-grahas, the spirits that seize the children below the
age of five.
Kumara is also invoked while the Vaikhanasa child is taken to Kumara temple for its first
outing. The father takes the prasada, the flowers that adorned Kumara, and places it on the
childs head saying: I give you the flowers with which the Gurus worshipped Kumara (sesham
gurubhih supujitam pushpam); may you be protected (Guhasya sesham gurubhih supujitam
pushpam dadami sya Shammukham).
54.3. Interestingly, the ashtottara-shata-namavali of Sri Venkateshvara, calls the Lord:
karttikeya-vapudharine namah. Correspondingly, Markandeya one of the oldest Puanas names
Kumara as Vasudeva-priya, the one who is dear to Vasudeva. Vishnu and Kumara are said to
have an understanding and recognition of each others might.
54.4. The Vaikhanasa association with Kumara (unlike in other Vaishnava tradition), even to this
day, suggest the faint memory of its origin in the tantric traditions of the distant past. Some say;
the Vaikhanasa practice of reciting Vedic mantras along with Tantra-related rituals suggests its
emanation from the oldest phase of worship in the Chaitya-s , the earliest form of temples.
Although the Vaikhanasa mode of worship may have evolved and changed over the long periods,
its core is indeed very ancient; and is much older than other temple-traditions.
Vaikhanasa Literature
Vaikhanasa -Kalpa sutra
55.1. Each of the four divisions of the Vedas has its own special Kalpa sutra. They are meant to
guide the daily life and conduct of those affiliated to its division. Generally, the set of Kalpa sutra

texts include: Grihya-sutra (relating to domestic rituals); Srauta-sutra (relating to formal

yajnas); Dharma-sutra (relating to code of conduct and ethics); and Sulba-sutra (relating to
mathematical calculations involved in construction of Yajna altars (vedi, chiti) and platforms);
and specification of the implements used in Yajna (yajna-ayudha). Thus, Kalpa sutras by their
nature are supplementary texts affiliated to the main division of a Veda.
55.2. Vaikhanasas belonging to Taittiriya division of KrishnaYajur Veda are perhaps the only
group that rely heavily on their Kalpa sutra. Vaikhanasa -Kalpa sutra is the primary text; the
basic and authoritative scripture of the Vaikhanasa tradition. And, all other definitive texts,
manuals, traditions, beliefs and practices are derived from this source. It, in essence, provides the
necessary framework, code of conduct for a Vaikhanasa in his spiritual, personal, family and
social life. The text is intended to guide him in all spheres of life.
55.3. Vaikhanasa -Kalpa sutra is ascribed to the ancient Sage Valkanas who is said to have
received it from Brahma or Vishnu. It has come down to us in oral traditions; and its age is rather
uncertain. But surely, its origins are in the very distant past. Some scholars date it around the
third century of the Common Era.
56.1. The Vaikhanasa kalpa sutra is indeed a group of four texts. The whole set of texts is
spread over thirty two prasnas (chapters). Its three main segments include: Vaikhanasa- srautasutra (21 chapters); Vaikhanasa grihya sutra or smarta sutra (7 chapters); and, Vaikhanasadharma sutra (3 chapters). And, in addition there is a chapter named Vaikhanasa- Pravara
sutra.
56.2. As may be seen, the Vaikhanasa kalpa sutras do not contain a Sulba-sutra of their own.
That might be because of the secondary position assigned in this tradition for performing Yajnas.
Instead , they have Pravara-sutra that deals with genealogy of the seers who initiated families
(vamsha) into Vaikhanasa tradition. However, the matters relating to Sulba sutras are covered
under its two other sections (srauta and grihya).
Vaikhanasa srauta sutra
57.1. The Vaikhanasa- srauta-sutra deals with all types of ritual-actions which need to be carried
out daily (nitya) and occasionally (naimittika), in addition to several types of yajnas (yagayajna). There is also a section on purification rituals (prayaschitta) to take care of minor or major
lapses in conduct of rites or in personal behaviour. The srauta texts are not however held in
highest regard because the rituals are motivated by desire (kamya) to acquire something or the
other.
Vaikhanasa grihya sutra or smarta sutra
58.1. In order to preserve the Vedic affiliation, a Grihya-sutra was essential. The Vaikhanasa
grihya sutra or smarta sutra emphasizes devotion to Vishnu or Narayana. It provides the main
framework for Vishnu worship ; prescribes rules governing life in household and also the rules
for installation (prathista) and worship of Vishnus image at home (grharchana bimba prathista
archana), in a shrine or in the yajna mantapa pavilion; and, for introduction of divine power

(shakthi) into the image before its worship. The icon which is divinely auspicious (divyamangala vigraha) should be sculpted according to the prescriptions of Shilpa-shastra (shilpa
shastrokta vidanena). The text prescribes that the icon of Vishnu must be duly installed at home
(tasmad grihe param Vishnum prathistya) and should be worshipped daily morning and
evening- (saayam prathya) after performing the customary homas. It also discusses, in detail,
about other religious observances.
58.2. The text includes invocation of four aspects of Vishnu: Purusha, Satya, Achhuta and
Aniruddha. The invocations prescribed here involve two mantras: one of eight syllables ashtakshari mantra- (Om namo Narayanaya) and the other of twelve syllables
dwadashakshari mantra (Om namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya).These mantras are of great
importance and of sacredness in Vaishnava traditions ; and are regarded as divine sacraments
(daivika).
58.3. Vaikhanasa smarta sutra is perhaps the only text of its kind to prescribe a ceremony for
entering into the hermit stage of life (Vanaprastha). It describes ways of the hermits devoted to
Vishnu and practicing Yoga involving ten external observances, niyama (bathing, cleanliness,
study, ascesis, generosity etc) ; and ten internal observances ,yaama ( truthfulness, kindness,
sincerity etc) .
58.4. Vaikhanasa smarta sutra also teaches yogic paths leading to Brahman without
qualities* (nishkala). It contrasts actions with desire (sa-kama) seeking fruits of action in this
world and in the next, with actions without desire (nis-kama) performance of prescribed actions
with a sense of duty and without expectations. The desire-less action (nis-kama) is of two kinds:
activity (prvrtti) and disengagement (nivrtti) .Here, activity signifies yogic practices which
procure yogic-powers, but not leading to release from samsara the series of births.
Disengagement (nivrtti), in contrast, relates to the way of yogis who are solely intent upon
realizing Supreme Self and to attain union (yoga) of the individual self with the Supreme Self.
[*This view point as the primacy of Brahman without attributes (nir-guna) and with attributes
(sa-guna) differs significantly from the position taken by the later Vaishnava Vedanta School of
Vishistadaita. ]
Samskaras
59.1. Vaikhanasa grihya sutra deals in particular with eighteen life-cycle-rites (samskaras)
which are meant to cleanse the body and mind of one born in the Vaikhanasa lineage ; and attune
him to be fit for rendering service to Vishnu . The rituals range from niseka (ritu san
gamana first mating in the proper season) and garbhadana (impregnation) to samavarthana
(return from study) and pani-grahana (marriage). In effect, it prescribes rites ranging from
before-birth and ending with death and cremation (jatakaadi smasananta).
[It is said; there was another text (Vaikhanasa-grihya- parishistya-sutra) which supplemented the
main Grihya-sutra text. Its passages are quoted in other Valkanas texts. But, it is not available at
present.]

59.2. Grihya-sutra emphasizes the significance of pre-natal samskaras. These are directly linked
to the marriage and birth in a Vaikhanasa family. The related samskaras are meant to define and
lend specific identity to a Vaikhanasa. The inherited identity is beyond the scope of discretion.
One has to be a born-Vaikhanasa (janmathah). Initiation or conversion into Vikhanasa sect is
ruled out. Pre-natal -life-cycle rituals (garbha-samskara), thus, become one of the
distinguishing features of the Vaikhanasa community. This and the rituals of Vishnu-Bali are
important for their identity.
VishnuBali
60.1. Of the five parental samskaras, the one symbolic ceremony, in particular, has developed
into an essential characteristic of the Vaikhanasas; and up to the present day, it plays an important
role in defining their specific identity. This is a samskara performed in the eighth month of
pregnancy following Pumsavana and Seemantha (parting of the hair) meant for the benefit of the
pregnant woman and the foetus growing within her. And, this is known as VishnuBali (or
garbha-chakra samskara) prescribed to be performed during the bright-half of the eighth of
pregnancy (garbhaadhady-astame masyeva shukla pakshe).
60.2. The significance of the offering (Bali) to Vishnu is that, while even as the un-born is
inside the mothers womb , as foetus, it acquires the status of a Vaishnava (garbha
vaishnavesti), a Vishnu devotee ( garbha vaishnavatava siddyarthyam).The ceremony involves
offering the pregnant woman a cup of payasam in which the insignia of Vishnu chakra is
dipped. The infant the moment it is born is deemed a Vaishnava by birth (garbha Vaishnava
janmanam), not needing any initiatory rites (diksha) or branding. In the case of such male
offspring, he automatically becomes eligible to render temple worship-rituals. As it is often said;
they indeed are Vihs n us children, protected by Vishnu and preordained for temple service even
before birth.
Vishnu-Bali and the significances attached to it illustrate the concern of the Vaikhanasa
community to distinguish themselves as Vaidikas who are different from other Vaishnava sects,
particularly the Pancharatras, and also to assert their premier position as born-priests not needing
any other sort of vaishnava-diksha.
Vaikhanasa dharma sutra
61.1. A Vaikhanasa, a born-priest (janmathah archaka) is guided by Vaikhanasa- Grihya sutra
and Dharma sutra , which are within the orthodox Vedic culture. The Vaikhanasa dharma
sutra also deals with religious life; and the conduct, duties and responsibilities in different stages
of life (asramas). They also detail the eight-fold system of yoga (ashtanga yoga) and related
spiritual practices.
Works of the four sages: Vaikhanasa Shastra Agama Samhita
62.1. Sage Vaikhanasa is said to have taught his doctrine to his nine disciples: Kashyapa; Atri;
Marichi; Vashista; Angira; Bhrgu; Pulasthya; Pulaha; and Kratu. Among these, four rishis viz.
Atri, Bhrgu, Kashyapa, and Marichi composed a set of texts, based on the philosophy expounded

by Sage Vaikhanasa, detailing various aspects of worship, conduct in personal life and several
other disciplines. The collection of these texts along with Vaikhanasas original instructions
constitutes the core of the Vaikhanasa literature.
62.2. Vimanarchana kalpa (1001.1) a prose work which elaborates on worship of Vishnuicon ,
ascribed to Marichi talks about the doctrine taught by Sage Vaikhanasa to his four chief
disciples: Bhrgu, Kashyapa, Atri and Marichi .The disciples who received the knowledge from
their Master expanded upon his philosophy and teachings. And, they produced four classes of
texts: Bhrgu (Tantras); Kashyapa (Adhikaras); Atri (Kandas); and Marichi (Samhitas). The four
sets of texts together ran into four lakh granthas; each grantha being 32 letters composed in
anustubh chhandas (metrical form).
62.3. Vimnrcakakalpa of Marichi mentions thirteen works attributed to Bhrgu: Khilatantra;
Puratantra; Vasadhikara ; Chitradhikara ; Manadhikara ; Kriyadhikara ; Archanadhikara ;
Yajnadhikara ; Varnadhikara ; Prakirnadhikara ; Pratigrihyadhikara ; Niruktadhikara ; and ,
Khiladhikara.
Kashyapa is said to have composed three Samhitas consisting 64,000 verses: Satyakanda;
Tarkakanda; and, Jnanakanda.
Atri is credited with four works spread over 88,000 verses composed in anustuph chhandas:
Purvatantra; Atreyatantra ; Vishnutantra; and, Uttaratantra.
The set of eight Samhitas (1, 84, 000 granthas) composed by Sage Marichi form the Vaikhanasa
Samhita (samhita-ashtaka).The titles of the eight Samhitas are said to be : Jaya ; Ananada;
Samjnana ; Vira ;Vijaya; Vijita; Vimala ; and , Jnana Samhita.
[Having said this, let me also mention that there also alternate lists of the texts attributed to these
four Rishis.]
62.4. The collection of four lakh granthas, spread over 128 books, came to be known as
Vaikhanasa Shastra (chatur-laksha grantham pradadur etad Vaikhanasam shastram ).They are
also collectively known as Vaikhanasa Agama.
62.5. All these four classes of texts acknowledge that the Vaikhanasa- kalpa sutra handed
down by their Master Sage Vaikhana is their primary source; and it is the Authority for the
Vaikhanasa sampradaya.
63.1. Although the Kalpa sutras of Vaikhanas provided the inspiration and the substance for the
later Vaikhanasa writings, a distinction is drawn between the Sutra (of Valkanas) and the Shastra
(by his disciples).
Kalpa sutra is different in its approach from its Shastra or Agama texts. There is a marked
difference between the environment of Kalpa-sutra period and that of the Agama shastra. The
Kalpa-sutra belongs to a period when Yajnas and related rituals as prescribed in Yajur Veda , the
Brahmanas etc were still being performed fairly regularly .But, by the time of the Agamas, the

age of the Yajnas was fading out; and the prescriptions of the srauta section of Kalpa sutra
were also losing the focus of attention. However, the Grihya sutra section (which deals with
domestic rituals) based on the Smritis and which is also known as Samarta sutra was still
relevant, and it was gaining greater importance.
Transition: Veda Kalpa Agama
64.1. We see here a transition from Vedas to Kalpa and then on to the Agama. The worship of
Agni (homa-puja) which was the focus of attention in the Vedic period was translated by
the Kalpa into the worship of Vishnu in the iconic form (bera-puja). Vishnu was a
prominent Vedic god; and in the Brahmanas Vishnu came to be regarded as the very
personification of Yajna (yagno vai Vishnuh) . Following that, the Kalpa Sutra said, the worship
of Vishnu is indeed equivalent to the performance of Yajna.The kalpa- sutra therefore prescribed
worship of Vishnu in the household along with the customary ritual-fires. The Agamas thereafter
not only transformed the Vedic Yajna ideology (amutha-archana) into worship of Vishnu, but
also extended it into worship of icons installed in temples (samurtha-archana). Though the Vedic
rituals gradually gave place to worship of Vishnu-icon, the Agama did not entirely give up Vedic
rituals.
64.2. The archana (service to the images) detailed in the Vaikhanasa Agama represents the
communitys transition from a Vedic School of ritual observance to a Bhagavata tradition
emphasising bhakthi towards Narayana and worship of Vishnu/Narayana idol installed at the
temples. The Kalpa-sutra always addressed their Supreme deity only as Vishnu; and, Vaishnava
ideology was evident. The use of the term Narayana was not yet prominent. But, by the time of
the Agamas, the names Vishnu and Narayana came to be used alternatively.
64.3. And, when Vaikhanasa Agama was composed it had to comment on details which the
Kalpa sutra did not contain; or elaborate on details which were only suggested by Sage
Vaikhanasa. The requirements of Agama appear to have necessitated the composition of Shastratexts by the four sages, to compliment the Kalpa-sutra handed down by their master.
64.4. Together with the Kalpa Sutras, the Vaikhanasa samhita are traditionally taken to be the
cannon of the Vaikhanasas (Vaikhanasa-shastra or Vaikhanasa-Bhagavad-shastra).
65.1. Vaikhanasa Bhagavad shastra or Vaikhanasa Agama, in many ways, compliment the
Vaikhanasa-kalpa sutra. It also elaborates on certain issues that the Kalpa sutra did not touch
upon.It is said; the Kalpa sutra of Vaikhanadid not deal with temple-worship at all; and, even
the worship at home was discussed rather briefly. But, his disciples realizing the importance of
worshipping Vishnu in temples and having in view the greater good of all mankind, elaborated
on this aspect following the broad principles for worship at home as mentioned in the Kalpa
sutra. And, that, it is said, resulted in Vaikhanasa- Agama.
65.2. The Vaikhanasa tradition frequently avers to its Vedic affiliation and Vedic authority. But,
in its living practices it is mostly about temple-rituals. The texts now classed under Vaikhanasa
Agama are primarily ritual texts (prayoga shastra); and they contain elaborate discussions on
various aspects concerning temples as also instructions on practical aspects of worship-

procedures. The jnana-paadas of Vaikhanasa Agama texts are brief as compared to discussion on
rituals.
[It is said; initially, the Vaikhanasa texts did not generally employ the term Agama to describe
themselves. They were known as Vaikhanasa- Bhagavad-shastra or as Daivika-sutra.
However, the term Vaikhanasa-Agama came into use in later times in order to distinguish them
from other Agama traditions.]
Subjects dealt by the four classes of texts
66.1. The four classes of texts produced by the four disciples of Sage Vaikhanasa may be
considered as different streams of the same tradition or School handing down the same ritual
doctrine and practices, but with slight variations when it comes to the details of ritual
sequences, circumstantial descriptions of the same set of procedures or ceremonies. But, the
texts attributed to the four sages, in the main, are in agreement as regards their content and the
disposition of the topics dealt with. They even tend to quote each other.
66.2. The main tantras pertaining to the installation and worship of idols are in Bhrgu, Atri,
Kashyapa and Marichi Samhitas. They deal with building a shrine to Vishnu (karayathi
mandiram); making a worship-worthy beautiful idol (pratima lakshana vatincha kritim); and
worshipping everyday (ahanyahani yogena yajato yan maha-phalam). The texts primarily refer
to ordering ones life in the light of values of icon worship (Bhagavadarcha), to usher in a sense
of duty, commitment and responsibility.
The Bhrgu, Atri and Marichi Samhitas in particular go into different aspects of architecture of
Vaikhanasa Vishnu temples, while other fragments cover Chitra karma or painting of pictures of
deities.
66.3. The Vaikhanasa tantra texts (ascribed to Bhrgu) broadly deal with (i) karshana
(construction of shrines); (ii) prathishtha (installation of idols of gods); (iii) puja (worship of the
idols); (iv) snapana (the abhisheka or bathing of idols); (v) utsava (festivals and processions);
and , (vi) prayashchitta (expiatory rites relating to errors in rituals ).
66.4. Atris Kandas also cover these topics at great depth in addition to the design of temples.
Kashyapas Adhikaras are mainly in the form of sutras. Apart from these; the Kashyapa gives a
description of the world; a classification of the good (auspicious) and evil elements; the
appeasement of the ominous, causes of welfare and defeat; directions for construction of houses;
the donations of village; plans for towns and villages; etc
67.1. The Agamas combine two types of instructions: one providing the visualization of the icon
form; and the other giving details of preparation of icon for worship. This is supplemented by
prescriptions for worship of the image and the philosophy that underlies it.
When the four classes of texts are put together, in regard to the subjects relating to construction
of temples, mainly, the following are discussed:

the types of shrines; inspection of temple-site; preparatory ploughing on that site; the deposit of
the temple-embryo; the construction of a provisional miniature temple (bala-alaya) for Vishnu
and his attendant deities during the time when the main sanctum is under construction or when
an evil omen or a damage has occurred; temple architecture; collection of materials (stone and
wood); construction of the temple proper; iconography of Vishnu images and of other deities;
preparation of the clay for modelling the image; the measures of the image , ornaments etc;
sculpting of the images; the measure and other characteristics of the frames and their
construction; consecration and installation of of the icon; the oblation into five fires; the
sequence of daily worship in the temple; occasional festivals, celebrations (uthsava) ; etc.
As regards the topics related to worship at the temple, the following stages are described:
entering the temple; duties of the assistants (such as the water fetcher and others); meditation and
personal preparation of the priest; bathing of the image ; preparations and worship of the minor
deities ; invocation of Vishnu; worship of Vishnu; various details about the flowers to be offered
or to be avoided ; details about the elements of daily worship; various details about the
consecration and worship of Avatars; extensive bathing on special occasions or to regenerate the
divinity of the image; the festival; the atonement or correction of errors (pryaschitta) etc
67.2. In the next part lets continue with the Vaikhanasa literature and then go on to Vaikhanasa
philosophy and its preoccupation with temple worship.
Vaikhanasa Continued in Part Four
References and Sources
1. A Companion to Tantra by S C Banerji ; Abhinav Publications (2007)
2. Tantra: its mystic and scientific basis by Lalan Prasad Singh ;Concept Publishing Company
(1976)
3. Tribal roots of Hinduism by SK Tiwari ; Sarup & Sons (2002)
4. The Tantric way by Ajit Mukherjee and Madhu Khanna ; Thames & Hudson (1977)
5. Agama Kosha by Prof. SK Ramachandra Rao ; Kalpataru Research Academy (1994)
6. The Perspective of the Tantras By K. Guru Dutt
http://yabaluri.org/TRIVENI/CDWEB/theperspectiveofthetantrassept45.htm
7. Tantra Shastra and Veda by Sir John Woodroffe
http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/sas/sas04.htm
8. The Tantras: An Overview by Swami Samarpanananda

9. Evolution of Tantra by Nitin Sridhar

http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Evolution-of-Tantra-1.aspx
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Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12, 2012 in Agama, Tantra

Tags: Atma sukta, Atri, Bhrigu, Kalpa sutra, Kashyapa, Marichi, Vaikhanasa, Vaikhanasa Grihya
sutra, Vaikhanasa shastra, Vaikhanasa temple worship, Vanaprasta, Vishnu Bali, Vishnu worship

Tantra Agama Part Two Agama

12 Oct
Agama History
21.1. Agamas are a set of ancient texts and are the guardians of tradition. They are of uncertain
antiquity. And , there are many legends associated with their origins. Dr. Surendranath Gupta
says The date of the Agamas cannot be definitely fixed. It maybe suggested that the earliest of
them were written sometime in the second or third century A.D. and these must have been
continued till the thirteenth or fourteenth century.
21.2. The Agamas have come down to us, over the centuries, in oral traditions, from master to
disciple. They are of practical applications in day-to-day worship practices associated, mainly,
with temple-worship. It is likely that, over the centuries, some changes or modifications might
have crept into the pristine lore to suit the changing needs of times according to the local
contexts. It is, therefore, quite possible the original texts became elastic and new ideas entered
into its procedural aspects. We may not be sure that the present versions of the agama are exactly
those which existed at that ancient past.
22.1. What we now know as Agama shastra had its roots in the Kalpa-sutras, the supplementary
texts appended to the main division of each Veda. Each of the four Vedas has its own special
Kalpa sutra. They are meant to guide the daily life and conduct of those affiliated to its division.
Generally, the set of Kalpa sutra texts include: Grihya-sutra (relating to domestic rituals);
Srauta-sutra (relating to formal yajnas); Dharma-sutra (relating to code of conduct and ethics);
and Sulba-sutra (relating to mathematical calculations involved in construction of Yajna altars
(vedi, chiti) and platforms); and specification of the implements used in Yajna (yajna-ayudha).
22.2. The initial set of ritual- texts dated around third century, based, mainly, in Grihya-sutra and
Srauta-sutra did not call themselves Agamas. But, at a later period, they came into prominence
as Agama Shastra following the emergence of temple culture. They were rendered into written
form as palm leaf-texts rather quite late. Even these texts were not easily accessible outside the

priestly class. According to one version, by around 6-7th centuries, as the Temple-culture
gathered strength, several Agamas were compiled into written texts as manuals for temple
construction and vaastu; as also for deity worship (sakala-radhana).
22.2. The Agama tradition began to flourish by about the 10th or the 11th century with the advent
of the Bhakthi School having strong faith in worship of icons installed in homes and temples.
22.3. But, the history of the Agamas between the period of early texts (3rd or 4th century) and the
period when they began to come into prominence (say 10th or 11th century) is rather hazy. No
significant development seems to have taken place during the intervening period.
Agama is of post Darshana period
23.1. Most of the ritual-worship sequences that are followed during the present-day seem to
have developed after the establishment of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy
(darshanas). The changes in religious rituals from the Vedic to the Aagamic find an echo in the
themes elaborated in the six orthodox systems.
23.2. A very significant change is the integration of Samkhya ideologies and Yoga practices into
worship-rituals which somehow are juxtaposed with Vedic mantras. The very act of worshipping
an idol is based in the Samkhya concept of duality, while at the same time, perceiving their
essential unity. The worshipper initially regards the idol, the most revered object, as separate
from him/her, whatever is the non-dual philosophical doctrines to which he/she might be
intellectually attracted to. But, the Sadhaka is also aware that the aim and the culmination of
his/her worship practises is to attain the upasaka-upasya-abhedha-bhava, the sublime state
where theupasaka comes to identify her/himself with her/his upasya-devata. The summit of the
Sadhana is when the worshipper and the worshipped are united as One. The worship of the murti
is in the manner of the visible leading to invisible.
23.3. As regards the elements of Yoga, four of its eight stages are an integral part of worship
sequences, viz. posture, (aasana), breath (life force)-control, (praanayaama), placing or
invoking the divine aspects in self (nyaasa or dhaaranaa or atma-nikshepa ), and deep
concentration and contemplation (dhyaana). There is also the process of transferring ones prana
into the worship-image (dhruva-bera); and identifying the self with the archa image. The object
is the union (yoga) of the individual with the absolute.
Agama Classification
24.1. The worship of the deities may have been the immediate cause for the emergence of Agama
literature. The worship of god in a particular form that is dearer to ones heart became the prime
concern. The Agama thereafter branched into sects; each sect affiliated to its chosen god (ishtadevata). Each branch, each sect and sub sect of Agamas created its own set of texts and
commentaries describing the virtues and powers symbolized by its deity; the aspects of its
manifestations; and the particular ways to worship its chosen god.

24.2. It is said; the Agamas, in truth, are countless. But, generally, eleven branches of the
Agamas are mentioned; each branch having several texts associated with it. The eleven are : (i)
Vaishnava;(ii) Shaiva; (iii) Shaktha ; (iv) Saura; (v) Ganapathya; (vi) Svyambhuva (Brahma);
(vii) Chandra ; (viii) Pashupatha ; (ix) Kalamukha; (x) Jina; and (xi) Cina.
The first five branches follow the panchayatana tradition of the Smartas .Of these, Saura and
Ganapathya are now not in common use. And the practices of Pashupathas and Kalamukha sects
are not in the open. The Agama texts relating to Brahma and Chandra are deemed lost. The China
Agama is presumed to be in China, Tibet or Nepal. And, Jina Agama has a very long history;
and, is still in practice among the Jains.
Thus, the three prominent branches of Agama shastra in practice during the present times are: the
Shaiva, the Shaktha and Vaishnava. And, each of these in turn has numerous sects within it.
24.3. Shabda-kalpa-druma integrates the three branches of the tradition and explains: It has
come from Him who has five mouths; and, it is in the mouth of Her who is born from the
mountains. And, what else, it is recognized by Vasudeva himself; and, that is why it is Agama
(Agatam panchavaktrat tu gatam cha Girijanane; matam cha Vasudevasya tasmad agamam
utchyate).
25.1. The term Agama is more often used for the Shaiva and Vasishnava traditions; and the
Shaktha cult is termed as Tantric. But, there is an element of Tantra in Agama worship too.
25.2. The Shaiva branch of the Agama deals with the worship of the deity in the form of Shiva.
The Shaivas recognize twenty-eight Agama texts, of which the Kamica agama is better known.
And, each Agama has subsidiary texts (Upa-agama). Shaivaagama has given rise to Shaiva
Siddantha and Veerashaiva of the South; and the Prathyabijnana School of Kashmir Shaivisim
which leans towards Advaita. The Shaiva-agamas, in general, regard Shiva as the Supreme
Conscious Principle of the Universe, while Shakthi is the Prakrti or the natural principle who is
the cause of bondage as also of liberation. The union of Shakthi with Siva leads to the freedom of
the pasu (inner Self) from the Pasa or the attachment.
25.3. The Shaktha Agama texts (also called Tantras) prescribe the rules and tantric rituals for
worship of Shakthi, Devi the divine Mother of all Universes, the Supreme Self, in her various
forms. She is both the cause of delusion (maya) and the liberation. It is said; there are as many
as seventy-seven Shaktha-agama texts. Most of these texts are in the form of dialogues between
Shiva and Parvathi. In some of these, Shiva answers the questions put by Parvathi, and in others,
Parvathi explains to Shiva. Among the Shaktha-agama texts, the better known are: Mahanirvana,
Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala, VishnuYamala and Todala Tantra.
25.4. The third one, the Vaishanava Agama adores God as Vishnu the protector, the Supreme
Lord of the Universe. It emphasizes that worship, service (archa) and complete surrender
(prapatti) to Vishnu with devotion is the only sure path to liberation. Vaishanava Agama has
four major divisions Vaikhanasa, Pancharatra, Pratishthasara, and Vijnanalalita.Pancharatra in
turn is said to have seven branches: Brahma, Saiva, Kaumara, Vasishtha, Kapila, Gautamiya and

the Naradiya. An offshoot of Pancharatra called Tantra Sara is followed mainly by the Dvaita
sect (Madhwas).
The Vaishnavaagama has the largest number of texts, say , about two hundred and fifteen
.Among these , Isvara, Ahirbudhnya, Paushkara, Parama, Sattvata, Brihad-Brahma and
Jnanamritasara Samhitas are the important ones. The Naradiya section of the Shanti-Parva of
the Mahabharata is one of the earlier references to Pancharatra.
Of the Vaishnava Agamas, the Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra are most important. According to one
opinion, the Vaikhanasa Agama is the most important and the most ancient Agama; and all other
Agamas follow it.
25.5. All Agamas or Tantras of whatever group, share certain common ideas, outlook and
practice. They also differ on certain issues depending on the Ishta-devata they worshipped.
Agama Content
26.1. Agamas are a set of ancient texts; and are the guardians of tradition. However, they are not
treatises on Philosophy, although they follow and expound a particular theory of life and its goal.
They are essentially Sadhana Shastras (practical Scriptures) primarily addressed to ardent
aspirants. They, among other things, prescribe the means to attain ones ideal of God through
worship, devotion and submission, aided by set of prescribed disciplines. The Agama manuals
serve as important guidebooks for deity worship by the devotees of all affiliations: Saiva,
Vaishnavas and Shaktas. And each of those has its own set of Agamas.
26.2. According to Varahi Tantra (quoted in Shabda-kalpadruma) : Agama is characterized by
seven marks (sapthabhir lakshana-yuktam tva-agamam): creation (shrusti), dissolution (laya),
worship of gods (deva-archanam), spiritual practices (sadhana), repetition and visualization of
mantras (purascarana), set of six magical practices (shad-karma-sadhana), and contemplative
techniques (dhyana yoga).
26.3. The six goals (shad-karma-sadhana) that Agama strive to achieve are said to be:(i)
utchatana - vertical integration of natural energies, maintaining the balance in nature; (ii)
sthambhana - increase energy and holding capabilities of a particular place; (iii) maaranadestroy the negative energy influences over a particular area; (iv) bhedana split different
energies within a given area to maintain balance of nature; (v) shanthi - maintaining the balance
of nature with social progress; and, (vi) pushti nourishing the nature and species so that
evolution progresses.
27.1. Agamas which also mean acquisition of knowledge, traditional doctrine, science etc
draw their theory and practices from many sources, including Tantra. Agamas also draw upon
Vedic knowledge, Yogic disciplines, Tantra techniques as also mantras, Yantras and other modes
of worship employed in the temples.
27.2. Each Agama consists of four parts (paada). These broadly deal with jnana or vidya paada
(knowledge), Yoga-paada (meditation), Kriya (rituals) and Charya-paada (ways of worship).

[The Buddhist and the Jaina traditions too follow this four-fold classification; and with similar
details]
It is said; each paada has external (bahir-yajnam) and internal (antar-yajnam) interpretations.
The former is about the way of doing things; while the latter explains the esoteric or spiritual
significance of the rituals performed.
(i) The first part (jnana paada) includes the philosophical principles, theoretical framework for
explaining the ultimate reality, its manifestations; the nature of the universe, creation and
dissolution; and the nature of self, bondage and liberation.
(ii) The second part (Yoga-paada) covers the six-limbed yoga (sadanga: asana, pranayama,
pratyahara, dhyana, dharana and samadhi) as also the aspects of the physical (bahiranga) and
mental (antaranga) disciplines and the essential purity in living and thinking (shuddhi). The
aspect of dhyana receives detailed treatment in many of the Agama texts.
(iii) The third segment Kriya paada (rituals) articulates with precision, the principles and
practices of deity worship the mantras, mandalas, mudras etc; the mental disciplines required
for the worship; the initiation (diksha) process, the role of the preceptor (acharya) ,the rules for
constructing temples and sculpting the images. They also specify the conduct of other worship
services, rites, rituals and festivals.
(iv) The fourth one, Charya-paada, deals with priestly conduct and other related aspects; as also
the austerity, purity in conduct; and devotion to ones own Agama in outlook and in practice.
27.3. It is usually the last two segments of the Agama texts Kriya and Charya paadas which
deal directly with temple or worship. These receive greater emphasis because of their application
in the day-to-day worship practices. These are the segments that are in greater use by the priestly
class following the Vaishnava-agama tradition (paddathi) in their day-to-day observances.
This seems quite natural, considering that the Agamas in the present-day are mainly related to
the temple and its worship practices. [The Shaiva Agamas, in contrast, seem to attach greater
importance to the first paada (jnana) than to the other three paadas].
27.4. The four paadas complement each other; and they all contribute towards the same
objective. They all aim at the twin rewards (viniyoga or phala) of liberation from bonds of
samsara (mukthi); and prosperity and wellbeing in worldly life (bhukthi).The Agama texts point
out that the two aspects are equally important. They decry a person seeking salvation for self
without discharging his duties and responsibilities towards his family and fellowmen. And, they
therefore praise the virtuous life of a householder as the foundation which supports the other
three stages of life; and as the best among the four stages.
28.1. The Agama prescriptions form the basis for worship practices at home or at Temples, as it
exists today. They, in fact, cover the entire gamut of activities associated with temples, its
functions and its purpose. These include , among other things, the training manuals meant for the
performing priests, their initiation into worship-service; the worship attitudes and procedures

specially designed for each type of deity; the details of daily rituals, occasional celebrations,
festivals etc.
28.2. The Agama texts also give elaborate details about the theories of creation, ontology,
cosmology, nature of the universe, the relations that exists between god-world- man, observances
of religious rites, rituals, and festivals as also the rules (grihya-sutra) of domestic rites ,
household life, community living , and celebration of public festivals (uthsava).
Agama- Tantra
29.1. Agamas and Tantras are a vast collection of knowledge and form a major portion of
religious literature and practices. The two are of similar nature; and share common ideology.
Both are dualistic in their outlook and approach. It is the sort of duality that aims at unity.
Agamas and Tantra are based in the faith that every experience in this world bears subject-object
relation; this world is a passage towards perfection; and the visible is the way to the invisible.
Both address the fundamental question: how to gain the direct experience (sakshatkara) of the
highest. And, both are primarily concerned with devising practical means of dedicated- action
to attain the goal. Both idealize the faith of a person seeking unity with ones ideal of God or the
Supreme whose grace alone can save her/him from samasara the misery of worldly
involvements. Devotion and implicit surrender is the key to their Sadhana. Without surrender
there is no possibility of success.
29.2. Agama and Tantra texts deal with same subjects; adopt the same principles; and quote same
set of authorities. It is said; Agama is essentially a tradition and Tantra is technique. But, Agama
is wider in its scope; and contains aspects of theory, discussion and speculation about a range of
issues. Agamas cover various other subjects with particular reference to worship of the deity
installed in the temple. In that context, Agamas discus the minute details of appropriate worship
services to be conducted at the temple during each part of the day; yogic disciplines and mental
attitudes required of the worshipper. They also indirectly cover various other fields of knowledge
such as grammar, etymology, chandas, astrological significances, conduct of a devotee, ethical
values in life , observances of religious rites, rituals, and festivals etc. The other important aspect
addressed by the Agamas is the Devalaya vastu- shilpa, temple architecture.
Agama -Shilpa
30.1. The Agama texts state that if an image has to be worshipped it has to be worship worthy.
The rituals and sequences of worship are relevant only in the context of an adorable icon
installed in the heart of the shrine. And the icon is meaningful when its shrine aptly reflects its
glory. The temple should be in harmony with the essential character of its presiding deity; and
the temple complex should also truly reflect the attributes of its associate gods and goddesses.
The worship services are, therefore, structured by Agama texts having in view the nature of the
deity and of the shrine in which it resides.
30.2. It is in this context that Agama texts forge a special relationship with Shilpa shastra which
is basic to iconography; and, in particular, with devalaya-vastu-shilpa the temple architecture
and design. The involvement of the Agamas with temple architecture is based in the faith that the

temple, in truth, is the expansion or outgrowth of its presiding deity installed in the innermost
sanctum of the shrine. And, it believes that the temple must be built for the idol, and not an idol
got ready for a temple already built, for the temple verily is the expanded reflection of the icon.
30.3. The Agamas thus get related to icons and temple structures, rather circuitously. And, this
is how the Agama literature makes its presence felt in the Shilpa-Sastra.
31.1. The Shilpa aspects of the Agamas cover in elaborate detail the principal elements of
devalaya-vastu-shilpa, temple architecture such as: the suitable requirements of the temple site
(sthala), temple tank (teertha) and the idol (murthy); dimensions, directions and orientations of
the temple structures; the suitable building materials; the specifications, the sculpting and
carving details of the image of the deity to be installed; as also the placement and orientation of
supplementary deities within the temple complex etc.
Thus, the icon and its form; the temple and its structure; and the rituals and their details, are all
meaningfully interrelated.
31.2. In due course, each branch of Agama tended to create set of its own texts. That gave rise to
a new class of texts and rituals. And that coincided with the emergence of the large temples. It is
not therefore surprising that town-planning, civil constructions and the arts occupy the interest of
early Agamas.
Agama approach
32.1. The Agama Shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two
ways. It can be viewed as nishkala, formless absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects.
Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. It is analogues, as the Agama
texts explain, to the oil in the sesame-seed, fire in the fuel, butter in milk, and scent in flower. It
is in human as antaryamin, the inner guide. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense
organs, which includes mind.
Sakala, on the other hand, is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel, oil
extracted out of the seed, butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the
fragrance that spreads and delights all. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and
humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. The Agamas recognize that means
as the archa, the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity.
32.2. The Upanishads idealize the Godhead as formless, attribute-less absolute. The God here is
the most sublime concept. Yet; one has to concede that concrete representation of such a God is
theoretically impossible. The human mind with its limitations cannot easily comprehend God in
absolute. It tries to grasp the divine spirit; bestow a form to the formless (Na cha rupam vina
devo dyatum kenapi sakyate: Vishnu Samhita 29. 51). The worship through image helps the
devotee : to visualize the incomprehensible divinity in chosen form and attributes; to give
substance to ones notion of God so that he devotee may dwell on it and engage himself in a

certain service ; and, realize her/his aspirations . Else, the mind of an ordinary person might
lapse into drowsiness or his/her attention may wither away.
32.3. The worshipper following Agama tradition fully appreciates the Vedic monism and its ideal
of formless Brahman that pervades all existence. Yet, he finds comfort in the duality of Tantra
and Agama rituals. The worshipper is aware, all the while, that the forms (murti), sounds
(mantras) and diagrams (mandalas) employed in worship are just human approximations and are
inadequate representations of God (prathima svalpa buddhinaam). Yet, he tries to find through
them an approach to the Supreme.
32.4. He would argue: It is not very important whether the medium of worship you choose is
either Agni or something else; but it is the archa with devotion and sincerity of purpose that truly
matters. Here, faith is more significant than precepts; procedures more significant than concepts
and symbolism more relevant than procedures.
33.1. The most widespread rituals of worship today are of the Agamic variety which includes
elements of Tantra. The Agama methods are worship of images of God through rituals (Tantra),
symbolic charts (Yantra) and verbal symbols (Mantra). The symbolism behind this method of
worship is that God pervades the universe and that the entire creation is his manifestation in
myriad ways. All the forms of his manifestation are but aspects (vibhuthi) of the Divine .There
can exist no object, no form of any sort which is not divine in its nature. Any name, any form
that appeals to the heart of the worshipper is gracefully accepted as a representation or
manifestation of the Divine.
33.2. Following that, ones chosen form of the divine (ishta-devata) is regarded as a concrete and
a specific expression of the formless. Vishnu Purana (2.14.32) offers a beautiful analogy to
explain the concept of the idol that one loves to worship. It compares the worship-images
fashioned according to ones heart-desire (mano-kamana) to the notes of the flute. It says; the air
that fills the player, the air that flows through the column of the flute, and the air that flies out of
the holes of the flute, are but different aspects of the same air that fills the whole emptiness of
existence. But, it is the specific vibrations, the modalities and the patterns of relations of the air
that flows in and out of the flute that creates the sweetness of the melodious musical notes. From
an absolute point of view, all the air that flows in and around the world is but one. But, the same
air in its relative form and with its delicate differences creates cognizable sounds and melodies
that are enjoyable. Similarly, the all-pervading divine essence can be better grasped when given
specific forms through human ingenuity, imagination and love.
34.1. Agama regards devotion and complete submission to the deity as fundamental to pursuit of
its aim; and hopes that wisdom, enlightenment (jnana) would follow, eventually, by the grace of
the worshipped deity. The Agama is basically dualistic, seeking grace, mercy and love of the
Supreme God, represented by the personal deity, for liberation from earthly attachments
(moksha).
34.2. The Agama texts hold the view that japa (recitation of mantra as initiated by the Guru),
homa (oblations offered in Agni accompanied by appropriate hymns), dhyana (meditation on the
aspects of divinity) and archa are the four methods of approaching the divine. And, of these, the

archa (worship of the icon) is the most comprehensive method. It is explained; the first approach
(japa) is through a pattern of sounds (nada/shabda), while the second (homa) is through the
medium of Agni. Meditation (dhyana) is, of course, independent of concrete representations. All
these three are individual approaches. It is archa, the worship of a deity individually and in
communion with the gathering of devotees that is easiest. Further, the archa includes in itself the
essentials of the other three approaches as well. Archana in temples is an integrated mosaic of
individual and congregational worship; and is the most accepted approach.
This is the faith on which the Agama shastra is based. The Agama shastra is basically concerned
with the attitudes, procedure and rituals of deity worship in the temples.
Agama -Nigama
35.1. It is said; Agama is distinct from Nigama, just as Tantra is distinct from Veda. Agama is
closely linked to Tantra; while Nigama is synonym for Veda. If Veda is taken to mean
knowledge, Nigama is that by which one learns, one knows (nigamyate jnayate anena iti
nigamah: Sabda kalpa -druma). Therefore, Nigama, since Panini (6.3.1.13), has come to
mean Vedas. And, even during the later times the two terms were used interchangeably. For
instance; Sri Vedantadeshika is also addressed, at times, as Nigamantadeshika.
35.2. Agama, generally, stands for Tantra. The Agama-Tantra tradition is as important and as
authentic as the Vedic tradition. Vedas and Agamas are intimately related. The Agama claims that
it provides the practical application and the means of action for realizing the teaching of the
Vedas and Vedanta.
36.1. The two traditions, however, hold divergent views on matters such as God; relationship
between man and God; the ways of worship; and path to salvation etc .The Vedic concept of God
is omniscient, omnipotent, a formless absolute entity manifesting itself in phenomenal world of
names and forms. The Agama which is allied to Tantra regards God as a personal deity with
recognizable forms and attributes.
36.2. The Vedas do not discuss about venerating the icons; though the icons (prathima or
prathika) were known to be in use. Their preoccupation was more with the nature, abstract
divinities and not so much with their physical representations. The Vedas did however employ a
number of symbols, such as the wheel, umbrella, spear, noose, foot-prints, lotus, goad and
vehicles etc. These symbols, in the later ages, became a part of the vocabulary of the
iconography.
36.3. The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas .They spoke about thirty-three
divinities classified into those of the earth, heaven and intermediate regions. Those comprised
twelve Adityas, aspects of energy and life; eleven Rudras, aspects ferocious nature; eight Vasus,
the directional forces; in addition to the earth and the space.
36.4. The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were later condensed to three viz. Agni, the aspect
of fire, energy and life on earth; Vayu, the aspect of space, movement and air in the mid-region;
and Surya the universal energy and life that sustains and governs all existence, in the heavenly

region, the space. This provided the basis for the evolution of the classic Indian trinity, the
Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
37.1. Rig Veda at many places talks in terms of saguna, the supreme divinity with attributes. The
Vedanta ideals of the absolute, attribute- less and limit-less universal consciousness were evolved
during later times as refinements of those Vedic concepts. The Upanishads are the pinnacles of
idealism that oversee all horizons. But, in practice, common people worship variety of gods in
variety of ways for variety of reasons. The worship rendered are relevant in the context of each
ones idea of god; needs and aspirations; fears and hopes; safety and prosperity; and, the pleasures
and pains of life.
37.2. Vedic worship is centred on the fire (the Yajna) the visible representation of the divine,
certain religious and domestic rituals, (shrauta sutraas and griyha sutraas), and the sacraments,
(samskaara). In this tradition, the gods and their descriptions are, mostly, symbolic; and not
presented as icons for worship. The hymns of the Rig Veda are the inspired outpourings of joy
and revelations through sublime poetry. The Yajur and Sama Vedas do refer to conduct of Yajnas;
but they also suggest certain esoteric symbolic meaning. And, very few of Vedic rituals are in
common practice today.
Vedic approach to divinity is collective in character involving a number of priests specialized in
their branch of learning and having specific roles to play in the conduct of the Yajna.. The Yajnas
always take place in public places and are of congregational nature. The Yajnas are celebrations,
performed with exuberance in presence and view of large number of persons participating with
gaiety and enthusiasm.
37.3. As compared to Yajnas, the tantric rites are conducted in quiet privacy within secret
enclosures or in secluded spots. TheTantra or Agamic worship is individualistic in its orientation;
and, calls for quiet contemplation, intensity and self-discipline as demanded by its texts. Tantra
Agama regards its rituals as a sort of direct communication between the worshipper (upasaka)
and his or her personal deity (upasana-devata).Its ultimate aspiration is the unity of the
worshipper and worshipped.
The aim of Agamika, the ardent aspirant, following the Agamas is, therefore, to gain, on his own,
a direct experience (sakshatkara)of his highest ideal. The Agamas provide well defined and time
tested practices leading towards that ideal. It is for this reason the Agamas are called pratyaksha
Shastra (the science of real experience), Sadhana Shastra (the science of spiritual practice) and
Upasana Shastra.
38.1. While the Vedic rituals lay a great emphasis on fire rituals and the sacrifices, the Agamas
recommend worship of images of gods as the efficient means to salvation. Its way is through
rituals (tantra) employing word symbols (mantra) and charts (yantra). These symbolic activities
strengthen the individuals conviction and help her/him to bind a harmonious relation with the
object of worship. The approach of Agama is dualistic: that of a man seeking God the Supreme
whose grace alone can save him from samasara the misery of worldly involvements.

38.2. The Upasaka worships the divine through the medium of bera, murthi, archana whose
shape is symbolic. Agamas believe that the worshipper must identify himself with the object of
his worship: na devo devam archayet ( one cannot worship a deity unless one becomes that
deity) .Hence the various ritual practices mental and physical- meditation , visualization,
invoking the presence of the deity in ones body (nyasa), mantras and mudras are employed; all
aiming to achieve this identification.
39.1. In the Nigama tradition greater attention is paid to the knowledge of the gods, though such
knowledge is not systematized. The Agama texts no doubt extol knowledge; but they also
emphasize that without ritualistic action mere knowing is ineffective and rather pointless. Agama
texts, however, clarify that worship-action (karma) and liberating wisdom are secondary to deep
devotion.
39.2. The most distinctive feature of Agamas is immense devotion (Bhakthi) and submission to
the will of god (prapatthi).The two virtues are regarded the primary requisites for attaining
wisdom or enlightenment (jnana) leading to the path of salvation. It is this element of devotion
that has given rise to temple-worship and the ritual-culture associated with it.
39.3. To put it in another way,the Agama texts no doubt extol knowledge; but they also
emphasize that without ritualistic action rendered with devotion, any sort of knowledge is
ineffective and is rather pointless. In the Agama context, devotion is understood as intense
involvement in worship of the deity (pujadi sva anugraha bhaktih).
Agama Nigama rapprochement
40.1. Although Agama and Nigama traditions started on divergent approach, in course of time
there was reproachment between the two. Tantra-Agama barrowed many details from Vedic
tradition and adopted many more. And, In due course the Agama came to be accepted as a
subsidiary culture (Vedanga) within the Vedic framework.
40.2. The temple worship, per se, is guided by its related Agama texts which invariably borrow
the mantras from the Vedic traditions and the ritualistic details from Tantric traditions. This has
the advantage of claiming impressive validity from Nigama, the Vedas; and at the same time,
carrying out popular methods of worship.
40.3. Even in performance of rituals, the Agama harmonized within itself the elements of Veda
and Tantra. For instance, the Bodhayana shesha sutra and Vishhnu-pratishtha kalpa outline
certain rite for the installation of an image of Vishnu and for conducting other services. The
Agama texts combined the rules of the Grihya sutras with the Tantric practices and formed their
own set of rules.
Further, while installing the image of the deity, the Grihya Sutras do not envisage Pranaprathistapana ritual (transferring life into the idol by breathing life into it); but the Agamas
borrowed this practice from the Tantra school and combined it with the Vedic ceremony of
opening the eyes of the deity with a needle.

While rendering worship-services to the deity, in open, the Agamas reduced the use of Tantric
mantras; and instead adopted Vedic mantras for services such as offering ceremonial bath,
waving lights etc. though such practices were not a part of the Vedic mode of worship.
40.4. The Agamas, largely, adopted the Vedic style homas and Yajnas. But, they did not reject
the Tantric rituals and Tantric mantras altogether.
Agama Temple worship
41.1. The worship of deities in public or at home might be the immediate cause for emergence of
Agama traditions.
The Agamas in the present day find their full expression in temple- worship. They form the basis
for worship practices at temples, as it exists today. They prescribe the structure and architecture
of various kinds of temples, the customs to be followed, the rituals to be performed and the
festivals to be celebrated. They in fact cover the entire gamut of activities associated with
temples, its activities and its purpose.
41.2. The Agamas deal with all types of worship practices followed either in temples or at home;
either in communities or in private; either through image or formless fire or otherwise. The
worship in a temple has to satisfy the needs of individuals as also of the community. Agamas
accommodate collective worship along with individual worship that is characteristically private
when performed at home. The worships that take place in the sanctum and within the temple
premises are important; so are the festivals and occasional processions that involve direct
participation of the entire community. They complement each other. While the worship of the
deity in the sanctum might be an individuals spiritual or religious need ; the festival s are the
expression of a communitys joy , exuberance , devotion , pride and are also an idiom of a
communitys cohesiveness .
41.3. The temple worship ritual has two other distinct aspects; the symbolic and the actual which
is secondary. The former is the inner worship (manasa puja or antar yajna) of the antaryamin
(the inner being) residing in ones heart; and the latter is external worship characterized by
splendour, spectacle and an overflow of religious fervour.
The inner worship involving Tantric rituals that takes place in the privacy of the sanctum is more
significant than the external worship These are in a sequence such as shudhi (purification of
elements), mudras (assumption of appropriate and effective gestures), pranayama (regulation of
breath to enable contemplation of the divinity), dhyana (contemplation), soham_bhava (identity
of the worshipper with the worshipped), mantra (words to help realize the deity in worshippers
heart) and mandala (diagrams representing aspects of divinity). In manasa puja, God is the
worshippers innermost spirit. The worshipper visualizes and contemplates on the resplendent
form of the deity as abiding in his own heart.
As regards the external worship it involves several kinds of service sequences (Shodasha
Upachara) submitted, in full view of the worshipping devotees, to the personified god who is
revered as the most venerated guest and as the Lord of Lords who presides over the universe

(lokadyaksha). The services are rendered with gratitude, love and devotion to the accompaniment
of chanting of passages and mantras taken from Vedas. The worship routine is rendered more
colourful and attractive by presentations of music, dance, drama and other performing arts. These
also ensure larger participation of the enthusiastic devotees.
Thus, at the temple, both the Agama worship-sequences and the symbolic Tantric rituals take
place; but each in its sphere.
41.4. The worship practices that are followed in the temples are truly an amalgam of dissimilar
streams of ideologies and practices. The rituals here are a combination of concepts, procedures
and symbolism. Each of these finds its relevance in its own context, without conflict or
contradiction. The temple and iconic worship may appear like tantric. However, in practice the
worship at temples involves both homa and archa rituals. The Agama mode of worship
invariably borrows the mantras from the Vedic traditions along with ritualistic details from
Tantric traditions. Vedic mantras are chanted in traditional manner while performing services
such as ceremonial bath, adoring the deity with flowers, or waving lights. Apart from that, the
Agama practices combine in themselves the elements from yoga, purana and Janapada the
popular celebrations where all segments of the community joyously participate with great
enthusiasm and devotion. The Janapada includes periodic Utsavas, processions, singing,
dancing, playacting, colourful lighting, spectacular fireworks , offerings of various kinds etc.; as
also various forms of physical austerities accompanied by sincere prayers.
41.5. You find that temple worship is judicious mix (misra) of: the Vedic mantras and its vision
of the divine; the tantric rituals with their elaborate symbolisms; the Agamic worship practices,
attitudes and devotion; the discipline of Yoga and its symbolic purification gestures; and, the
exuberance and gaiety of folk festivals, processions and celebrations in which the entire
community participates with great enthusiasm. All these elements combine harmoniously in the
service of the deity and create an integrated Temple culture.
42.1. That is so far as Agama in general is concerned. In the subsequent parts lets talk about
specific branches of the Agama. In next lets touch upon Vaikhanasa Agama a major branch of
the Vaishnava Agama.
Continued in Part Three
- Vaikhanasa Agama
References and Sources
1. A Companion to Tantra by S C Banerji ; Abhinav Publications (2007)
2. Tantra: its mystic and scientific basis by Lalan Prasad Singh ;Concept Publishing Company
(1976)
3. Tribal roots of Hinduism by SK Tiwari ; Sarup & Sons (2002)

4. The Tantric way by Ajit Mukherjee and Madhu Khanna ; Thames & Hudson (1977)
5. Agama Kosha by Prof. SK Ramachandra Rao ; Kalpataru Research Academy (1994)
6. The Perspective of the Tantras By K. Guru Dutt
http://yabaluri.org/TRIVENI/CDWEB/theperspectiveofthetantrassept45.htm
7. Tantra Shastra and Veda by Sir John Woodroffe
http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/sas/sas04.htm
8. The Tantras: An Overview by Swami Samarpanananda
9. Evolution of Tantra by Nitin Sridhar
http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Evolution-of-Tantra-1.aspx
2 Comments
Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12, 2012 in Agama, Tantra

Tags: Agama, Agama approach, Agama history, Agama Nigama, Agama Tantra, Agama temple
worship, nigama, Tantra

Tantra Agama Part One Tantra

12 Oct
[This article is primarily about Agama. Since Agama is closely aligned to Tantra, lets briefly talk
about Tantra before we revert to a discussion on Agamas.]
Agama
1.1. The term Agama, primarily, signifies tradition; it is a way of life. Agama represents the
previously ordained practices generally held in esteem (Agama loka-dharmanaam maryada
purva-nirmita - Mbh 8.145.61). Agama is also that which helps to understand things correctly
and comprehensively, in attaining the highest objective of Man (aa jna vastu samantaccha
gamyat ith agamo matah: Pingala-matha). Agama, according to Jaya-mangala, is a well
ascertained (siddam siddau pramanaustu) trustworthy knowledge (shastra aptanam) that
contributes to our welfare (hitam) here (vaa tra) and hereafter (para tra cha). Its authoritative
traditions, which command faith, prescribe practices for day-to-day ritualistic life; and, in

particular, for a well disciplined course of right conduct and purposeful worship actions to be
followed at each stage of ones pursuit for attaining his/her ideal of God.
1.2. Agamas (the term Agama literally means wisdom traditionally passed on) have come down
to us from the distant past through oral traditions. They are revered as revelations; but, are not
essentially treated as part of the Vedas. The Agamas do not derive their authority directly from
the Vedas. Yet; they are Vedic in spirit and character; perform Yajnas in the Vedic mode; and
make use of Vedic mantras while performing the service.
1.3. It is also true that Vedas and Agamas are intimately related. They represent two aspects of a
fundamental question: how to realize the Truth. Veda, it is said, in its primary sense is
Knowledge which liberates. Agama is a traditional doctrine grasped in faith. Agama developed
the esoteric teaching and practice of the Vedas into external forms suitable for the changing
needs of times.
2.1. The argument of the Agamas is that mere knowledge and discussion about That (tat) or the
Truth or the Supreme Being will achieve nothing spiritually; and will not liberate, unless it is
supported by purposeful action. It points out that just talking about spiritual experience is rather
purposeless: mere words cannot chase away the delusion of the wandering; darkness is not
dispelled by mention of the word lamp. What is of prime essence is the actual, direct immediate
experience (Sakshatkara) of the Supreme. And, Truth has to be realized and brought into ones
experience. That is not possible unless there is a definite, determined and sustained action
(Sadhana kriya) to attain ones ideal of Truth. All must act, who have not achieved.
2.2. The claim of the Agama is that it provides such means of action, as also the technique for
realizing and experiencing the sublime ideals eulogized by the Vedas and its associate scriptures
of knowledge. Agama assures; its well defined and time-tested methods of Sadhana are indeed
the practical applications of the teaching of the Vedas and Vedanta. Here again, it is explained, a
single ritual act performed routinely in daily life is rather shallow. But Sadhana, on the other
hand, is an intimate spiritual discipline comprising set of coordinated practices of faith of which
rituals form part. Agamika Sadhana is more comprehensive; it is a sustained and a determined
endeavour to realize ones ideal of Truth. Agama, therefore, aptly calls itself variedly as
Pratyaksha Shastra, Sadhana Shastra and Upasana Shastra.
2.3. The Agamas promise that if you follow their direction you will achieve Siddhi. They assert;
to experience a thing in its ultimate sense is to be that very thing. It is for this reason the ancient
faith of Agama has prescribed rituals, which are both symbolic and suggestive, as also a set of
disciplines that ensure wholesome, healthy living in body, mind and spirit.
2.4. The Agama is thus a philosophy which not merely argues but acts and experiments. Agama
is practical philosophy (prayoga shastra) addressed to ardent aspirants. It combines in itself the
exposition of spiritual doctrine as also the means to realize its teachings. Agama provides form
and substance to ones faith and to its quest.
Tantra Agama

3.1. It is perhaps because Agama is unity of a system of thought (or faith) and a body of
practices; it has come to be very closely connected with Tantra. It is said; Agama is essentially a
tradition, and Tantra is its technique (prayoga). You cannot think of the one without thinking of
the other. Agama is the Sadhana part of Tantra. Tantra and Agama cite same set of texts. If Tantra
is said to be in greater use in North, Agama is used in South. The Agama texts in South often
include the term Tantra in their title.
3.2. The two terms are often used interchangeably. For instance; an Agamika is also called
Tantri. An old Tantric text Pingalamata says that Tantras are Agama with characteristics of
Chhandas (that is Vedas). The Agama-Tantra way is as important and as authentic as the Vedic
tradition. The encyclopaedic dictionary Shabda- kalpa druma of Raja Radha Kanta
Devaexplains: since Agama tries to protect the delicate balance in creation, the learned ones
name it as Tantra(tanuthe trayathe nithyam tantra mithi viduhu budhaha). Tantra is also
Siddantha-Agama (tantriko jnana siddantah)- an established system of knowledge and practices.
Tantra is the process (vidhi) or the regulation (niyama), which amplifies and nurtures knowledge
(Tanyate vistaryate jnanam anena iti tantram); it breathes life into forms of knowledge and
devises methods to realize its aims.
Tantra what is?
4.1. Kamikagama explains Tantra as a system which expands (vipula) on matters relating to
essence (arthan) of philosophy (tattva) and mantra that help to attain liberation (tanoti vipula
arthaan tattva mantra samanvitam; tantram cha kurute yasmad tantram ity abhidhiyate).
Tattva is the study of the Absolute principle. Tantra brings the realization of tattva (tat = That)
within ones experience, with the help of mantra Sadhana. Tantra is therefore an intuitional
wisdom that liberates (tatra ya ayat tarayet yastu sa tantra parikirtitah). At the same time, it is
said, devotion and complete surrender is the secret of Tantra Sadhana. And, itis characterized
by high regard, implicit obedience and unquestioned faith in the guru.
4.2. Tantra is understood as a system which leads to growth of ones awareness, higher faculty of
reasoning and intuitive power leading to the path of self-realization. In practice, Tantra is a
dynamic philosophy which supports life, action, aspiration, knowledge, quest for truth, a path
which unshackles the potential of the human mind and helps one to realize the essential unity of
all existence.
4.3. Tantra also stands for ritual, in general, wherever there is the concept of duality. The ritual
might be external or internal by way of introspection. Ritual is the body tanu in which the spirit
of Tantra manifests. Ritual, in fact, is the art of Tantra. It involves elaborate initiation (diksha)
ritual; use of symbolic Yantras, mantras and mudra-s (suggestive gestures); and secretive
Sadhana. The rituals, here, are symbolic activities which strengthen the aspirants conviction and
help him to achieve a harmonious relation with his environment in the broadest sense. All these
are meant to fructify in direct experience of his ideal, which indeed is the aim of Tantra as also
its justification.
4.4. Another feature of Tantra is the importance it assigns to speech and its power. In the Vedic
context speech vak was invested with divine quality. Tantra went a step further and lent the

speech energy and power. Its mantras are invariable accompanied by syllabic Bija mantras which
are potent with inherent Shakthi. The Bija mantras of Tantric nature are subtle sounds of abstract
language which attempt to visualize the un-differentiated divine principle.
4.5. Tantra is a vast and all comprehensive set of disciplines, beliefs systems and practices. In
the words of Sir John Woodroffe: tantra, from its very nature is an encyclopaedic science not
weighed down by the limitation of words. It is practical; lights the torch and shows the way. ...
Tantra is neither religion nor mysticism but is based upon human experience in the very act of
living, as a source of the amplification of consciousness The Tantra way has been absorbed as
a cultural behaviour valid for everyone and not merely to an exclusive group or sect
Tantra a synthesis
5.1. Tantra is not a single coherent system. It is an accumulation of ideas and practices dating
back to pre-historic times. The Tantra synthesizes the various insights of karma, jnana, bhakthi
and yoga for the benefit of the ardent practitioner in his endeavour to realize his ideal. The
Tantra works accept the validity of Vedic rituals; theframework of the Universe composed by the
dual elements of pure consciousness (Purusha, Shiva) and Prakrti (Shakthi) as put forward by
Samkhya; the wisdom (viveka) and detachment (vairagya) of the Upanishads; the purifying
disciplines of Raja yoga; as also the passionate love for the Divine as sung in the Puranas. They
exhort the aspirant, Sadhaka, to exercise his/her will and strive even as they practise selfsurrender, praying for divine grace.
5.2. In addition, Tantra employs numerous techniques which include mantras; Yantras; postures
and gestures (nyasas and mudras);offerings of flowers, incense and ritual ingredients; breath
control (pranayama); yogic practices (asana, dhyana, dharana) etc. The Tantra promises its
followers Bhukthi and Mukthi: wellbeing in the present world and ultimate liberation from
sorrows of the world. Tantra, thus aims to attain plural objectives (aneka-muddisya sakrt
pravrttis-tantrata).
Tantra Outlook
6.1. Tantra believes that the culmination of all learning is sakshatkara the direct experience of
ones cherished ideal. It asserts that Truth cannot be attained by mere knowing about it. And, that
if the Truth has to be realized and brought into ones experience, it surely needs Sadhana. Tantra
claims it provides the means and the technique (upasana-prakriya) for realizing and
experiencing that Truth. It is proudly calls itself Sadhana Shastra or Prayoga Shastra, the shastra
distinguished by sprit of enterprise and adventure.
6.2. Central to Tantra-faith is the concept of duality that culminates in unity. Shiva the pure
consciousness and Shakthi its creative power are eternally conjoined; the one cannot be
differentiated from the other. They are essentially two aspects of One principle. In reality, the
whole of existence, the range of manifold experiences in the world are but the expressions of
Shiva-Shakthi combine. Shiva (Purusha) does not act by himself, but is inseparably associated
with and influences through his Shakthi (Prakrti), the dynamic primal energy that manifests,
animates, sustains and finally re-absorbs the universe into itself. This Shakthi is all powerful and

infinite. It is only in the relative plane that Shiva-Shakti might appear as separate entities. But,
the Reality is unity, an indivisible whole.
6.3. At the core of the Tantra ideology is the faith in upasaka-upasya-abhedha-bhava, where
the worshipper and the worshipped are united. The Tantra mode of practice (upasana prakriya),
it is claimed, leads to the summit of its philosophy where the upasaka comes to identify
her/himself with her/his upasya-devata.
Tantra Man
7.1. The individual, according to Tantra, is not isolated but is integrated into the entire cosmic
scheme. And, his limited experience is not separated from the Absolute experience. The
individual is a miniature Universe. The body is a microcosm of the universe (Brahmande ye
gunah santi te tishthanti kalevare); and what is here is elsewhere; and what is not here is
nowhere (yadihasti tadanyatra yannehasti natatkvachit).
7.2. Tantra firmly believes; the forces that operate the world are dormant within the person; but,
functioning at a different level. It asserts; Man is a spiritual being; and he realizes his full
potential when he is awakened. The process of realization is self-discovery, which culminates in
true understanding of the self. The purpose of Tantra is awakening the hidden potential in Man to
enable him to realize this Reality.
7.3. Tantra regards human body as a mandala a matrix of energy; and as a configuration of vital
currents (prana-shakthi). It asks the individual to respect his being for it is Isha-para the city
where Shiva dwells; to strive for self improvement; and, to keep body and mind healthy.
7.4. Tantra is the cult of householders. It does not encourage renunciation (sanyasa); but at the
same time lays emphasis on internal purity and detachment. The view of the Tantra is that no
realization is possible by negation or by escape from the world. Tantra asks the aspirants to
accept the world as it exists; and not get involved in far-fetched assumptions.
Tantra- world
8.1. Tantra believes and says; the tangible world of actual experiences is real; and, it is not in
conflict with the other. Tantras approach is thus practical; and, it attempts to be free from
conventional perfectionist clichs. Tantra is not other-worldly in its outlook. It is against
extreme asceticism; and is also against arid speculations.
8.2. Tantra strives to show a way to liberation here in this life whilst in this body and in this
world: jivanmukthi. And, that is not achieved by denial of the world, but by sustained discipline
and practice while still being in the world, amidst its pleasures. It assures that the tangible world
of day-to-day experiences is real; and is relevant in its own context. This world is a passage
towards perfection; the visible leading to the invisible. There is no conflict between this world
and the other world. It does not intend to sacrifice the present world to the other world, but
aims to somehow integrate the two into the framework of liberation. Tantra promises Bhukthi
and Mukthi: wellbeing in the present world and liberation from sorrows of the world.

Tantra approach
9.1. In the context of its times, the Tantra- approach was more open and radical. Tantra
overlooked the artificial restrictions imposed by caste and gender discrimination. And, it
willingly admitted into its common fold (samanya) the women and sudras hitherto kept outside
the pale of religious practices. The Gautamiya Tantra declares: The Tantra is for all men, of
whatever caste, and for all women (Sarva varna- adhikaraschcha naarinam yogya eva cha).
9.2. Tantra appeals to the common aspirations; and recognizes the urge of natural human desires.
It admits the ever ongoing conflict between flesh and spirit. Tantra ideology explains; every
human experience bears a subject-object relation, the enjoyer and the enjoyed. It is not feasible
either to destroy or to subjugate the object altogether; for any such attempt binds one into a
vicious circle from which there is no escape. On the other hand, it is wiser to transform the
disintegrating forces into integrating ones.
Tantra makes an amazing statement: even as the object can be overcome only by the object, the
desire can be overcome by desire. Hence the Tantra dictum: that by which one falls is also that
by which one rises (Yatraiva patanam dravyaih, siddhis-tatireva). And, Sri Aurobindo therefore
remarks: tantra turns the very obstacles to spiritual realisation into stepping stones. This is a
truly distinctive feature of Tantra.
9.3. The essence of Tantra is direct experience. Tantra sets out its approach through direct action,
in contrast to Vedic rituals performed indirectly through the priests. It says: understanding
Tantra is by doing it. Tantra cautions: There is no salvation by proxy; and definitely not through
hired priests. Each aspirant has to strive to realize the true nature of self and attain salvation.
Veda and Tantra
10.1. Veda and Tantra are two life-streams of Indian heritage; are the warp and woof of the
Indian culture and traditions. Veda is knowledge and Tantra is cult that aims at liberation. They
have enriched our lives in countless ways. Though Tantra is more visible in our day-to-day
practices, there cannot be a religious ceremony without the recitation of Vedic mantras. And,
hardly any aspect of Indian thought and usage is outside the scope of all embracing twininfluence. The two most ancient mighty rivers of tradition could not have arisen in isolation nor
could they have flourished without one influencing the other.
10.2. Yet; in the general perception, the Veda and Tantra are distinct currents of Indias spiritual,
cultural and intellectual life. Apparently, the two are not only mutually exclusive but also are
opposed to each other. And, the orthodox followers of Vedic tradition tried to distance
themselves from Tantric ideologies and stress that Tantra is not a product of Vedic wisdom.
10.3. Though the Vedic and Tantra traditions are often considered as parallel streams or even as
intertwined, their mutual relations over the centuries have not always been comfortable. It is
rather complex.

10.4. The traditional view is that Tantra and Veda are two distinct strands of Indian cultural
fabric. The orthodox assert: Tantra is cult and Veda is enlightened philosophy .Tantra, on the
other hand, put forth their own arguments.
Contrasts
11.1. In the Vedic tradition, much attention is given to knowledge the knowledge of gods, of
the Yajnas. Its approach to gods is of collective character, involving a number of priests and
adepts specialized in each part of the Yajna. The Yajnas are occasions of great celebration where
a large numbers participate enthusiastically.
11.2. The Tantra, in sharp contrast, is highly individualistic in its approach. The Tantric aspirant
strives to communicate directly with object of her/his worship; without the mediation of priests.
Tantra is upasana-prakriya based in symbolic representations (sanketa prakriya). The Tantra
ideology is, often described as symbolic wisdom, directly communicated through the teacher
(sanketha-vidya guru-vakthra gamya).
Tantra is origin of Vedas
12.1. There are other assertions that try to bind the two traditions together by saying that Veda
and Tantra are braches of a single system. For instance; Kulluka Bhatta (15th century), one of the
commentators of Manava-Dharmasastra (2.1) states that Sruti or the revealed word is twofold:
Vaidiki and Tantriki (vaidiki tantriki caiva dvividha sruti kirtita).
12.2. There is another saying which declares that Veda is, indeed, a branch of Tantra. The Agama
texts state that the discipline known as Tantra is twofold in nature: Agama and Nigama (agamam
nigamam chaiva tantra-sastram dvividha matham). Here, Nigama stands for Veda and Agama is
a system of practices inspired by Tantra ideology.
13.1. Some Tantra-texts go a step further and assert that Vedas originated from Tantra ideology
.For instance; Narayaniya-tantra claims that the Vedas were derived from the Tantra-sources:
Rig Veda from Rudra yamala; Yajur Veda from Vishnu Yamala; Sama Veda from Brahma
Yamala; and Atharva Veda from Shakthi Yamala.
13.2. The assertions that the Vedas come within the scope of Tantra or that the Vedas originated
from Tantra are rather intriguing; and it is very unlikely. Narayaniya-tantra, mentioned above, is
of recent origin (c.14th century); and it might have overstated its position in order to elevate the
Tantra School. It is very unlikely that Veda originated from Tantra.
Tantra perhaps developed largely outside the establishment and in the process developed its own
outlook and approach to life, away from the conventional purist clichs.
Tantra Veda compatible
14.1. Some texts of Tantra acknowledge that Vedas are of great antiquity and are highly revered.
Tantra accepts the authority of the Vedas; and assures it is not in conflict with Veda or any other

recognized Shastra. For instance; Kularnava Tantra says (2. 85,140,141) that Kuladharma is
based on and is inspired by the Truth of Veda (tasmat vedatmakam shastram viddhi
kaulatmakam priye).
14.2. The Tantra School explains that if one gets the impression that Tantra is opposed to Vedas,
it is partly because its approach is different, and also partly because of it attempts to give a new
interpretation to Vedic elements. Tantra argues; it essentially teaches the same tenets as the
Vedas. It is, in fact, the culmination of the philosophies of Vedanta and Samkhya. The difference
of Tantra lies in its method and certain subtle points of philosophy.
14.3. Tantra calls itself the driving force spreading the light of knowledge (Veda): Tanyate,
vistaryate janam anena, iti Tantram. The Tantra School points out that the Samhitas (mantra
portion of Vedas) and the Yajna- rituals are entwined. The mantras of Rig Veda and Sama Veda
are concerned with offering Yajnas to various deities. The hymns of Yajur Veda, in the main, are
about the actual performance of the Yajna. Above all, the Atharva Veda along with its mystic
invocations is also about the practices known as abhicara the practical applications for
medicinal, magical and other purposes. The Samhita associated with the practical aspects
Yajnas was elaborated in the later Brahmana texts. It is therefore argued that the Brahmanas are,
in fact, the Tantra of the Vedas.
15.1. The tantra ideology projects itself as the natural evolution of the thought process. The
Upanishads are appendices to the Brahmanas which, as already said, constitute the tantra or
technique of the Vedas. The older Upanishads, it said, adopted the Vedic deities and concepts for
purposes of esoteric meditation. But soon, the later Upanishads took up to Mantra
shastra or Varna sadhana, yoga and Yajna. Characteristically, a bulk of them is attached to the
Atharva Veda having direct affinity with the Tantra, in aim and content and even in form. The
Tantra School argued that Tantra-ideology is thus at the core of the Vedas. Pranatoshini tantra
claims: Veda is an extension of Tantra.
15.2. Vedas may not have originated from Tantra. But, there appears to be some substance in
other arguments of Tantra School. Over the centuries, the movement of all thought process has
been from the general to the particular, from esoteric to the more explicit. It is the progression
from principles and theories to their practical applications; simulating the relation between
science and technology. In the Indian context, the Veda in the distant past was highly idealized
poetry inspired by awe and wonder of the surrounding nature and a yearning for a true
understanding of the mysteries of the Universe. The Upanishads that followed took up the germ
ideas hidden in the philosophical hymns of the Vedas and expanded them into series of
discussions. The Puranas conserved and propagated the exoteric ritualistic aspects of the Vedas
through the medium of wonderfully delightful legends that common people could relate to and
enjoy.
The Tantra brought into its fold the esoteric teaching and practice of the Vedic mystics; the
techniques of Yoga; and the sense of absolute surrender and intense devotion to ones ideal as
extolled in the Puranas .It synthesized all those adorable elements and turned them into forms of
worship-practices (archa) designed to satisfy the needs and aspirations of ordinary men and
women of the world, in their own context. The growth and development of Indian thought

resembles the imagery of the inverted tree of which our ancients were very fond with its roots
in the sky and its fruit-laden branches spreading down towards the earth.
15.3. It is said; the Vedas represent distant past; the Smrti-texts represent middle-times; and, the
Puranas represent mythical past. And today, it is the Tantra and Agamas that are most relevant.
Some Tantra-texts even remark that Vedas had become too distant and rather outdated because of
their extreme (viparita) age. Its roots are lost in the distant antiquity; its intent is not easily
understood; and, its gods and its rites are almost relics of the past. The men of the present age no
longer have the capacity, longevity and moral strength necessary to carry out Vedic-karmakanda. And, therefore Tantra, says, it prescribes a special sadhana or means of its own, to enable
common people to attain the objectives of Shastra. Therefore, Tantra claimed, it arrived to
rejuvenate the Vedic texts and also to rescue men from the depths of depravity.
Tantra Veda reproachment
16.1. Although Tantra and Vedic traditions started on divergent approach, in course of time there
was reproachment between the two; and the two came closer. Tantra called itself the culmination
of esoteric knowledge of Vedanta; and, came to be known as a special branch of Veda: Srutishakha-vishesha. It even said; the Vedic religion in its essence has survived and spread to
common people through Tantra. The Tantra texts assert that the Tantra-Sadhaka must be a pure
person (shuddhatma), a true believer (astika), and must have faith in the Vedas.
16.2. Tantra drew many details from Vedic and Yoga traditions and adopted many more with
suitable additions and alterations. Its originality lies in the manner it organized various
components into a creative, imaginative pattern. The Tantra in general simplified the Vedic
rituals and made greater use of esoteric symbols.For instance; although the celebrated Gayatri
mantra (3.62.10) of Rig Veda is dedicated to the Vedic solar deity Savitr, it was adopted by
Tantra as the representation of the Mother Goddess. The Dhyana-slokas portray the picture of a
goddess. The repetition of the Gayatri is preceded by mystic syllables known as Vyahritis which
are similar to the Bija-aksharas of Tantric meditation.
16.3. Similarly the hymn of benediction from Rig Veda (1.89.6) was adopted for worship of
Shakthi. Kaula rites were interpreted through the imageries of the Yajna. Tantra developed texts
in the mode of Vedic scriptures. For the worship of gods Ganesha, Karthikeya and Vishnu the
Sama-Vidhana-Brahmana prescribed the collection of hymns known as Vinayaka Samhita (S.
V. 4. 5. 3. 3), Skanda-Samhita (S. V. 3. 2. l. 4) and the Vishnu-Samhita (S. V. 3. l. 3. 9),
respectively. Some say; Vedic elements were introduced into Tantra texts to lend them greater
acceptance, an air of authenticity and respectability.
17.1. In a like manner, the Vedic tradition admitted within its fold the Samkhya and Yoga
Schools aligned to Tantra ideology. The orthodox texts accommodated the concepts transformed
from Tantra. For instance; the ancient Vedic mantra Savitri was accepted as the Mother goddess
(asya maata Savitri: Manu.2.170). And, Chandogya Upanishad (3.12) glorified Gayatri as being
that which exists right here, that which sings (gayati ) and saves (trayati) all things in their
Reality. Further, many of the later Upanishads of sectarian character are about Tantric subjects.
The recital of Vedic hymns now accompanies the various worship-rituals of Tantric nature. There

cannot a religious ceremony without the recitation of Vedic mantras .And, the Vedic rituals are
preceded by purification rituals like achamana, pranayama etc which are adopted from Tantra
and Yoga.
Tantra Impact
18.1. The living religion of Hindus, as practiced today, is almost entirely Tantric in nature. The
Tantra doctrine and worship- rituals woven into Indian culture are now an integral part of Indian
religions. The Hindu, Buddhist and Jain ideas, beliefs, and practices of worship are permeated
with Tantra. The Tantra ideology continues to form a part, in one form or other, of all Indian
spiritual practices. The common worship practices from the lowest to the most advanced both
at home or in temples is, almost entirely, based in the Tantra philosophy of duality, in its outlook
and in its approach to god. Except for Vedic Yajnas, every religious sect in India uses tantric
modes of worship for its rituals and spiritual practices both external and internal.
18.2. In todays world, it is the Tantra that has greater impact on socio religious cultural practices
than the Vedas. Despite its blemishes and the abuses it received, Tantra is the most popular mode
of worship conducted at homes and in temples. It provides comfort to the devotees through its
ritualistic, philosophical, and mystic aspects. The scholars hold the view: what we today have
come to appreciate as Indian culture and religion is more influenced by the subtle character of
Tantra than the Vedas.
19.1. The reasons for growing influence of Tantra are not far to seek. Its importance is
heightened mainly because of the fading influence of the ancient Vedic texts.The precepts of the
Vedas (say, maintaining various ritual fires at home) have become too difficult for our age. The
stipulations for conduct of Vedic Yajnas have become rather impractical in the present context.
The life-styles prescribed for Vedic practitioners have also become outdated; and are difficult to
follow. The Vedic ideals, its gods and its view of the prospects in after- life seem too distant. The
idealism of Upanishads and its contemplative philosophy are ethereal; and are beyond the ken of
common people. The legends vividly narrated by the Puranas sound fantastically unrealistic.
19.2. The common people yearn for a relation with the object of their worship. They need a god
to love, to devote, to highly respect, to submit or even to fear. They look up to a god who loves
and rescues from difficulties; protects the good; and punishes the evil. The devotee prays for
happiness, success and enjoyment in the world. At the same time she/he also has a resolve
(sankalpa) for mukthi, the ultimate-good.
People need something concrete, simple, and yet attractive to worship and to address their
prayers. Tantra practices lead men and women to seek the divine with the help of bera, murti and
other forms whose shape is symbolic. Tantra, in its simple form, with its dualistic approach; its
sense of devotion, dedication and complete submission to the chosen deity (ishta-devata) fulfils
the deepest desire of all. Tantra seems an easier cult with easier doctrine. At another level, it
lends various ritual practices mental and physical- meditation, visualization, invoking the
presence of the deity in ones body (nyasa), mantras and mudras all aiming to achieve
identification with the object of their worship.

Summing up
20.1. Sir John Woodroffe, the greatest exponent of Tantra-vidya in recent times, in his lectures on
Tantra Shastra and Veda, summed it up excellently with a remarkable statement: The
application of Tantric principles in worship-rituals is a question of form. And, all forms do
change with the passage of time. Accordingly, the structure and content of worship-rituals are
context-sensitive. And, they vary from region to region and from time to time to satisfy the needs
of the age and the aspirations of worshippers in accordance with the degree of spiritual
advancement of the body of men who practice it.
Tantra and its rituals might therefore undergo changes over a period. But, the ancient and sturdy
foundations of Veda and Vedanta on which Tantra rests will remain unaltered and unaffected.
20.2. The Agama Tantra tradition is as important and as authentic as the Vedic tradition. Tantra
despite, its variations, is a specific system within the general system of Hinduism. The relevance
of Tantra in the life of common people of today is mainly through worship practices carried out
at homes and temples following the procedures laid down by Agamas. Agama is the Sadhana part
of Tantra. The two permeate the religious life of most Hindus.
Lets talk of Agamas in the next part.
Continued in part two
References and Sources
1. A Companion to Tantra by S C Banerji ; Abhinav Publications (2007)
2. Tantra: its mystic and scientific basis by Lalan Prasad Singh ;Concept Publishing Company
(1976)
3. Tribal roots of Hinduism by SK Tiwari ; Sarup & Sons (2002)
4. The Tantric way by Ajit Mukherjee and Madhu Khanna ; Thames & Hudson (1977)
5. Agama Kosha by Prof. SK Ramachandra Rao ; Kalpataru Research Academy (1994)
6. The Perspective of the Tantras By K. Guru Dutt
http://yabaluri.org/TRIVENI/CDWEB/theperspectiveofthetantrassept45.htm
7. Tantra Shastra and Veda by Sir John Woodroffe
http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/sas/sas04.htm
8. The Tantras: An Overview by Swami Samarpanananda

9. Evolution of Tantra by Nitin Sridhar

http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Evolution-of-Tantra-1.aspx
4 Comments
Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12, 2012 in Agama, Tantra

Tags: Agama, nigama, Tantra, Veda, Veda and Tantra

Agama Shastra And Temple Worship

07 Sep
T

The Hindu temples are complex institutions. They represent the culmination of social and
religious aspirations of a society. Temple is the focal point in the life of a community and often
represents its pride, identity and unity. It is also the index of the communitys wellbeing. It draws
into its fold people from its various segments and denominations; and binds them together. In
smaller communities the temple apart from being a source of spiritual or religious comfort, also
serves as centre for education and recreation.

A temple is also a treasure house of art and architecture, designed according to the principle of
Vaastu Shastra, characterized by their majesty, serenity and beauty of intricate sculpture and
designs. A temple evokes in the visitor a sense of beauty in art and in life as well. It lifts up his
spirit, elevates him to a higher plane dissolving his little ego. At the same time, it awakens him to
his insignificance in the grand design of the Creator.
The most significant aspect of the temple worship is its collective character. Peoples
participation is both the purpose and the means of a temple. The community is either actually or
symbolically involved in temple worship. The rituals that dominate temple worship are therefore
socio- religious in character.
The worship in a temple has to satisfy the needs of individuals as also of the community. The
worships that take place in the sanctum and within the temple premises are important; so are the
festivals and occasional processions that involve direct participation of the entire community.
They complement each other. While the worship of the deity in the sanctum might be an
individuals spiritual or religious need ; the festival s are the expression of a communitys joy ,
exuberance , devotion , pride and are also an idiom of a communitys cohesiveness .
The appointed priests carry out the worship in the temple on behalf of other devotees. It is hence
parartha, a service conducted for the sake of others. Priests, generally, trained in ritual
procedures, pursue the service at the temple as a profession. As someone remarked, other
people may view their work as worship, but for the priests worship is work. They are trained in
the branch of the Agama of a particular persuasion. The texts employed in this regard describe
the procedural details of temple worship, elaborately and precisely.

Agama
The term Agama primarily means tradition; Agama represents the previously ordained practices
generally held in regard (Agama loka-dharmanaam maryada purva-nirmita -Mbh 8.145.61).
Agama is also that which helps to understand things correctly and comprehensively. Agama
Shastras are not part of the Vedas. The Agamas do not derive their authority directly from the
Vedas. They are Vedic in spirit and character and make use of Vedic mantras while performing
the service.
The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. It
can be viewed as nishkala, formless absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects.
Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. It is analogues, as the Agama
texts explain, to the oil in the sesame-seed, fire in the fuel, butter in milk, and scent in flower. It
is in human as antaryamin, the inner guide. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense
organs, which includes mind.
Sakala, on the other hand, is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel, oil
extracted out of the seed, butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the
fragrance that spreads and delights all. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and
humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. The Agamas recognize that means
as the archa, the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity.
The Vedas do not discuss about venerating the icons; though the icons (prathima or prathika)
were known to be in use. Their preoccupation was more with the nature, abstract divinities and
not with their physical representations. The Vedas did however employ a number of symbols,
such as the wheel, umbrella, spear, noose, foot-prints, lotus, goad and vehicles etc. These
symbols, in the later ages, became a part of the vocabulary of the iconography.

The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas .They spoke about thirty-three divinities
classified into those of the earth, heaven and intermediate regions. Those comprised twelve
adityas, aspects of energy and life; eleven rudras, aspects ferocious nature; eight vasus, the
directional forces; in addition to the earth and the space.
The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were later condensed to three viz. Agni, the aspect of
fire, energy and life on earth; Vayu, the aspect of space, movement and air in the mid-region; and
Surya the universal energy and life that sustains and governs all existence, in the heavenly
region, the space. This provided the basis for the evolution of the classic Indian trinity, the
Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
Rig Veda at many places talks in terms of saguna, the supreme divinity with attributes. The
Vedanta ideals of the absolute, attribute- less and limit-less universal consciousness evolved as
refinements of those Vedic concepts. The Upanishads are the pinnacles of idealism that oversee
all horizons. But, in practice common people worshipped variety of gods in variety of ways for
variety of reasons. They are relevant in the context of each ones idea of needs and aspirations;
fears and hopes; safety and prosperity; and, the pleasures and pains.

One often hears Agama and Nigama mentioned in one breath as if one follows the other or that
both are closely related. However, Nigama stands for Vedas and Agama is identified with
Tantra.The two traditions- Veda and Tantra hold divergent views on matters such as God;
relationship between man and God; the ways of worship; and path to salvation etc.The Vedic
concept of God is omniscient, omnipotent, a formless absolute entity manifesting itself in
phenomenal world of names and forms. The Agama which is a part of Tantra regards God as a
personal deity with recognizable forms and attributes.
Vedic worship is centered on the fire (the Yajna), certain religious and domestic rituals, (shrauta
sutraas and griyha sutraas), and the sacraments, (samskaara). In this tradition, the gods and their
descriptions are, mostly, symbolic. The hymns of the Rig Veda are the inspired outpourings of
joy and revelations through sublime poetry. The Yajur and Sama Vedas do contain suggestions of
sacrifices; but they too carry certain esoteric symbolic meaning. Very few of these rituals are in
common practice today.
The most widespread rituals of worship today are of the Aagamic variety. The Agama methods
are worship of images of God through rituals (Tantra), symbolic charts (Yantra) and verbal
symbols (Mantra). Agama regards devotion and complete submission to the deity as fundamental
to pursuit of its aim; and hopes that wisdom, enlightenment (jnana) would follow, eventually, by
the grace of the worshipped deity. The Agama is basically dualistic, seeking grace, mercy and
love of the Supreme God represented by the personal deity, for liberation from earthly
attachments (moksha).
As compared to Vedic rituals (Yajnas) which are collective in form, where a number of priests
specialized in each disciple of the Sacrifical aspects participate; the Tantra or Agamic worship is
individualistic in character. It views the rituals as a sort of direct communication between the
worshipper and his or her personal deity. The Yajnas always take place in public places and are
of congregational nature; and in which large numbers participate with gaiety and enthusiasm. A

Tantra ritual, on the other hand, is always carried out in quiet privacy; self discipline and
intensity is its hallmark, not exuberance or enthusiasm.
The temple worship is the culmination of dissimilar modes or streams of worship. Here, at the
temple, both the Agama worship-sequences and the symbolic Tantric rituals take place; but each
in its sphere. A temple in Hindu tradition is a public place of worship; several sequences of
worship are conducted in full view of the worshipping devotees; and another set of Tantric rituals
are conducted by the priests in the privacy of the sanctum away from public gaze. The worship
or service to the Deity is respectfully submitted to the accompaniment of chanting of passages
and mantras taken from Vedas. There also plenty of celebrations where all segments of the
community joyously participate (janapada) with great enthusiasm and devotion; such as the
periodic Utsavas, processions, singing, dancing, playacting, colorful lighting, spectacular
fireworks , offerings of various kinds etc.; as also various forms of physical austerities
accompanied by sincere prayers.
It could be argued that a representation of the Supreme Godhead is theoretically impossible; yet
one has also to concede that an image helps in contemplation, visualization and concretization of
ideas and aspirations. Towards that end, the worship in a temple takes the aid several streams
ideologies and practices.
****
The temple worship , per se, is guided by its related Agama texts which invariably borrow the
mantras from the Vedic traditions and the ritualistic details from Tantric traditions. This has the
advantage of claiming impressive validity from Nigama, the Vedas; and at the same time,
carrying out popular methods of worship.
For instance, the Bodhayana shesha sutra and Vishhnu-pratishtha kalpa outline certain rite for the
installation of an image of Vishnu and for conduting other services. The Agama texts combined
the rules of the Grihya sutras with the Tantric practices and formed their own set of rules.
While installing the image of the deity, the Grihya Sutras do not envisage Pranaprathistapana ritual (transferring life into the idol by breathing life into it); but the Agamas
borrowed this practice from the Tantra school and combined it with the Vedic ceremony of
opening the eyes of the deity with a needle. While rendering worship to the deity the Agamas
discarded the Tantric mantras; and instead adopted Vedic mantras even for services such as
offering ceremonial bath , waving lights etc. though such practices were not a part of the Vedic
mode of worship. The Agamas, predominantly, adopted the Vedic style Homas and Yajnas, which
were conducted in open and in which a large number of people participated. But, the Agamas
did not reject the Tantric rituals altogether; and some of them were conducted within the sanctum
away from common view..
The Vaikhanasa Vasishnava archana vidhi, which perhaps was the earliest text of its kind,
codified the of worship practices by judicious combination of Vedic and Tantric procedures. In
addition, the worship routine was rendered more colorful and attractive by incorporating a
number of ceremonial services (upacharas) and also presentations of music, dance, drama and

other performing arts. It also brought in the Janapada, the popular celebrations like Uthsavas
etc, These ensured larger participation of the enthusiastic devotees.
The Agamas tended to create their own texts. That gave rise to a new class of texts and rituals;
and coincided with the emergence of the large temples. It is not therefore surprising that townplanning, civil constructions and the arts occupy the interest of early Agamas.
In due course the Agama came to be accepted as a subsidiary culture (Vedanga) within the Vedic
framework.
***
Agamas are a set of ancient texts and are the guardians of tradition . They broadly deal
with jnana(knowledge), Yoga (meditation), Kriya (rituals) and Charya (ways of worship).The
third segment Kriya(rituals) articulate with precision the principles and practices of deity
worship the mantras, mandalas, mudras etc.; the mental disciplines required for the worship;
the rules for constructing temples and sculpting the images. They also specify the conduct of
other worship services, rites, rituals and festivals. The fourth one, Charya, deals with priestly
conduct and other related aspects. [Incidentally, the Buddhist and the Jaina traditions too follow
this four-fold classification; and with similar details].
The Texts hold the view that Japa, homa, dhyana and Archa are the four methods of approaching
the divine; and of these, the Archa (worship) is the most comprehensive method. This is the faith
on which the Agama shastra is based. The Agama shastra is basically concerned with the
attitudes, procedure and rituals of deity worship in the temples. But it gets related to icons and
temple structures rather circuitously. It says, if an image has to be worshipped, it has to be
worship- worthy. The rituals and sequences of worship are relevant only in the context of an icon
worthy of worship; and such icon has to be contained in a shrine. And an icon is meaningful only
in the context of a shrine that is worthy to house it. That is how the Agama literature makes its
presence felt in the Shilpa-Sastra, Architecture. The icon and its form; the temple and its
structure; and the rituals and their details, thus get interrelated. The basic idea is that a temple
must be built for the icon, and not an icon got ready for the temples, for a temple is really only an
outgrowth of the icon, an expanded image of the icon.

The Shipa Shatras of the Agamas describe the requirements of the temple site; building
materials; dimensions, directions and orientations of the temple structures; the image and its
specifications. The principal elements are Sthala (temple site); Teertha (Temple tank)
and Murthy (the idol).
I am not sure about the historical development of the Agamas. However, I think, the most of the
present-day Hindu rituals of worship seem to have developed after the establishment of the six
orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy (darshanas). The changes in religious rituals from the
Vedic to the Aagamic seem consonant with the themes prevalent in the six orthodox systems. A
very significant change is the integration of Yoga methodology into the rituals. Four of these
eight stages are an integral part of all worship , namely, posture, (aasana), breath (life force)control, (praanaayaama), placing or fixation, (nyaasa or dhaaranaa), and deep concentration
and contemplation (dhyaana). . The temple architecture too follows the structure of the human
body and the six chakras as in yoga.
Surely the Agama tradition began to flourish after the 10th or the 11th century with the advent of
the Bhakthi School.
**

There are three main divisions in Agama shastra, the Shaiva, the Shaktha and Vaishnava. The
Shaiva branch of the Agama deals with the worship of the deity in the form of Shiva. This branch
in turn has given rise to Shaiva Siddantha of the South and the Prathyabijnana School of Kashmir
Shaivisim. The Shaktha Agama prescribes the rules and tantric rituals for worship of Shakthi,
Devi the divine mother. The third one, Vaishanava Agama adores God as Vishnu the protector.
This branch has two major divisions Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra. The latter in turn has a sub
branch called Tantra Sara followed mainly by the Dvaita sect (Madhwas).
Each Agama consists of four parts. The first part includes the philosophical and spiritual
knowledge. The second part covers the yoga and the mental discipline. The third part specifies
rules for the construction of temples and for sculpting and carving the figures of deities for
worship in the temples. The fourth part of the Agamas includes rules pertaining to the
observances of religious rites, rituals, and festivals.
Agama is essentially a tradition and Tantra is a technique; but both share the same ideology.But,
Agama is wider in its scope; and contains aspects oh theory, discussion and speculation.
The term Agama is used usually for the Shaiva and Vasishnava traditions and the Shaktha cult is
termed as Tantric. But, there is an element of Tantra in Agama worship too, particularly in
Pancharatra.
***
Vaikhanasa Agamas

As regards Vaikhanasa, after the emergence of temple culture, Vaikhanasa appear to have been
the first set of professional priests and they chose to affiliate to the Vedic tradition. That may
perhaps be the reason they are referred to also as Vaidikagama or Sruthagama. Yet, there is no
definite explanation for the term Vaikhanasa. Some say it ascribed to Sage Vaikhanasa
whowho taught his four disciples: Atri, Bhrighu, Kasyapa, and Marichi; while some others say it
is related to vanaprastha, a community of forest-dwellers.
Vaikhanasa claim to be a surviving school of Vedic ritual propagated by the sage Vaikhanasa.
The Vaikhanasa tradition asserts that it is the most ancient; traces its origin to Vedas and
steadfastly holds on to the Vedic image of Vishnu. For the Vaikhanasa, Vishnu alone is the object
of worship; and that too the pristine Vishnu in his Vedic context and not as Vasudeva or
Narayana. Though it admits that Vasudeva or Narayana could be synonyms for Vishnu, it prefers
to address the Godhead as Vishnu, the Supreme.
Vaikhanasa worship is, therefore, essentially Vishnu oriented. And, it assures that when Vishnu is
invoked and worshipped, it means the presence of all other gods and their worship too (Vishnor
archa sarva devarcha bhavathi).Hence, according to Vaikhanasa, worship of Vishnu means
worship of all gods.
Agama Grihya sutras explain: the Godhead is formless nishkala; filled with luster tejomaya;
beyond comprehension achintya; and is of the nature of pure existence, consciousness and
bliss sat-chit-ananda; and abides in the heart-lotus -hridaya-kamala- of the devotee.
But because of the limitations of the human mind the worship of Brahman with form, sakala, is
deemed essentialfor all of us who live ordinary lives. The human mind finds it easier to deal with
forms, shapes and attributes than with the formless absolute.A sense of devotion envelops the
mind and heart when the icon that is properly installed and consecrated is worshipped with love
and reverence.By constant attention to the icon, by seeing it again and again and by offering it
various services of devotional worship, the icon is invested with divine presence and its worship
ensures our good here (aihika) and also our ultimate good or emancipation (amusmika).That is
the reason the texts advise that icon worship must be resorted to by all, especially by those
involved in the transactional world. In the Agama texts, the Nishkala aspect continues to be
projected as the ultimate, even as they emphasize the relevance and importance of
the sakala aspect. The devotee must progressively move from gross sthula to the subtle sukshma.
The worship of gods is of two modes: iconic (sa-murta) and non-iconic (a-murta).The Yajna, the
worship of the divine through fire, is a-murta; while the worship offered to an icon is sa-murta.
According to Vaikhanasas, though yajna might be more awe-inspiring, Archa (worship or puja)
the direct communion with your chosen deity is more appealing to ones heart, is more colorful
and is aesthetically more satisfying.
The Vaikhanasas were greatly in favor of iconic worship of Vishnu; but they did take care to
retain their affiliation to the Vedic tradition. Not only that; the Vaikhanasa redefined the context
and emphasis of the Yajna. The Yajna, normally, is ritual dominant, with Vishnu in the backdrop.
But, the Vaikhanasa interpreted Yajna as worship of Vishnu; and, Yajna as Vishnu himself (yajno
vai Vishnuhu). The religious scene shifted from the Yajna mantapa to temple enclosures. Vedic

rituals were gradually subordinated to worship of Vishnu. But, the Vedic rituals were not given
up entirely.Employment of Vedic passages and mantras during the rites lent an air of purity and
merit to the rituals.The Vedic rites too were incorporated into the worship sequences in the
temple. Along with the rituals, it stressed on devotion to Vishnu and his worship. The Vaikhanasa
thus crystallized the Vishnu cult and lent it a sense of direction.
The very act of worship (archa) is deemed dear to Vishnu. The major thrust of Vaikhanasa texts
is to provide clear, comprehensive and detailed guidelines for Vishnu worship. The Vaikhanasa
texts are characterized by their attention to details of worship-sequences. It is not therefore
surprising that Vaikhanasas do not employ the term Agama to describe their text .They know
their text as Bhagava archa-shastra.
The characteristic Vaikhanasa view point is that the pathway to salvation is not devotion alone;
but it is icon-worship (samurtha-archana) with devotion (bhakthi). The archa with devotion is
the best form of worship, because the icon that is beautiful will engage the mind and delight the
heart of the worshipper. That would easily evoke feeling of loving devotion (bhakthi) in the
heart of the worshipper. The icon is no longer just a symbol; the icon is a true divine
manifestation enliven by loving worship, devotion, and absolute surrender (parathion). And,
Vishnu is best approached by this means.
The Agamas combine two types of scriptures: one providing the visualization of the icon form;
and the other giving details of preparation of icon for worship. This is supplemented by
prescriptions for worship of the image and the philosophy that underlies it.
The Agamas also deal with building a shrine to Vishnu (karayathi mandiram); making a
worship-worthy beautiful idol (pratima lakshana vatincha kritim); and worshipping everyday
(ahanyahani yogena yajato yan maha-phalam). The Agamas primarily refer to ordering ones life
in the light of values of icon worship (Bhagavadarcha). It ushers in a sense of duty, commitment
and responsibility.
For worship, Godhead is visualized as in solar orb (arka-mandala) or in sanctified water-jala
kumbha; or in an icon (archa-bera).
When Godhead is visualized as a worship-worthy icon, a human form with distinguishable
features (sakala) is attributed to him. Vishnus form for contemplation (dhyana) and worship
(archa) is four armed, carrying shanka, chakra, gadha and padma. His countenance is beatific
radiating peace and joy (saumya), delight to behold soumya-priya-darshana, his complexion is
rosy pink wearing golden lustrous garment (pitambara). A beautiful image of Vishnu with a
delightful smiling countenance and graceful looks must be meditated upon.
As regards its philosophy, Srinivasa makhin (c.1059 AD), a Vaikhanasa Acharya, terms it
asLakshmi-Visitad-vaita.Though the term Visistadvaita has been employed, the philosophical and
religious positions taken by Srinivasa makhin vary significantly from that of Sri Ramanuja in
his Sri Bhashya.

Srinivasa makhin in his Tatparya chintamani (dasa vidha hetu nirupa) explains that Brahman
(paramatman) is nishkala (devoid of forms and attributes) as also sakala (with forms and
attributes).They truly are one; not separate. The sakala aspect is distinguished by its association
with Lakshmi (Prakrti). For the purpose of devotion and worship the sakala aspect is excellent.
The Vaikhanasa therefore views its ideology as Lakshmi-visitadaita (the advaita, non-duality,
refers to Vishnu associated with Lakshmi) Lakshmi is inseparable from Vishnu like moon and
moonlight. Isvara associated with Lakshmi (Lakshmi visita isvara tattvam) is Vishnu. Those
devoted to him as Vaishnavas.If Vishnu (purusha) grants release from the phenomenal fetters
(Mukthi), Lakshmi (Prakrti) presides over bhukthi the fulfillment of normal aspirations in ones
life. The two must be worshipped together.
Srinivasa makhin explains that in the Pranava (Om-kara), O-kara represents Vishnu; UKara:
Lakshmi and Ma-kara, the devotee. The Om-kara binds the three together.
According to Vaikhanasa ideology, the four aspects of Vishnu
-Purusha, Satya, Achyuta andAniruddha- are identified
with Dharma (virtue), Jnana (wisdom), Aishvarya (sovereignty) and vairagya (dispassion). Of
the four faces of Vishnu, the Purusha is to the East; Satya to the South; Achyuta to the west;
and Aniruddha to the North. The four virtues or planes Vishnu are regarded the four quarters
(pada) of Brahman: aamoda, pramoda, sammoda and vaikuntaloka (sayujya) the highest abode
parama pada.
[The individual jiva that frees itself from the fetters of the transactional world enters into the
sphere of Vishnu vishnuloka through four successive stages; each stage being designated a plane
of Vishnu-experience Vaishnava-ananda. The first stage is aamoda where the jiva experiences
the pleasure of residing in the same plane as the Godhead is Vishnu (saalokya)- associated with
Aniruddha. The next stage is pramoda where the jiva experiences the great delight of residing in
proximity to with the Godhead Maha-vishnu (saamipya)-associated with Achyuta. The stage
higher than that is saamodawhere the jiva experiences the joy of obtaining the same form as the
Godhead sadaa-Vishnu (sa-rupya) associated with Satya. The highest plane is vaikunta
loka where the individual jiva experiences the supreme joy of union with the Godhead Vyapinarayana (sayujya)- associated with Purusha.]
In the context of the temple worship and layout, the four forms represent the four iconic variants
of the main image in the sanctum (dhruva bhera) which represents Vishnu. And, within the
temple complex, each form is accorded a specific location; successively away from the dhruva
bhera. Purusha symbolized by Kautuka-bera is placed in the sanctum very close to dhruva
bhera; Satya symbolized by Utsava-bera (processional deity) is placed in the next pavilion
outside the sanctum; Achyuta symbolized by snapana-bera (oblation) too is placed outside the
sanctum; and Aniruddhda symbolized by Bali bera (to which food offerings are submitted) is
farthest from the dhruva-bhera in the sanctum.
As regards its differences with the other Vaishava Agama the Pancharatra, the Texts such
asprakina-adhikara (kriya-pada, ch 30 -5 to 11) mention that Vaikhanasa mode of worship is
more in accordance with Vedic tradition (which does not recognize initiation rites such as
branding);Vaikhanasa worshipper being deemed garba-vaishnava janmanam; he is Vaishnava

by his very birth, not needing any initiatory rites (diksha) or branding.The Vaikhanasa are
distinguished by acceptance of Vishnu in his Vedic context. Vishnu is supreme; and Vishnu alone
is the object of worship. Though they are now a recognized sect of Sri Vaishnavas, their
allegiance to Sri Ramanuja as the Guru or to the Alvars or to the Visistadvaita philosophy is
rather formal. They also do not recite passages from the Tamil Prabandham. The worship is
conducted mainly through verses selected from Rig Veda and Yajur Veda; and performance of the
yajna as prescribed in Krishna-yajur Veda. There is also not much use of the Tantra elements of
worship such as uttering Beeja-mantras etc, except for the sequence of projecting the deity from
ones heart into the icon; that is, the assumed identification of the devotee with the deity during
the worship . The Vaikhanasa worshipper, in privacy behind the screen, recites the atmasukta aiming to enter into a state of meditative absorption with Vishnu. That is followed by the
symbolic ritual placements (nyasas). The icon attains divinity after invocation (avahana) of life
force; while divinity always abides in the worshipper.
The Vaikhanasa is regarded orthodox for yet another reason; they consider the life of the
householder as the best among the four stages of life. Because, it is the householder that
supports, sustains and carries forward the life and existence of the society. They treat the worship
at home as more important than worship at the temple. A Vaikhanasa is therefore required to
worship the deities at his home even in case he is employed as a priest at the temple. There is not
much prominence for a Yati or a Sanyasi in this scheme of things. They decry a person seeking
salvation for himself without discharging his duties, responsibilities and debts to his family, to
his guru and to his society.
The Agama texts make a clear distinction between the worship carried out at his home
(atmartha) and the worship carried out as priest at a temple(parartha ) for which he gets paid.
This distinction must have come into being with the proliferation of temples and with the advent
of temple-worship-culture. It appears to have been a departure from the practice of worship at
home, an act of devotion and duty. Rig Vedic culture was centered on home and worship at
home.
The worship at home is regarded as motivated by desire for attainments and for spiritual benefits
(Sakshepa). In the temple worship, on the other hand, the priest does not seek spiritual benefits in
discharge of his duties (nirakshepa). He worships mainly for the fulfillment of the desires of
those who pray at the temple. That, perhaps, appears to be the reason for insisting that a priest
should worship at his home before taking up his temple duties.

Traditionally, a person who receives remuneration for worshipping a deity is not held in high
esteem. The old texts sneer at a person displaying icons to eke out a living. That perhaps led to
a sort of social prejudices and discriminations among the priestly class. But, with the change of
times, with the social and economic pressures and with a dire need to earn a living, a distinct
class of temple-priests, naturally, crystallysized into a close knit in-group with its own ethos and
attitudes. Whatever might be the past, one should recognize that temples are public places of
worship; the priests are professionals trained and specialized in their discipline; and they
constitute an important and a legitimate dimension of the temple-culture. There is absolutely no
justification in looking down upon their profession. Similarly, the Agamas , whatever is their
persuasion, are now primarily concerned with worship in temples. And, their relevance or their
preoccupation, in the past, with worship at home, has largely faded away.
Pancharatra Agama
From the end of the tenth century Vaikhanasa are prominently mentioned in South Indian
inscriptions. Vaikhanasas were the priests of Vaishnava temples and were also the admistrators.
However with the advent of Sri Ramanuja, who was also the first organizer of temple
administration at Srirangam Temple, the Vaikhanasa system of worship lost its prominence and
gave place to the more liberal Pancharatra system .Sri Ramanuja permitted participation of lower
castes and ascetics , the Sanyasis ( who were not placed highly in the Vaikhanasa scheme) in
temple services. He also expanded the people participation in other areas too with the
introduction of Uthsavas, celebrations, festivals, Prayers etc. This change spread to other
Vaishnava temples particularly in Tamil Nadu. Vaikhanasas, however, continues to be important
in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and in some temples of Tamil Nadu. It was explained that while
the srauta and smarta rituals of the Vedas were intended for the intellectuals, the Pancharatra

was given to ordinary people who longed to worship with heart full of devotion and absolute
surrender to the will of God.
As regards Pancharatra, it appears to have been a later form of worship that gained prominence
with the advent of Sri Ramanuja. Pancharathra claims its origin from Sriman Narayana himself.
Here Vishnu is worshipped as the Supreme Godhead. Pancharatra described as Bhagavata
shastraor Vasudeva matha is centered on worship of Vishnuthe Godhead (Bhagavan)
as Narayana identified with Vasudeva of the Vrishni clan. He is regarded as Bhagavan as He is
the manifestation of six divine
attributes: jnana (omniscience), shakthi (omnipotence), bala (unhindered
energy), aishvarya(sovereignty), virya (matchless valor)and tejas (great splendor).
Pancharatra as a system of thought prescribes that worldly involvement must be minimized
(nivrtti) in order to engage oneself exclusively in devotion to Bhagavan (ekanta bhakthi). The
Pancharatra doctrine is associated with the Samkhya ideologies.
The Pancharatra philosophy is characterized by its conception of the Supreme assuming five
modes of being (prakara). They are in brief:
Para, or transcendent form;
Vyuha or the categorized form as Vasudeva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, who are
brought together in worship and adoration as a complete body of divine power;
Vaibhava, or the several incarnation of God;
Archa, or the form of God worshipped in an image or an idol symbolizing the Universal entity;
And, Antaryamin, or the indwelling immanent form of God as present throughout in creation.
The recognition of three modes of the Deity (para, vyuha and vibhava) assumes great importance
in the context of Pancharatra ideology and practice of icon-worship (archa).
The peak of Vaishnava devotion is in Dashamaskanda, the Tenth Book of the Bhagavata
Purana, and in Nalayira Prabhandam the four thousand Tamil verses of the Vaishnava saints, the
Alvars; and especially in the thousand songs known as Tiruvaimozhi of Nammalvar. The ecstasy
of the Gopi-type of God intoxicated-love is exhilarating and gives raise to divine intoxication
in Nammalvars poetic compositions.
Therefore, the Tamils verses and songs are prominent in Pancharatra worship. This method also
employs more Tantras, Mandalas and Uthsavas which makes room for a large number of
devotees of all segments of the society to participate. There are more Jaanapada (popular)
methods of worship than mere Vedic performance of Yajnas. Even here, each prominent temple
follows its favorite text. That is the reason there are some minor differences even among the
Pancharatra temples.

The differences between the two systems

As regards the differences between the two systems, one of the major differences is their view of
the Supreme Godhead Vishnu. The Vaikhanasas view Vishnu in the Vedic context ; as the allpervading supreme deity as Purusha, the principle of life; Sathya, the static aspect of deity;
Atchuta, the immutable aspect; and Aniruddha, the irreducible aspect. Here the worshipper
contemplates on the absolute form (nishkala) of Vishnu in the universe and as present in the
worshippers body; and transfers that spirit into the immovable idol (Dhruva Bheru) and requests
the Vishnu to accept worship. Vishnu is then worshipped as the most honored guest. Lakshmi ,
Shri is important as nature, prakriti, and as the power, Shakti, of Vishnu.
The smaller movable images represent Vishnus Sakala that is the manifest, divisible and
emanated forms. The large immovable image representing Vishnus niskala form, ritually placed
in a sanctuary and elaborately consecrated; and the smaller movable images representing
Vishnus sakala form are treated differently.
The Pancharatra regards Narayana and Vasudeva too as forms of Vishnu the Supreme Principle
(Para). In his manifest form (Vyuha) he is regarded as Vasudeva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna, and
Aniruddha,representing Krishna, his elder brother, his son and his grandson, respectively, who
are brought together in worship and adoration as a complete body of divine power.
It is explained that Vasudeva, the Supreme Brahman, out of compassion, voluntary assumed the
bodily forms so that the devotees may have easy access to his subtle form. The approach to the
divine is again graded. The devotee worships the Vibhava form; or the incarnation of God, on
several occasions such as Rama , etc and moves on to worship the Vyuha forms. And , from
Vyuha form he progresses to worship the subtle forms of Vasudeva.
Among the other differences between Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra, the latter say, they gain
eligibility to worship (Diksha) after the ceremonial Chkrankana, which is imprinting the symbols
of Vishnu on their body. Vaikhanasa see no need for such a ritual. The pregnant mother is given a
cup of Payasamwith the Vishnu seal in the cup. They recognize as worthy only
such Garbha_Vaishnavas.
Vaikhanasa follow the lunar calendar while the Pancharatra follow the solar calendar.
Vaikhanasa consider Vishnu_Vishvaksena_Brighu as the guru_parampara; while Pancharatra
considerVishnu_Vishvaksena_Satagopa_Nathamuni_Yamuna_Ramanuja as the guru
-parampara.
Vaikhanasa think it is enough if the daily worship is performed once in a day or, if needed be,
stretched to six times in a day (shat kala puja). Pancharatra do not place any limit. If needed the
service could be even 12 times a day, they say.
The Vaikhanasa worship is considered more Vedic, the mantras being Sanskrit based and there is
a greater emphasis on details of worship rituals and yajnas. Even here, the householders and
celibates get priority in worshipping the deity. They consider Griha_archana the worship at

home as more important than the congregational worship. The Sanyasis or ascetics have no place
in this system.
Whereas in Pancharatra, the emphasis is almost entirely on devotional idol worship than on
yajnas; and more Tamil hymns are recited and there is greater scope for festivals , celebrations
and processions where all sections of the society including ascetics can participate.
***
What surely is more important than the rituals is the symbolism that acts as the guiding spirit for
conduct of rituals. At a certain level, symbolism takes precedence over procedures.
I think, ultimately, there is not much difference between Pancharatra and Vaikhanasa traditions.
Both are equally well accepted. The differences, whatever might be, are not significant to a
devotee who visits the temple just to worship the deity and to submit himself to the divine grace.
****

The Shaiva Agama worship is less formal than the Vaishnava, less restrained and less
accustomed to social forms of regulations. Siva is the Supreme God of the Shaiva system, who
is Pati, or Lord over all creatures, the latter being Pashu, meaning animal or of beastly nature.
The Jiva or the individual is caught in the snare of world-existence and attachment to objects.
The grace of God, alone, is the means of liberation for the individual.
The worship in Shaiva is graded in steps: Charya, or the external service rendered by the
devotee, such as collecting flowers for worship in the temple, ringing the bell, cleaning the

premises of the shrine, and the like; Kriya, or the internal service, such as actual worship as well
as its preparations;Yoga, or seeking identity with Shiva; and Jnana, or wisdom, in which the
Shiva and the seeker are one. In Southern Shaivism the great Shaiva saints Appar, Sundarar,
Jnanasambandar andManikyavachagar, are said to represent, respectively, these four approaches
to Shiva.

Kashmir Shaivism is a world by itself. Similar is the Shakta Agama, the Tantra worship
of Shakti, the Divine Mother. These subjects deserve to be discussed separately.

***
Reference:
I gratefully acknowledge
Soulful paintings of Shri S Rajam
And
Agama Kosha by Prof. SKR Rao
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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 7, 2012 in Agama, Temple worship

Tags: Agama, Devalaya Vastu, temple worship

Temple worship and rituals (2 of 5) Symbolism of Rituals

in Temple Worship
06 Sep

- Symbolism of Rituals in Temple Worship

The Agama texts mention that divinity may be worshipped in one of the four ways: (1) Japa,
recitation of the holy name as initiated by the Guru ;( 2) Homa, oblations offered in Agni
accompanied by appropriate hymns ; (3) Archana, actual worship (of nine types); and (4)
Dhyana, meditation on transcendental and empirical aspects of divinity.
The first approach is through a pattern of sounds (nada/shabda) while the second is through the
medium of Agni. Meditation isindependent of concrete representations. All these three are
individual approaches. It is the Archa, the worship of a deity individually and in communion
with fellow devotees that is easiest. Further, the Archa includes in itself the essentials of the other
three approaches as well. Archana in temples is an integrated mosaic of individual and
congregational worship; and is the most popular approach.
The formal worship of deities in Hindu traditions broadly follows the Vedic, Tantric or the mixed
(Misra) procedures. The Vedic traditions are centered on Agni (fire) the visible representation of
divinity and a medium to approach other gods in celestial realm. Oblations offered into Agni
accompanied by recitation of appropriate hymns constitute Vedic worship. The Vedic traditions
do not generally provide for worship of icons.
Tantric ideology views the divinity in terms of human or semi human forms (murti) and as
represented by diagrams (mandala) and incantations of great merit (mantra).
The temple and iconic worship may appear like tantric. However, in practice the worship at
temples involves both homa and archa rituals. The rituals here are a combination of concepts,
procedures and symbolism. The symbolism behind this method of worship is that God pervades
the universe and that the entire creation is his manifestation. The human mind with its limitations
cannot easily comprehend God in absolute; but tries to comprehend divine spirit and bestow a
form to the formless. (Na cha rupam vina devo dyatum kenapi sakyate, Vishnu samhita 29, 51).
The worship helps the devotee to visualize the incomprehensible divinity in chosen form and
attributes so that he may dwell on it and engage himself in a certain service; else, the mind of an
ordinary person might lapse into drowsiness or wither away. The texts suggest that human form
of Gods image helps the devotee better to meditate on the divine attributes ; and to relate to the
spirit of god with love, affection, friendliness, devotion, reverence etc. The temples generally
house images of god in human form except in Shiva temples where the image will be in lingam
form (even here the processional image will be in human form).
The worshipper is aware all the while that the forms (murti), sounds (mantras) and diagrams
(mandalas) employed in worship are human approximations and are inadequate representations
of God (prathima svalpa buddhinaam). Yet, he tries to find through them an approach to the
Supreme. It is not very important whether it is archa or the Agni you choose, but it is the
devotion and sincerity of purpose that matters. Here, concepts are more significant than precepts;
procedures more significant than concepts and symbolism more relevant than procedures.
The temple worship ritual has two distinct aspects; symbolic and actual. The former is the inner
worship (manasa puja or antar yajna) and the latter is the procedural aspect, the service

(Upachara). In manasa puja, God is the worshippers innermost spirit; while in Upachara the
personified god is treated and revered as the most venerated guest. The services are rendered
with gratitude, love and devotion.
The Aagama texts, Tantra Sara and Siddha yamala list as many as sixty-four upacharas.
However, in practice, about sixteen upacharas are conducted; hence the expression
Shodashopachara puja. They are , in sequence: (1) seating ( aasana), (2) welcoming (swagatha),
(3) offering water to wash feet (padya), (4) offering water to wash hands (arghya), ( 5)
offering water to sip and rinse mouth ( aachamana), (6) providing a bath (snana), (7) offering
fresh clothes and decorations (vastra- abhushana), ( 8) offering fresh sacred thread (
yajno_pavitha), (9) offering aromatic substances like sandal paste (gandha), (10) offering
flowers (pushpa), (11) burning incense (dhupa), (12) waving lights ( deepa), (13) offering four
kinds of food (naivedya), (14) offering tambula (betel leaves with areca nut, camphor and
spices), (15) prostrations (namaskara) and (16) send off(visarjana).
The offerings during the worship are meant to please different aspects of the divine. For
instance, Arghya is offered to please celestial deities (deva priyartha), sandal paste is a favorite
of the Brahma; flowers favor prosperity; dhupa is dear to Agni (vaishvanara priya); aarathi
signifies victory (jaya prada); and offering food- naivedya or havis is for abundance
(samruddhi).
Each of the five senses contributes to our joy in life. The five fold offering (Panchopachara) of
Gandha (sandal paste), Pushpa (flowers), Dhupa (fragrance), Deepa (lights) and Naivedya (food)
are submission to the Lord with a request to direct our five sensestowards the goodand the
God.
Abhishekha (pouring water over the deity) is an act of love and submission. It purifies the
worshippers mind and fills with devotion. Flowers confer prosperity, gladden the mind and
hence are Sumanas.Dhupas just as the flowers, gratify the deities immediately. Lights represent
energy, fame and upward motion. Lights dispel darkness and ignorance. Satvic food(Naivedya)
of agreeable scent and appearance mixed with milk along with flowers and fruits ,offered with
reverence and devotion gratify the deities .These offerings submitted with devote bows ,
prostrations and absolute surrender do please the Lord.
Prasad and Charanmrit (the residue of the offerings made to the Lord) is most precious, sacred
and purifying. It is most the sought after and one who receives it considers himself most
fortunate and blessed.
These Upacharas are submitted to the deity only after conducting ceremonial purification of
various kinds, infusing life force into the deity and establishing a proper communication with the
divinity residing in the icon.
The entire ritual of daily worship is broadly classified into five stages of worship; (1) aasana,
welcoming the divinity to partake the worship; (2) sthapana, seating and invoking life force into
the deity; (3) sannidhi_karana, establishing proper communication with the deity; (4) archana
main worship; and (5) visarjana bidding farewell or literally dismissing. Incidentally, in

Mahabharata (Anushasana parva), Bhishma describes , among other things , the virtues of
worship and talks about the significance of offering flowers , fruits , lights and food to the deity .
(KM Gangulis translation
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b063.htm )
***
All the sixteen (shodasha) upacharas like tendering invitation, offering seat; offering water for
the feet and to sip and to rinse the mouth and also for bath; presentation of dry and fresh
garments,; serving food etc. are performed with devotion and reverence. The personified God is
also the Lord of the Lords who oversees the universe (lokadyaksha).Therefore the honors that are
due to a king are offered to the icon as Rajopachara. These include white umbrella, flywhisk,
music, dance, vehicles of various sorts, flower pavilions, swings, chariots etc.
All the while the worshipper and the devotees are aware that the external worship characterized
by splendor and spectacle is an overflow of religious devotion and is secondary to the main
worship, the inner worship manasa puja of the antaryamin (the inner being) residing in ones
heart.
The inner worship that takes place in the privacy of the sanctum is more significant than the
external worship. These are in a sequence such as Shudhi (purification of elements), Mudras
(assumption of appropriate and effective gestures), Pranayama (regulation of breath to enable
contemplation of the divinity), Dhyana (contemplation), Soham_bhava (identity of the
worshipper with the worshipped), Mantra (words to help realize the deity in worshippers heart)
and Mandala (diagrams representing aspects of divinity).
Shuddhi is not merely the purification of the sanctum and its ambiance as the worshipper purifies
the earth (bhu shuddhi) and the elements but is also the symbolic transformation and
accommodation of all the elements that constitute worshippers body and world around him.
Dhyana is an important sequence in internal worship. It is not a prayer in the sense, it is not
recited in praise of the deity nor is the worshipper seeking through it fulfillment of his desires. It
is essentially to attune the inherent divine nature of the worshipper with the divinity of the deity.
The worshipper visualizes and contemplates on the resplendent form of the deity as abiding in
his own heart.
Mantras that seek to evoke the power of the deity and the mystical designs (yantras or
mandalas) that serve as fit abodes for the deity are also important.
The next step is very significant. According to Tantra ideology, the worshipper regards his body
as a Yantra where the deity resides. As a prelude to worship per se, the worshipper literally
breathes life into the deity during prana_prathista sequence. The idol is transformed to divinity
itself. The worshipper does this by extracting the power or the luster (tejas) of the divinity
residing in his heart by means of inhalations and exhalations (ucchvasa and nishvasa), and

investing it upon the deity. At the same time, the worshipper draws the presence of the Highest
Spiritual being (paramatma) into his own individual being (jiva).This process symbolizes
invoking the divine residing in ones heart, extracting it (bahir agatya) and transferring it with
ease (sukham thistathu) in to the deity in front (asmin bimbe).The transferred Tejas stays in the
deity until the worship is formally concluded.
The placement (nyasa) of divine presence in the structure of the icon as also in the worshipper is
an essential ritual sequence before the actual service (upacharas) commences. Through these
nyasas collectively called bhagavad_aaradhana adhikara_yogyata-siddhi, the worshipper
secures competence to worship the deity. He invokes divine presence in himself.This takes three
forms.
(1) Matrka-nyasa: placement of fifty seed-sounds (beeja mantra) in several psychic centers
(chakras) on different parts of the body.
(2) Devata-nyasa: placement of different aspects of divinity on limbs and different parts of body;
and
(3) Tattva-nyasa: Endowments of twenty-four basic factors (as per Samkhya) to the deity in
order to individualize it.
The first two forms of nyasa are Tantric in character and are intended to transform the abstract
form of divinity residing within the worshipper into a concrete form of divine as invested in the
icon.
The second form of nyasa is designed to suit a specific type of deity .The Vaishnavas adopt
Keshavadi nyasa; the Shaivas adopt Srikantadi nyasa while Shakthas adopt kala nyasa.
The third nyasa is largely Vedic with traces of Tantra. It sometimes provides a structure for
abstract form of worship.
It is only after the deity is thus properly invoked (Avahita), established (stapitha), close at hand
(sanhita), positioned right in front of the worshipper (sammukha), confined in a place of honor
(sanniruddha) and well concealed under a canopy (avaguntitha), the worship (upachara)
commences and acquires a significance. Unless the worshipper establishes his identity with the
worshipped, the rituals have no meaning. The Agama texts prescribe, God is not to be
worshipped by one who has himself not become God (nadevo bhutva devam pujayet).
After the formal worship is completed, the deity is dismissed (visarjana). This ritual signifies
withdrawal of the divine presence (temporarily lodged in the icon) and taking it back into
worshippers heart (which is its permanent residence). The mantras recited in this context say
Come ,oh God residing in the icon come back into my heart-lotus (Ehi ehi, prathima sthitha
purushottama , mama hrutkamale); Reside in my heart , O Lord of the worlds , along with your
glory (hrudaya kuru samvasam sriya saha jagatpate).

The foregoing is the broad pattern of ritual worship and its symbolism. However, certain temples
where the deity is Self-manifest (Swayambhu) or installed by celestial beings (Deva prathistaha)
say, as in Tirumala, follow a slightly different procedure. Here, the deity is the repository of
divine powers and the priest need not go through the prana-prathista ritual. The Upacharas
(services) are rendered not to the main deity but to a smaller image of the Lord (Kauthuka
beru).It is the kauthuka beru that is infused with prana at the time of upachara worship. The
priest evokes Tejas from the main deity , not from his own heart , and transfers it to kauthuka
beru.

Evolution of Dharma (3 0f 3)
06 Sep
Dharma in Mimamsa and Vaisheshika systems
Dharma in the Purva Mimamsa is used in a rather restricted sense;Codana-lakshnortho
dharmaha. Dharma is the desired goal as per scriptures. Purva Mimamsa (1.1.2) speaks of
Dharma as Vedic rituals leading to happiness and heaven; and saves one from degradation and
suffering. It also talks in terms of Apurva, which means the subtle effect of actions performed in
accordance with the scriptures.
Jaimini defines Dharma as that which is enjoined by the Vedas and which does not lead to
suffering.
Kanaada in his Vaisheshika Sutra (1.2) defines Dharma as Yato bhyudayanih- sreyasa siddhih
sa dharmah, that which leads to the attainment of prosperity (in this life) and eternal bliss
(beyond life).Dharma here mean actions approved by the scriptures, religious practices and
rituals, unseen results of such actions or the very fabric of ones life.
Compare this with what Krishna tells Arjuna in the Gita: Sacrifices will not lead to heaven if the
desire for heaven is the sole motive of such rituals. Sacrifices are effective only when conducted
with a sense of duty.

Dharma in Dharma Shastras

Dharma Shastras are made up of a vast number of texts produced over the centuries. There are
literally hundreds of Dharma Shastra texts and a far greater number of related commentaries and
digests. The principle Dharma Shastra texts include four Dharma Sutras of Aapasthamba,
Gautama, Bahudayana and Vashista. Four important Smritis of Manu, Yajnavalkhya, Shanka and
Parashara follow them. There are of course innumerable commentaries and digests on these texts.
The modern Hindu Law relies on treatment of certain subjects by these texts; of course with
suitable modifications and necessary revisions.
Dharma Shastras claim they derive their authority from the Vedas, but hardly any of their
contents can be linked to Veda texts. They do, however, accept the authority of the Vedas and
stress that moksha, liberation, is the ultimate goal of human life. They also recognize the need for
reflective morality. The Vedas, Smritis, usages of good men , what is agreeable to ones self and
desire born of deliberation-these are traditionally recognized as the source of
Dharma(Yajnavalkya Smriti-1.7). However, the Vedas enunciated abstract principles and
contained little concrete discussions on duties. The smritis were mainly digests of the prevailing
practices. Therefore, for all practical purposes custom defined as what is in vogue and is long
standing was the dominant source of the Dharma.
Dharma Shastras categorized under Smritis, the secondary texts, are commonly described as Law
Books. They are however not in the form of the law books that we know. They are not codified
substantive laws or legal norms. They are more in the nature of a body jurisprudence, a
collection of numerous treaties produced by sages on various subjects such as daily rituals to be
observed in each of the four stages life; duties of four varnas, customs, rights and obligations;
rules and procedures for resolving doubts and disputes on issues of Dharma; and rules for
punishment and penances for violations of the rules of Dharma etc..
Dharma Shastras made extensive use of Mimasa methods to reconcile conflicting texts of equal
authority by applying its various rules for interpretation of words, phrases and sentenses.It
adopted the Mimamsa style of argumentation. The other disciplines, on which Dharma Shastras
relied heavily, were the grammar (Vyakarana) and logic (Nyaya).
Dharma Shastras are an impulsive mix of religion, morality and points of law. It is not easy to
separate the one from the other. These texts derived their importance as the sources of religious
law describing the life of an ideal householder; and as summations of knowledge about religion,
law, ethics etc. It is perhaps because of their heavy religious content and reliance on religion,
these texts came to be known as Dharma Shastras.
There is a world of difference between the Dharma of the Rig Veda, Upanishads and the epics on
one hand, and the Dharma of the Shastras on the other. Dharma of the Shastras is not the Atman
or the sublime cosmic order that governs the universe and sustains our existence, as the Rig
Vedic Rishis envisioned. It is also not the universal principle of law, order and harmony as
envisaged in the Upanishads. Nor is it the ordained duties or the Sathya, the pristine Truth as in
Ramayana. Dharma here is not the one that which upholds the world, as in Mahabharata. Dharma

here does not refer to the duties as ordained by the scriptures or even to Atma jnana as
propounded in the Bhagavad-Gita.
Bhagavad-Gita viewed moral and spiritual merits as duties of the Brahmanas. The Dharma
Shastras construed them as a means of livelihood for the Brahmanas. The old spiritual
interpretations of those merits were smudged into dogmatic rules . Imparting instructions ,
officiating at the sacrifices , receiving gifts , became the special occupation of the
Brahmanas.The distinction between spiritual obligations to the society and an occupation for
earning a living was lost.
The Dharma these Shastra speak about is not universal. It is not applicable to entire creation or to
all human beings. It is not even applicable to all segments and classes that compose the society.
Its prescriptions are not valid for all times to come, either. The Dharma of these Shastras has very
limited jurisdiction and authority. Their application is very specific and circumscribed by the
limitations of Desha (region), Kaala (times) and Achara (valid practices of a region or of a class
of people).
The texts viewed the society not as a collection of individuals but as a community of
communities. It was articulated into specific castes, each with its economic functions and a place
in the social hierarchy. An individuals Dharma was derived from the caste of his birth. One of the
purposes of the texts seemed to be to keep the members of the society within their assigned roles.
Dharma Shastras are principally concerned with the rights and privileges of upper castes,
consecratory rights (samskaras), stages of life, rules of eating, duties of the kings, legal
procedures, eighteen titles of law, categories of sin, expiations and penances, funeray and
ancestral rites(antyesti and shraddha) and atonement rites(Prayaschitta) etc. They are thus
mainly occupied with the religious rites of a certain class of people and to an extent with the
personal laws of marriage, inheritance etc; and they generally aim to induce appropriate
behavior of human beings.
Let me quote from Patrick Olivelle book on Dharmasastra :.
Dharma includes all aspects of proper individual and social behavior as demanded by ones role
in society and in keeping with ones social identity according to age, gender, caste, marital status,
and order of life. The term dharma may be translated as Law if we dp not limit ourselves to its
narrow modern definition as civil and criminal statutes but take it to include all the rules of
behavior, including moral and religious behavior, that a community recognizes as binding on its
members.
In short, these unique documents give us a glimpse if not into how people actually lived their
lives in ancient India, at least into how people, especially Brahmin males, were ideally expected
to live their lives within an ordered and hierarchically arranged society.
The subject-matter of the Dharmasutras, therefore, includes education of the young and their
rites of passage; ritual procedures and religious ceremonies; marriage and marital rights and
obligations; dietary restrictions and food transactions; the right professions for, and the proper

interaction between, different social groups; sins and their expiations; institutions for the pursuit
of holiness; king and the administration of justice; crimes and punishments; death and ancestral
rites.
Many concepts of the Dharma Shastras might look, today, rather grotesque and outdated; and are
therefore not acceptable in their entirety. That is not surprising at all; since those texts were
addressed to a people of a particular time who lived their life in the context of their times. Those
laws were also not meant to cater to the needs of all people at all times. The texts themselves
emphasized the need to revise their prescriptions to keep in tune with the changing needs and
demands of the individuals and the society. It is to the credit of the self-balancing genius of
Hinduism that it has discarded the inconsistencies and anachronisms of the Dharma Shastras, in a
dignified way and tried to retain the best the texts have to offer; while at the same time
assimilating new currents of thought and transforming itself into an evolving and an expanding
religious tradition.
Dharma Shastras are not of much practical significance today, as its secular aspects dealing with
marriage, right to property, inheritance etc. have since walked into the modern Hindu Law,
through an indirect route. How that happened is rather interesting. The early British in India tried
to dispense law according to local customs.The process was hastened with the establishment
of Supreme Court in 1774. For the benifit of the English Judges ignorant of Sanskrit , ancient
Sutras relating to civil matters of person and property( Vyvahara) were translated into English.
The one text that received greater attention in that context was Jagannatha Panditas Nibhanda on
Vyvahara. Its translation was completed during 1794. Thereafter the English scholars attempted
to codify the Shastras and to establish the chronological sequence of the texts in order to trace
the authority to a single original source. Their attempts were not successful and an agreed on
authoritative chronology could not be established. However, by 1864, the long years of these
exercises yielded a peculiar kind of case law in the form of a chain of interpretations by the
English judges based on what they thought were the authoritative portions of the Hindu texts.
This completely transformed the Hindu Law into a form of case law. What we have today is a
forest of citations referring to previous judges decisions- as in Anglo Saxon derived legal
systems; and it is left to the skills of the judges and lawyers to find the precedent and to make the
law. Those precedents are again those that were set up by the English judges. What started as a
search for the ancient Indian Constitution ended up with English law for India and Indians
-just what Indians would have wanted to avoid.
Further , the case-law was compiled without understanding the basic fact that in the Sutra the
secular and religious aspects of Hindu -life are not strictly seperate; but, they are closely
interwoven in the Hindu motives and actions. In the ancient Indian criminal-law too the
religious and secular punishments were intermixed. An offence was treated both as a sin and as a
crime.
In addition , by the time the British took to applying the ancient Dharmasastras to the Hindus of
the 18-19th century , the Indian society had moved much further away from the society of the
Sutras. For instance, the Sutras viewd human life as one continuous span stretching from the
womb to death and even beyond to the next birth. There was much emphasis laid on purification
cermonies (shuddhi) and on sacraments (samskaras). But , by the time the British took to

administering civil and criminal laws , the Indian socity had passed through Muslim rule. Many
of the old beleifs and rituals had vanished and a certian amout seceptisim and irreligious
attitudes had crept in. The ancient Sutra injunctions were no longer relevant in most cases.
These limitations and lack of proper understandin of the Indian context have led to narrow and
restrictive interpretations of codified statues, especially in matters relating to family law and law
relating to religious endowments. The rulings at times fail to serve the cause of Dharma or of
justice. Therefore, the Hindu law, as we have today cries out for a re- look. However,
unfortunately in the present socio-political environment in India, reform of religious law is a
contentious swamp that legislators generally try to avoid. Further, the study of Hindu law is
neglected due to the combination of declining knowledge of its classical foundations; and the
pressures of modern political correctness. Studying Hindu law is often looked down as a
regressive activity, threatening the minorities in particular, and the women.
In any case, in the present context, the secular functions of the Dharma Shastras have to find
their survival in the personal law and civil law books. There is no other way.
Coming back to the connotation of the term, Dharma in the Dharma Shastras broadly meant
appropriate behavior of human beings in a given context. The term also had religious and caste
overtones. With the metamorphosis of Dharma Shastras into Hindu Law, the elements of caste
and gender have largely disappeared. In order to ensure fair and equitable dispensation of
justice,Dharma now needs to be interpreted in terms of universal non-hierarchical norms for right
conduct.
A question that is often asked is, whether Dharma is relevant today. The answer is; yes, it is.
Because man is free to select his options, he needs to think and understand that any human
activity, including inaction, has the potential to cause a chain of consequences. It is therefore
important to choose an appropriate path. One has to therefore look within oneself, judge the
situation and act in the best interests of the self and of the fellow beings. That which guides us
along the right path and elevates us is, in reality, the Dharma.
One of the strengths of Dharma is that it is preventive rather than punitive. It prevents us from
going down the path of degradation and decay. It safeguards the values of life, the quality of
living and the wellbeing of us and of our coming generations. Dharma is therefore relevant at all
times.
The Rig Vedic concept of Dharma as Atman or as an all-pervading cosmic order is sublime; but
is ethereal and beyond the ken of a common person. Similar is the Upanishad view of Dharma as
a universal principle of law and harmony. That is also not easy to grasp. If one has to appreciate a
concept, one necessarily has to relate it to ones experiences in life. One can relate to the trials,
tribulations and dilemmas faced by the men and women of Ramayana and Mahabharata .That is
the reason for the immense popularity and adulation for the heroes of those epics. Generations of
Indians in their quest for right answers to their problems , moral dilemmas and to a meaning for
their life, have sought guidance and inspiration from the illustrations of Dharma as demonstrated
in Ramayana and Mahabharata. They have grown up in amazement, reverence and appreciation

for the equanimity, fair dealing and dignity, displayed by the epic heroes in their hours of
distress. It also helped to strengthen their faith that right means will eventually lead to the right
end.
The Dharma of Ramayana teaches honouring ones ordained duty, in the context; and adherence
to Truth amidst temptations. That is relevant today too.
The Dharma of Mahabharata asks you to see through the evil and devise appropriate approach
and action to safeguard the larger interests of Dharma and to perpetuate a living Dharma, at any
cost. That is still relevant. Its call to put Dharma into practice and to experience it in life is also
relevant.
The message of the Bhagavad-Gita to discover you true potential, to explore it with skill and
diligence; and to live an authentic life, is relevant forever .Its emphasis on commitment to work,
ethics and detachment is very relevant in todays world.
Dharma Shastras concern for an orderly, peaceful and harmonious living of a person with his
family, his society and the world, is relevant today too. Its statement that Dharma as a source of
law and consciousness should influences the functioning of the State in its day-to-day
governance is also relevant.
Dharma is not a stagnant concept; but it is a living experience. It is evolving itself all the time,
constantly interacting with the challenges, demands and needs of the times. At each stage of its
unfolding, it acquired a newer interpretation in the context of the life and events of that period
while retaining all its other interpretations accumulated over the ages. What was amazing was
that each one of its interpretations was as valid as the rest of them. Dharma is a many splendored
thing. It is ever fresh and inventing itself all the time. That is because, Dharma is fundamentally
related to life and its essence is in living it, practicing it and experiencing it. Dharma, in whatever
form, will be relevant at all times.

**********
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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 6, 2012 in Dharma, Indian Philosophy

Tags: Dharma, Evolution of Dharma

Evolution of Dharma (2 of 3)
06 Sep

Dharma in Mahabharata
Ramayana, basically, is a story of chaste love between a husband and wife; and their unwavering
adherence to Dharma throughout their trials and tribulations. The main characters in the story are
not many in number; and the story covers a period of about fifty years. The evil was easily
identifiable with its grotesque exterior and it had its base in far off lands. Ramayana
demonstrated that a person of steadfast faith established in Dharma would eventually vanquish
evil and ignorance. Fundamental to the defense of that Dharma was the sanctity of a Sati, a pure
woman. Indeed the entire nature, its elements and animal world made common cause with Rama
in re-establishing the Dharma. What characterizes the Dharma in Ramayana is its innocence,
purity and nobility.
The canvass of the Mahabharata on the other hand, is much wider; the subject matter is rather
sullied and its characters are too many in number, spread over several generations. They have a
very complicated mental makeup too. The evil is neither easily identifiable nor is it far away. The
evil in fact had entered the hearts and minds of almost all of its men and women, who came from
the common heritage. The most brazen act of evil by the Kauravas was threatening a womans
chastity; and with that, the Kauravas sank to the lowest level of adharma. The conflict that
eventually took place was not between the absolute right and the wrong; but between two groups
of cousins and their supporters; with a sprinkling of the noble among the crowds of not- sonoble. Pandavas themselves were not perfect, either. The stepping in of Krishna alone rescued
the epic from degenerating into internecine family feud; and elevated it into a conflict of great
significance to uphold Dharma. He taught the world that the ultimate conflict was not about land,
riches or power but about the human spirit , the Dharma.
Vyasa says the purpose of writing Mahabharata was to engrave Dharma on the hearts of men.
Mahabharata , among other things, makes some great statements on Dharma ; such as :
Our bodies are short lived, wealth does not last long, death is constantly knocking at the door;
therefore accumulate Dharma (anityani sarirani vaibhavo naiva sahvataha, nityam sannito
mrtyuh kartavyo dharma-sangrahah)
It is Dharma since it upholds. Dharma is that which upholds the people of the
world.(Dharanath dharmam ityahuh dharmo dharayate prajaah)
Dharma, cultivated, preserves; Dharma, violated, destroys. (Dharma eva hato hanti, dharmo
rakshati rakshitaha);
Where there is Dharma, there victory also is (Yato darmah thatho jayaha);
Yet, the Dharma pictured in Mahabharata is ambiguous, uncertain and often disputed. For
instance, Draupadi after the dice game, demands to know whether Yudhishtira had a right to
stake her in the game after he had staked and lost himself. It was so difficult a question that even
Bhishma, the recognized authority on Dharma, when pointedly challenged by Draupadi,
confessed his inability to decide the issue. What a strong man says often becomes the only
dharma. A weak man may have dharma on his side, but who listens to him? To tell you the truth,

I do not know what to say (Sabha Parva. 69.15-161). I am unable to answer your question
because Dharma is subtle, he says (na dharmasaukshmyat subhage vivektutm shaknomi te
prasnam imam yatthaavat).
It was said that Dharma is subtle (sukshmam) because its essence is concealed in a dark cavern
(dharmasya tattvam nihitath guhaayaam).
On another occasion, Draupadi wonders why they have to suffer so, if they were the righteous
ones. If everything happened by the will of god, why then do the virtuous suffer? She exclaims,
it seems only the powerful escape harm, not the righteous. Yudhishthira tries to explain: None
should ever perform virtue with a desire to gain its fruits.. Do not doubt virtue because you do
not see its results. Without doubt, the fruits of virtue will be manifest in time, as will the fruits of
sin. The fruits of true virtue are eternal and indestructible.
Years later, Yudhishthira has similar doubts. Soon after the war, he was overwhelmed by a sense
of horror and melancholy; and was much troubled by the death and destruction caused by the
war. His grief was inconsolable. Bhishma lying on his deathbed consoles him by teaching
Dharma and the duties of a king, which includes rightful violence without greed. He also talks
about Dharma in abnormal circumstances; and the absolute perspective that transcends the
duality of good versus bad, right versus wrong, pleasant versus unpleasant. Yet Yudhishthira is
unconvinced and decides to perform Rajasuyaga as penitence for the acknowledged wrongs of
the war.
Mahabharata introduces the concept of Apad_Dharma, a sort of safety valve in an emergency
when every other normal measure seems to have failed. It relates to stressful times of extreme
distress or calamities, which threaten to endanger Dharma. In such circumstances, it might
become necessary for Dharma to abandon its usual course, for self-protection. Apad_Dharma is
that deviation from the normal. What is Adharma in normal circumstances might be deemed
Dharma in Apad_Dharma. That is in the larger interests of the Dharma and for the benefit of
others (loka) but not for personal gain. The logic behind this principle is, the ultimate Dharma
(larger picture) has to be protected at any cost. That is why Dharma is profound and subtle. It is
context sensitive.
Krishna guided the Pandavas to victory on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, often by miraculous
intervention, avenged Draupadi and restored Dharma. Unlike Rama, Krishna did not adhere to
conventional exterior of the Dharma. Rather, he judged the gravity and significance of each
situation; and devised innovative methods to preserve and protect the essence of the Dharma.
This often put him on a collision course with the conventional adherents of Dharma.
Nevertheless, he justified his actions by insisting that the intense desire to protect the larger
interests of the Dharma was at the core.
Pandavas, under his guidance, eventually broke each rule of the war: Arjuna shoots Bhishma
when he lays down his arms before Sikhandin; Arjuna kills Jayadratha at night when Krishna
simulates darkens; Arjuna shoots Karna when unarmed and Bhima crushes Duryodhanas thigh
(hitting below the waist).

On one occasion, Krishna tells Yudhishthira: Sometimes one protects dharma by forgetting it.
Duryodhana accuses Krishna of unfair conduct; Krishna responds with two defenses: that it was
his own deceit at dice that began this conflict, and the apparent unfair conduct was meant to
defeat a greater evil: The gods destroyed demons in the past in this way to protect Dharma
Duryodhana bitterly replies that the Pandavas could never have won without cheating, to
which Krishna agrees; right does not always triumph by ideal and unsullied means. There are
limits to the extent an individual can be moral in an immoral society.
Karna laments as death nears him; his righteousness did not make him victorious: Knowers of
dharma have always said, Dharma protects those devoted to dharma. But since my wheel sank
today, I think dharma does not always protect.
Krishna taunts Karna, asking him whether he was referring to the same Dharma that prevented
him from rising above his sense of obligation to Duryodhana, despite being aware of his evil
designs; terming Draupadi a harlot and ordering her to be stripped in public.
That is precisely what the epic is about: the replacement of the dharma of a lower understanding
by one of a higher level. It was that outdated, severely limited view of Dharma that Krishna was
trying to root out and replace with a pragmatic Dharma. He emphasized, as he did in Gita that
Dharma was in living and experiencing it; and not just in talking about it.
It is a validation of this fact we find in Bhishma who from his bed-of-arrows advises
Yudhishthira on the duties, responsibilities of a king and the need to protect Dharma. Bhishma in
fact had not practiced what he preached. He remained a mute witness to the aggression of
Adharma. His inaction illustrated that Kshatriyas witness stance brings about the destruction
of the kingdom and of the Dharma. The Kshatriya must fight to protect the weak, for that is his
dharma, the truth of his nature. Not being true to his Dharma because of inaction, brought
destruction and misery to not only himself but also the society of which he was a pillar. Had
Bishma acted in the true spirit of his Dharma, Mahabharata would have been a different epic.
[There is an interesting comparison between Bhishma of Mahabharata and Vibhishana (younger
brother of Ravana) of Ramayana. In either case, the person who occupied the throne they served
tried to violate the chastity of a pure and a virtuous woman. Both those kings (Ravana and
Duryodhana) had sunk to the lowest level of adharma. Both Vibhishana and Bhishma strongly
disagreed withthe acts of their respective kings. But, it was Vibhishana who had the courageous
detachment to disassociate himself from the immoral regime of his king, his brother, and to join
the forces of Dharma which his brother opposed. Vibhishanas unpopular decision was open to
controversies and even to ridicule. Yet, Vibhishana was steadfast; he stood by his decision which
according to him was the right one, by all counts.
In contrast, Bhishma the old-guard needlessly chose to cling to what he did not approve, because
of his misplaced sense of loyalty. And, he eventually brought grief on to himself and unto others
around him by his indecision and inactivity.His life too ends in a sort of irony with his past
haunting to wound him mortally and thereafter prompting him to render lengthy discourses, from

his death bed, on the things that he did not practice in life .His listener, too tired, too listless and
disillusioned scarcely had time or opportunity to put into use what he learnt from the savant on a
death bed of arrows.
Bhishma, it is said, was gifted with a boon to choose the time of his death. The death dare not
approach him till he accorded it his permission. Yet, I sometimes wonder why he chose to live so
long. It is sad to see a self-sacrificing , almost a god getting bogged in the mire of this world ,
meddling with everyones life and finally living on and on , unwanted and uncared when he
could have chosen to end the agony. Bhishma endured so much pain in life and in battle that
even the bed of arrows did not hurt him anymore. It was sad for one who didnt even want to be
born.
There is perhaps a lesson here , too much attachment and involvement in where it is not needed
is not merely unrewarding but is dangerous too ; while at the same time sheer inactivity renders
one irrelevant. Our texts have always talked about a sense of balance that life should have.]
Worse is the case of Drona who abandoned his swadharma and mortgaged his self-respect in
exchange for royal patronage. Bhima taunts Drona, pointing out his selfishness and failure in
life.
Yudhishthira exclaims, it is extremely difficult to ascertain who the good are and whose conduct
could be taken as the standard of righteousness. Bhishma explains that the concept of Dharma is
difficult, subtle and defies easy grasp. Bhishma, after explaining the difficulties in defining it,
goes on to say, Dharma was ordained for the advancement and growth of all creatures; therefore,
that which leads to advancement and growth is Dharma. Dharma was ordained for restricting
creatures from injuring one another; therefore, that which prevents injury to creatures is Dharma.
It is called Dharma because it upholds all creatures. Dharma is that which is capable of
upholding all creatures. That which elevates is Dharma.
That which is called the conduct of the good may at times be stained by some errors. Fools, led
by this, give up righteousness itself. On the other hand, wise men, avoiding those errors, take
what is good and save themselves.
Bhishma tells Yudhishthira that in the Kali Yuga that had just stepped in, dharma becomes
adharma and adharma, dharma. Somewhat paradoxically, he continues, If one fights with
trickery, one could oppose him with trickery. But, if one fights lawfully, one should check him
with dharma One should conquer evil with good. Death by dharma is better than victory by
evil deeds.
There is a touch of desperation in the voice of Vyasa as he comes towards the end of the epic. In
Swargarohana parva he cries out with anguish, With raised hands, I shout at the top of my
voice; but alas, no one hears my words which can give them Supreme Peace, Joy and Eternal
Bliss. One can attain wealth and all objects of desire through Dharma. Why do not people
practice Dharma? One should not abandon Dharma at any cost, even at the risk of his life. One
should not relinquish Dharma out of passion or fear or covetousness or for the sake of preserving
ones life

The treatment of Dharma in Mahabharata is remarkable for its erudition, complexity and clarity
of thought. The deeper you go into the epic the more you are impressed with its concern for the
values of life, quality of living and for the wellbeing of the individual in harmony with the
society. It touches almost every facet of human life. Its anxiety to safeguard the virtues and
wellbeing of the coming generations is explicit in its every debate. The principle characters such
as Krishna, Yudhistira are ever concerned how their actions might be perceived by the future
generations; and are cautious not to set wrong precedents. The accent on healthy growth of
Dharma and its perpetuation is primary to the unfolding of Mahabharata. This concern stems out
of the strong faith that Dharma, the essence of right thinking and right living, is the law of being
and is the basis of our existence. Our wellbeing and that of our future generations depends on
that Dharma. It has therefore to be protected and perpetuated in the right way for the benefit of
all, at any cost.
Because man is free to select his options, he needs to think and understand that any human
activity, including in action, has the potential to cause a chain of consequences. It is therefore
important to choose an appropriate path. If he had no options or if he was not free to choose, that
is another matter. Mahabharata seeks to awaken the essence of Dharma within us, to learn to
distinguish Dharma from its opposite. One has to look within oneself, grasp the true intent and
spirit of Dharma in order to judge a situation and act in the best interests of the self and of the
fellow beings. One may not always find ready answers to the problems at hand, in the external
forms of Dharma; one may necessarily have to innovate the appropriate approach and action to
safeguard the larger interests of Sathya and Dharma. That was the genius of Krishna, who was
far ahead of his times. It was he who stressed that the essence of Dharma was in living,
practicing, experiencing it.
Shrinking from ones moral duty, refusal to act when it is difficult to act,attachment to objects and
confusion- these weaknesses hinder the development individual and the society.
Introspection and innovation in order to experience, to protect and perpetuate a living Dharma, at
all costs, is the message of Mahabharata and Krishna.
Dharma in Bhagavad-Gita
In Bhagavad-Gita, we find Dharma in a crystalline form. The term is employed in a more
definite and clear sense. Dharma here is righteousness; the basis of all purusharthas (18.34).It is
ones duty in the context of ones stage and calling in life. By performing his Dharma with
diligence and skill, a person attains Abhyudaya, the well-being in this world and Nissreyasa, the
highest good (4.8, 18.31, 1.40, 7.11 etc.).Dharma is also a synonym for Atma-jnana, Selfknowledge (9.30 and Karma yoga (2.40).
The Lord proclaims whenever Dharma is in decline and Adharma is on rise, I manifest myself
(4.7).Here, Dharma connotes righteousness and the cherished values in life.
Bhagavad-Gita introduces an interesting concept of Swa_dharma, which broadly suggests :
inherent aptitude or talent or interest or ability; authenticity or individuality; or that which comes
naturally to you or your calling in life. It is the question of being and becoming. It asks you to

realize your strengths, interests, aptitudes and call in life; and to develop your potential instead of
wasting your time and energy on- things that are unnatural to you; or in imitating others or
borrowing someone elses ideas and goals. That could potentially lead to fear inside.
Swadharma underlines the importance of ones individuality, creative ability and authenticity in
life; letting your potential to flower into something truly wonderful (Gita 3.33, 3.35).It is a
commitment to yourself, to your potential and to your purpose in life. It is the art of living.
One of the ways to perceive your Swadharma is to engage in Swadhyaya, self-analysis, as
suggested in Patanjalis Yoga Sutra. The Self-analysis is both intellectual and intuitive, with the
intuition leading the intellect. The accent is on realizing for oneself, for the sake of ones welfare.
Krishna asks Arjuna the warrior to perform his Swadharma and to fight on. How does a warrior
perform his duty without doing wrong, not polluting himself with the blood of his fellow beings?
The answer is detachment: do your duty without concern for the personal consequences. Victory
and defeat, pleasure and pain are all the same. Act, but do not reflect on fruits of the act. Forget
desire, seek detachment.
Apart from the way of undivided loving devotion, with mind fixed on the person of the Lord,
with supreme faith and surrender, the Gita says there are two paths to liberation : renunciation
and performing ones duty without desire. Since most cannot renounce all actions and intents in
life, it is better to work without attachment (nishkama-karma). Gita emphasizes pravritti
(engagement); and puts work , sense of duty and detachment in the hub of life.
Bhagavad-Gita thus highlights and develops a concept of work, ethics and detachment, as had
not been elaborated in the earlier texts. It lays enormous stress on work, on practicing what you
truly believe, on authenticity in life and on experiencing that in your life. That is the Dharma. It
has scant respect for mere talk and not putting your belief into practice.

Read Next:
Dharma in Dharma Shastras And After.
Leave a comment
Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 6, 2012 in Dharma, Indian Philosophy, Mahabharata

Tags: Dharma, Evolution of Dharma, Mahabharata

Evolution of Dharma( 1 of 3)

06 Sep
Mr. Rajan in his blog What if Krishna became the Charioteer of Rama?, referred to the issue of
the Yuga Dharma and obliquely to the dynamic character of Dharma. The idea of Dharma
unfolding itself and acquiring newer interpretations at different stages and in different contexts,
as it rolled on over the ages, fascinated me much.
Dharma is not a stagnant concept but a living experience; it is evolving itself all the time,
constantly interacting with the challenges, demands and needs of the times. Dharma once
visualized as the cosmic order, the eternal principle governing and sustaining the Universe;
gradually metamorphosed into duties and responsibilities prescribed for varieties of beings in
varied contexts and at different stages in the life of the society and the individual.
Along the way, it acquired an array of meanings and interpretations. At each stage, whatever was
its form; Dharma was a point of reference to human existence; and a protection from confusions,
delusions and upheavals. It always set an acceptable norm for a life well lived. Its underlying
principle had always been the welfare of the society and the individual, leading to progress and
harmony.
While talking of Dharma, one has to acknowledge the realities of life. The existence of evil in the
individual and in the society is inevitable. It just cannot be wished away. At the same time, it is
imperative to secure victory over that evil and injustice. Victory in this context means: a
progression towards the greatest good of all, leading to peace and development of all beings;
harmony of the individual with himself, with the society and with the universe; establishment of
the right values in life; and helping humans to attain their ultimate goal.
Dharma does not necessarily win the battle each time in that ongoing conflict. Dharma
nonetheless relentlessly pushes on, striving to restore and maintain a sense of balance, fair
dealing and harmony in life. Evil will always be there and will never be completely eradicated.
But it is essential that Dharma assert itself over the evil now and hereafter.
***
Let us take a brief look at some definitions of Dharma and its evolution over the ages.
Dharma is a richly connotative term that stands for a universal principle that is not easy to define
but not impossible to outline. Dharma is ultimately the basis for our existence, prosperity and fair
dealing in this world. All the other principles and values in life flow from the fountain of
Dharma.
Dharma has variously been explained as: the principle or the law that governs the universe;
individual conduct in conformity with that principle; that which is established or firm or
steadfast; what holds together; the essential function or nature of a thing; codes regulating
individual and of social conduct; a body of teachings; a sect or a religion, a way of life;
righteousness; justice; duty etc. Every form of life, every group of people has its Dharma, which

is the principle or law of its being. The failure to observe Dharma would put the individual and
the society in peril.
At another plane of consciousness, Dharma is a synonym for Truth, Atman and God.
The essence of Dharma, in any case, consists in living and experiencing it.
Dharma can mean any one, more, or all of those explanations, depending upon the context in
which it is referred. That is because; the term was employed in a variety of ways down the ages
in different contexts; and the connotation and the scope of the term underwent huge changes over
the period. It would therefore be worthwhile to glance at its evolution.
Dharma in Rig Veda
Rig Veda adopts a multifaceted approach to Dharma. At one level, Dharma is the, sublime
cosmic order that governs the universe and sustains human existence. At another level, it guides
the individual towards harmony with the universe.
Rig Veda does not engage in a systematic exposition Dharma. The seeds of Dharma are carried in
the concepts of rta and sathya that Rig Veda refers to frequently. Rta is the natural or universal
order and integrity of all forms of life and ecological systems. It recognizes our oneness with our
environment and our unity with all life on earth. It is an inviolable cosmic order and Truth. Those
were not imposed or created by God; but, in a sense, they are the God.
Rta is also used in the sense of consciousness of Truth; and when expressed through words and
deeds it is Sathya. Rta in relation to an individual denotes his right conduct based on truth, the
Dharma. Thus, the three terms Rta, Sathya and Dharma almost band together.
Dharma thus is not just harmony; it is pure Reality; it is also the law or right conduct based in
Truth, which itself is also Dharma.
The term Dharma occurs in Rig Veda about fifty-six times (e.g.5.63.7, 5.72.2, 9.7.1, 9.25.2,
10.88.1, 10.170.2). In almost all the instances, it is used in the sense of duty or action, which
contributes to the support or sustenance of the world. Atharva Veda too describes dharma
symbolically: Prithivim dharmana dhritam, that is, this world is upheld by dharma.
Dharma in Upanishads
The Upanishads continue the two-pronged approach to Dharma.
The Upanishads at one level see Dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony and
the supreme Truth, Brahman. It is the law of being, without which one cannot exist- anureshu
dharmaha- (Katha Upanishad 1.21). Dharma denotes Atman. It is sat, the truth that Rig Veda
proclaims in Ekam Sat (Truth Is One). It is also the Sat in Satchidananda (TruthConsciousness-Bliss), the grand imagery of that Brahman. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad speaks of
the identity of truth and Dharma:

Verily, that which is Dharma is truth.

Therefore, they say of a man who speaks truth,
He speaks the Dharma,
Or of a man who speaks the Dharma,
He speaks the Truth.
Verily, both these things are the same
(Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14)
Upanishads also speak of Dharma in the sense of duty or course of conduct, which contributes, to
the sustenance of the society and its members. Mahanarayana Upanishad (1.4.14) calls it
Dharmo vishvasya jagathah prathista that which sustains the world. Chandogya Upanishad
(2.31.1) speaks of trio dharma skandaha the duties in three stages of life as the offshoots or
the braches of the Dharma. This refers to the obligations and privileges of a student, a
householder and a hermit.
The Acharyaopadesha in Taitteriya Upanishad (1.11.1) instructs Dharmam chara- perform
your ordained duties.
Here, in these cases, Dharma stands for righteous behavior based on truth, in accordance with the
right conduct prescribed as per law in the context of ones stage and/or calling in life. It is in the
best interests of the society and the individual. It shapes and sustains ones existence as an
individual and as a member of the society. All other meanings, interpretations and derivations
from the term Dharma, in the later texts are corollaries of this central idea.
Dharma as Purushartha
The Rig Veda talks of another concept, that of rna which underlines the responsibility of man to
his family, his community, his environment and to himself as a human being. Rna aims to set
values in a normal day-to-day life. The fulfillment of three purposes of life (dharma, artha and
Kama) acquires meaning only in the context of felt obligations (rnas). It is essential the pursuit of
Artha (wealth or power) and Kama (desire or pleasure) is guided and restrained by Dharma. It is
the violation of this requirement that sets apart the not-so-virtous from the virtous. Rig Veda
(8.1.6) gives a call, Man, you must reach upward, not go down below.
If moksha is the goal, then participate fully in the affairs of society, raise a family, enjoy the good
life, and serve the community all within the framework of Dharma.
Dharma in this context is characterized by human values like truth, compassion, self-restraint,
non-enmity, forgiveness etc. It sets proper priorities for human achievements, lends a sense of
direction to human aspirations and rationalizes the relationship of the individual with the society
and the world at large. It also provides ample scope for individual conscience and to exercise
options.

We see here a logical progression from Rta a cosmic order to a code of conduct prescribed for
the individual in the light of righteousness, commitment and a sense of balance in life.
Dharma in Ramayana
Valmiki presents his view of ideal conduct through Rama and his approach to life. Valmiki
portrays Rama not as a supernatural being but as a rational human who in his life encounters
several moral dilemmas and deals with each of them in accordance with the Dharma that was
relevant in the context of the event and with reference to the stage of life he was then placed.
Valmiki says,Honour the duties of ones stage in life. To him Dharma is neither stagnant nor an
abstract concept but a dynamic living experience. Whichever Dharma you follow with
steadfastness and according to the principles, may that Dharma protect you.
Valmiki demonstrates the dynamic nature of the Dharma through the stressful events in the life
of Rama, and by depicting how Rama reacted to those events in accordance with the Dharma
then appropriate. For instance, when the question of his exile came up, Rama was not a king, yet.
At that stage in his life, the relation between him and the people of Ayodhya was not that of a
king and his subjects. His station in life, then, was of a dutiful son. His primary duty, then, was to
his parents and to his family. He rightly respected his fathers wish, obeyed him and saved him
from the danger of breaking his solemn promise. By accepting the exile without hesitation or any
ill feeling, Rama protected his Dharma, that of his father and that of his nation too. He acted with
great sense of responsibility and set an ideal for the coming generations to follow. That is the
reason Rama is regarded the upholder of the right conduct and as the epitome of virtue.
At a later stage in his life, after return from exile and crowned as the king, his Dharma as the
king took precedence over all other concerns in his life. He placed the interests of the kingdom
over that of himself and of his family.
As if to demonstrate the contrast, Valmiki also brings out in relief the ill effects of pride, greed,
lust, jealousy, distrust, deceit etc. to highlight the virtues of Dharma, and to show how they could
lead to degradation and destruction.
Another aspect of Dharma that Valmiki highlights is its equation with Sathya, truthfulness. To
him, Sathya is Dharma and it is established in Dharma. Accordingly, Rama is entirely committed
to truth; he is true to himself in spirit, word and deed. He not only follows the path of truth but
also helps others to be truthful and to follow their Dharma.
Ramayana delineates the Dharma of a father, son, a brother, a king, a wife, a friend and a
follower with illustrative examples. Valmiki in this context presents three contrasting sets of
brothers. Rama and his brothers idealize the brotherly love, affection and regard. The
relationship of Vaali and Sugreeva, in contrast, is a case where communication between the
brothers has broken down. Whatever brotherly affection was there has since vanished. Each does
not hesitate to kill the other or usurp the woman and kingdom. The relationship among the
brothers Ravana is of a different kind. Kumbhakarna is aware that his elder brother Ravana
clearly trespassed Dharma and he tries to dissuade Ravana from pursuing the wrong path. After
he fails in his attempts, Kumbhakarna decides to go along with Ravana, regardless; because of

brotherly affection, allegiance, loyalty and respect for his elder brother. Vibhishana on the other
hand is clear in his mind that lending support to the righteous takes priority over loyalty to the
family and to the brother. Vibhishana was perhaps the earliest instance of a whistleblower.
Dharma in these cases was a question of choosing the right priorities.
It is also a picture of three types of societies, each with its own set of values, mores and structure.
One is the kingdom of man; the other is of the Vanaras while the third is of the Rakshasas. They
are also pictures of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas gunas. In all the three cases, the elder brother is
denied the throne; each for a different reason. Eventually the Sattvics come to throne, but again
in three different ways. It is virtually a demonstration of Dharma in action.
The principle characters Rama, Sita,Lakshmana, Dasharatha , Kumbhakarna , Vibhishana et aleach exercises his/her judgment and acts in accordance with what he/she considers is the right or
righteous in the context of the then society, his/her Dharma in the circumstance. Ramayana thus
sets in motion a context sensitive dynamic interpretation of Dharma, evolving itself all the time.
It means that the broad principles of Dharma are translated into applications for use in specific
situations; just as in the relation between science and technology.
This context sensitive theme, innovative treatment, and dynamic interpretation of Dharma gains
greater significance in Mahabharata.
rapalas
As I am trying to study Hinduism Could I ask you another question? It is about Dwarapal.
I know only that they are security guard in Hindu temples, and every Divinity has his/her own
Dwarapal. Vishnu, Shiva, Devi and others have those personal Dwarapals. I have seen them,
made of stone, in temples in India. But I cannot find any additional information about
Dwarapals in Google
Are there any texts about Dwarapals? What kind of beings they are, who they are by nature,
what is their role in Hinduism or in worship of Deity?
Best regards

Western Malwa -6th century

1.1. Dear Atma Raga, Thank you. I am glad you asked the question. It is rather an unusual
question, but an interesting one. Let me try.
1.2. Dvarapalas are regular features of a major Hindu or Buddhist temple complex. They are the
formidable looking gate-keepers and guards in service of the presiding deity of the temple.
They are the servants and the protectors of their masters. They are typically envisioned as huge
and robust warriors. The pairs of Dvarapalas are most usually placed at the entrance to the
temple and also at the door way to sanctum (garbha-griha). As you mentioned, each god or
goddess has his or her own set of Dvarapalas.
2.1. Dvarapalas are classified as parivara-devathas, meaning that Dvarapalas are semi-divine
beings of a minor class who form the entourage of the main deity they serve. The Shilpa Sastra
texts that deal with temple architecture (devalaya-vastu) after describing the temple layout,
structure and other aspects with particular reference to the attributes and disposition of the deity
to be installed in the temple , do make a mention of the nature and appearances of
the Dvarapalas to be placed at different locations in the temple complex. There are in addition,
numerous Dhyana-slokas, or word-pictures in verse that present graphic details of the form,
substance and attribute of the deity and his or her attendants. These verses are meant for
contemplation and guidance of the Shilpi, the sculptor. I do not know if there are any texts that
deal exclusively with the depiction of the Dvarapalas. They form a detail of the larger picture.
2.2. Since Dvarapalas are parivara-devathas, their appearance, attributes etc have to be in
accordance with that of their Master, the principal deity that resides in the sanctum. Therefore
their costume, weapons, insignia or emblems are indicative of the powers, virtues and
magnificence of the presiding deity. Their appearances and stance herald the nature and

disposition of the main deity; and also the affiliation of the temple- such as Shiva, Vishnu, and
Devi etc.
3.1. Accordingly, the Dvarapalas in a Vishnu temple are rather placid looking; modestly dressed
and ornamented. They are adorned with the signs and emblems of Vishnu such as the tilaka on
their fore heads and urdhvapundra (Nama) on their faces, arms, chest etc.. They carry in their
upper hands the conch (shankha) and discus (chakra); and in the lower hands, the mace (gada)
and a noose (pasha, coil of rope). They stand erect, cross-legged leaning on their mace as if they
are resting. The gestures of their fingers and the look in their eyes caution one to behave properly
in the presence of the divinity. The nature and appearance of the Dvarapalas of Vishnu are
described in the Agama texts: Isvara Samhita and Pushkara Samhita.

Bhadra

Subhadra

3.2. Similarly, the Dvarapalas in a Shiva temple take after Virabhadra, the ferocious aspect of
Shiva. They look fierce with bulging eyes, protruding curved sharp canine teeth, horns (at times);
and with their threatening stance and fearsome weapons. They have thick mustaches, bushy
eyebrows and hairy abdomen. They wear the emblems of Shiva, such as the stripes of ash,
animal hides, long flowing unkempt hair etc. They carry a trident, mace, broad-sword and a
noose. They look ferocious, gesture ominously and stand planting firmly a foot on the mace. The
features of the Dvarapalas of Shiva are described in the latter part (uttarardha) ofKashyapa
Shilpa Sastra.

3.3. In the Shaktha tradition where the distinctions between the gross and subtle forms are
marked and sharp, the Dvarapalas of the female deities who represent the grosser elements of
nature are fearsome looking females, modeled after the ferocious aspect of their Mother deity.
They carry cutlasses and tridents; wear garlands of skull; and sport wild unkempt hair. Quite
often they are portrayed with flashy eyes, long protruding teeth and tongue spread out of the
open mouth. The Dvarapalas of the Devi are pictured in Kalika Puranam.

In the Dakshina-chara School (the right handed method) of Sri Vidya tradition the guarding
deities are the physical (sthula) representations of certain symbolic concepts. For instance, the
outermost enclosure (avarana) of Sri Chakra, named Bhupura Chakra - the earth stretch, has
four gates (dvara). The Eastern gate is the way of the mantras; the Southern gate is the way of
devotion or bhakti; the Western gate is for the performance of rites and rituals, or karma-kanda.;
and the Northern gate is the way of wisdom, or Jnana. The Mudra devathas, the standard bearers,
the approach to the divinities and carrying seals of authority, guard those entrances. They
resemble in appearance the auspicious form of the Mother Goddess and carry weapons such as
bow, arrows, goad and noose.

4.1. As regards the general features of all Dvarapalas placed in the temples, they are well built,
muscular, broad shouldered, very tall and sporting fearsome moustaches. Each is endowed with
four arms. They are elaborately adorned with Kirita (headgear), Bhuja kirti (shoulder
ornaments), karna-kundala (hanging earrings). They are always soldier-like and larger than life;
but they can hardly be called very terrifying. The Dvarapala are not provided with halos or
garlands. They always carry weapons; and are always depicted as standing guard. Dvarapalas are
always in pair or in even numbers. The Agama texts recommend four pairs of Dvarapalas, each
pair to guard a cardinal direction.
The Dvarapala images are usually scaled
in saptha (seven) tala or nava (nine) tala measure. They are made either with two or four arms.

4.2. The Dvarapalas, in each case, are in some way associated with their main deity through a
legend detailed in a Purana. The Dvarapalas of major deities such as Vishnu or Shiva have

recognizable names and specified positions. In the Agamas they are termed Ganeshvara, the
chief of the horde.

For instance the four pairs of Dvarapalas of Vishnu are (i) Chanda and Prachanda ;( ii) Dhatru
and Vidhatru; (iii) Jaya and Vijaya; and (iv) Bhardra and Subhadra. The first named in each pair
stands to the right of the doorway; and the other to the left.
Similarly, the Dvarapalas of Shiva are (i) Nandi and Mahakala (to the East) ;( ii) Herambha and
Bhringi (to the South); (iii) Durmukha and Pandura (to the West) and(iv) Sita and Asita (to the
North).
The Brahma too is said have four sets of Dvarapalas facing four directions: Satya-Dharma;
Priyodbhava Yajna; Vijaya Yajnabhadra; and, Sarvakamada Vibhava.
The Dvarapalas of Skanda are named as Sudeha and Sumukha. They are said to be Brahmin
brothers; but , are depicted with four arms.
The four doors of Ganapathi temple are guarded by four sets of Dvarapalas : Avijna Vijnaraja
(East ) ; Suvakthra Balavan (South ) ; Gajakarna Gokarna (West ) ; and , Susoumya
(Soumya ) Shubadayaka (Abhaya ) on the North. They are titled as Ashta-Prathihari (retinue
of eight guards). All of them are short statured having cruel looks and carrying fearsome
weapons.
Along with the Dvarapalas their subordinates are depicted in minor relief at on the base of the
images.
4.3. The pairs of Dvarapalas guarding the temple and placed in its exterior (at the entrances) are
larger in size and more ferocious or threatening in appearance , with a dare not enter look to
their faces and gestures , perhaps to keep away the evil influences. The Dvarapalas flanking the
doorway to the sanctum are comparatively modest.
The Dwarapalas in the Hoysala temples are particularly graceful with ornate jewellery to suit the
delicately carved interiors; gently holding lotuses as if inviting the devotee to Gods home.

5.1. The historical development in the depictions of Dvarapalas is quite interesting. The
Dvarapalas in the Pallava temples were made fierce. But, the Dvarapalas of the Chola temples
are truly awesome intended to strike terror in the hearts of the wicked. They are massive
towering up on the walls, snarling you down with sharp oversized fangs, riding on the Yali
(mythical beast) making one feel tiny and submissive. However , by the time of Vijayanagar
(15-16th century) the Dvarapalas grew a shade smaller but muscular and more ornate; they didnt
appear to lean on a mace or a lance- like weapon but stood tall or cross-legged.

5.2. But the artistic excellence in depicting the Dvarapalas reached its zenith in the Hoysala
architecture. Their intricate patterns, adornments are chiselled like a jewel, with extreme care.
They are magnificent works of art in their own right.

6.1. Most of the Dvarapala images are sculpted according to the Agama prescriptions. But the
shilpis do tend to improvise and avail artistic liberties. Sometimes, Shilpis the temple architects
employed massive Dwarapalas at the entrances to symbolically emphasize the grandeur, majesty
and magnificence of the Lord residing in the temple.
For instance, the Dwarapalas at the Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur are massive. But, what is
more interesting is theme the sculptures devised to drive home the message. The entire
Dvarapala panel is basically related to the image of the elephant, the largest land-animal,
depicted within its frame; and you have to work back to gain an estimate of the size and power of
the Dvarapala.

At the bottom of the panel is the image of an elephant which is being swallowed by a serpent
which in turn is coiled around the mace held in the hands of the Dvarapala. The serpent looks
quite tiny in comparison to the mace on which the Dvarapala has planted his foot. The mace
looks like a toy in the hands of the Dvarapala. You can work-back the size and power of the
Dvarapala, staring from the elephant.

The Dvarapalas in turn look modest in comparison to the temple and its tower. The Lord who has
in his service such gigantic gatekeepers and who resides in such a magnificent temple must truly
be mighty and powerful, true to his name Brihadishwara.

[A note about Kshetrapalas:

While the Dvarapalas guard the doors of their deities, the Kshetrapala, on the other hand, guards
the entire temple complex. The Kshetrapalas have broader functions; and , in hierarchy placed
higher than Dvarapalas.
The Kshetrapala are the protectors of a settlement, a village, a field or a temple. Kshetra literally
means a field or specifically a field of activity (In a broader sense the body is the Kshetra the
field; and the one who resides in it as the Antaryamin is kshetrajna).
Kshetrapalas are basically the folk guardian deities who are very

popular in village cults. They are entrusted with the task of safe guarding a Kshetra (a village, a
field or a temple) against dangers coming from all the eight spatial directions. In the villages of
South India Kshetrapalas are placed in small temples or in open spaces outside of the
village..Sometimes in the village open- courtyards blocks of stone are designated and
worshipped as Kshetrapala. They are offered worship on occasions of important community
celebrations.

In a major temple complex, particularly of Shiva, the Kshetrapala is provided a small shrine on
the North-East side within the temple courtyard for safeguarding the temple. Worship is offered
to Kshetrapala prior to important rituals, praying for efficient and safe conclusion of that ritual.
The Kshetrapala on the other hand have broader functions.
Kshetrapalas are installed and worshipped in Jain and Buddhist traditions also

Buddhist Kshetrapala
The Kshetrapalas are identified with Bhairava the terrible aspect of Shiva; as also with the
ferocious looking Veerabhadra the son of Shiva. . According to one legend Siva created
Kshetrapala along with others to organize the army of Kali when she went to fight the demon
Daruka.
In the Sri Vishvanatha temple at Kasi, the Kshetrapala there also performs the function of
Dvarapala, to guard the Lord against impure elements.
When Kshetrapala attends to Mahakala, the Lord of death who resides in the burning Ghats, it is
said, Kshetrapala wearing a skull cup, holding a chopper, rides a black bear.

When the Kshetrapala are depicted in images, they are generally: awe inspiring, terrifying, huge,
three eyed, untidy, wielding a number of weapons and usually accompanied by dogs .]
Sources and references
I gratefully acknowledge the line drawings and notes from Brahmiya Chitra Karma Sastram by
Dr.G.Gnanananda
The other pictures are courtesy of Internet.
Gangaikondacholapuram by Dr .R. Nagaswamy
http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/gcpuram/chapter06.html
Indian Temples and Iconography
http://indiatemple.blogspot.com/2005/07/gatekeeper-dvarapalas-in-temple.html
Leave a comment
Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 29, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Dvarapala, Dwarapala, Kshetrapala, temple guards

The Legacy of Chitrasutra Seven Brihadishvara

23 Sep
[This is the Seventh article in the series.
This article and its companion posts may be treated as an extension of the series I posted on the
Art of Painting in Ancient India .
The present article looks at the surviving Chola murals (earlyeleventh -century) at the
magnificenttemple of Brihadishvara, Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu.) This temple is a jewel among the
Indian temples; and is the best of the Chola temples.
A brief mention is also made of the paintings of the Nayak period (17th century)
In the next article we shall look at the Paintings at the historic temple of Pampa Virupaksha at
Hampi (Karnataka) , which belongs to the Vijayanagara School of art. ]
Continued from the Legacy of Chitrasutra Six Sri Kailasanatha of Kanchipuram

23. The Big Temple

The greatest of Chola emperors Rajaraja-I (985 A.D 1012 A.D) the son of Sundara Chola
(Parantakaa-II) and Vanavanmaha Devi, built a magnificent temple dedicated to Lord Shiva at
Rajarajeshwaram near the head of the Cauvery Delta; and called his Lord as Rajarajesvara
udaiya Paramasami (The Great God who resides at Rajarajeshwaram).He also affectionately
addressed his god as Peruvudaiyar (the great lord or the great master) and his temple as
Peruvudaiyar-kovil. The epigraphic evidences suggest that Rajaraja commenced his temple
building project in the 19th year of his reign and completed it successfully on the 257th day in the
25th year of his reign (c.1010 AD), in just a matter of six years . A remarkable feat; especially
when you consider that the hard granite stones that went into the construction of the huge
temple were not found anywhere nears the project site.

23.2. The inscriptions at the temple indicate that Rajarajesvaram was exclusively a royal temple
conceived, designed, and managed by the Emperor himself. The Big Temple was, in a way, an
expression of the devotion as well as the power and grandeur of Rajaraja Chola. It also became a
benchmark in the south Indian architecture, highlighting the maturity and technical excellence
achieved by the Chola architects and sculptures.

23.3. The crowning glory of the temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana comprising two
huge, sculpted, granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering skills and the expertise
that mounted these huge stones atop the fourteen story high tower structure, standing over 216
feet tall organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base creating spaces for niches and
windows in between, must have been way ahead of their times. Legend says that the stone was
brought from Sarapallam(scaffold-hollow), four miles north-east of the city, using a specially
designed ramp. The basement of the structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square. The
architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal structure,
more robust than the complex curvilinear profiles of other styles.

23.4. In course of time (17th to 19th centuries) the territory came under the rule of the
Maratha Nayak rulers .They added various shrines and gopuras within the temple complex.
During their time, the temple came to be known as Brihadisvaram; and its presiding deity as
Brihadisvara. The temple-city came to be known as Thanjavur. In Tamil, the temple is the
Thanjai Periya- kovil (the Big-temple of Thanjavur).
24. The Paintings

24.1. During the reign of King Vijaya Raghava Nayak (1645-1673), the restoration and
improvement works were undertaken in the temple. Due to constant exposure to smoke and soot
from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum over a period of centuries, certain parts of
the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged. The artists
of the Nayak period tried to set it right, as they thought it fit; and decided to replace the old
paintings with paintings of their own. They went on to paint their pictures over the thousand year
old Chola murals; covering the old murals completely. The modern day scholars could not help
remark that the artists of the Nayaks rather overdid their task.

24.2. How the underlying Chola murals again saw the light of the day after incarceration of
about four hundred years, is an interesting story. It is said that, during the year 1930, while late
Professor S.K. Govindasamy of Annamalai University was inspecting the walls of the six-foot
wide dim lit ambulatory (pradakshina patha) around the sanctum of the Brihadisvara, he noticed
that the painted surfaces on the walls on either side of the ambulatory had, at places, crumbled
exposing some exquisite ancient paintings. He examined it further; and was thrilled when he
discovered that the paintings hidden underneath the Nayak paintings were the thousand-year-old
murals of the time of Rajaraja Chola. Professor S.K. Govindasamy published his findings in the
Journal of the Annamalai University, Vol. II, 1933. Thereafter, attempts were made to bring to
light the Chola murals; and at the same time to preserve the paintings of the Nayak period.

The passage
24.3. The Department of Archaeology has done a remarkable conservation of
scientifically cleaning the exposed portions revealing the excellence of the Chola paintings and
at the same time retaining intact the upper layer on which the Nayak paintings are drawn. It is
said that during the 1980s, the chemical branch of the ASI came out with a unique `destucco
process to remove the upper layer of Nayak paintings and display the same on fibreglass boards.
For a report on that, please check:
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2003/02/28/stories/2003022801300600.htm
http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2410/stories/20070601000106500.htm
25. The Chola panels
25.1. The magnificent temple of Brihadisvara at Thanjavur is a splendorous jewel of Indian
temple art and architecture.
The original Chola paintings, so far brought to surface, are mainly in the corridors of the
ambulatory around the sanctum. They are on the South, North and Western walls of the sanctum.

The Maratha Nayak paintings (18-19th century) are on the ceiling of the adjoining great-hall
(maha-mantapa); on the west and north walls of another pavilion (tiruchchurru-maaligai); and
on the walls of the mantapa in front of the Subramanian shrine.
( For the paintings of the Nayaks period : please see the Appendix posted as Part 8 )
25.2. The themes depicted in the panels so far exposed (1,200 sq ft) are : Shiva as
Dakshinamurthy; the story of Sundarar; Rajaraja and his three queens worshipping Nataraja at
Chidambaram; Tripurantaka; the marriage of Shiva and Parvathi; Rajaraja worshipping the Linga
to be enshrined in the temple; and Ravana at Kailasa mountain.
Sadly, none of these is panels is complete. The figures too are not very clear; and it is difficult to
make out the details. But for the efforts of ASI these ancient wall-paintings would have been
totally lost.
Lets take a brief look at some those panels.
25.3. The Dakshinamurthy panel

The Dakshinamurthi panel is rather huge and occupies almost the entire space on the southern
wall. It is often cited as an example for lucidity and display of imagination in Chola paintings. It
depicts Shiva as Dakshinamurthi under a banyan tree.

However, the figure of Dakshinamurthy is barely visible. The panel is very rich in details; it is
populated with sages, Bhirava as dog, playful monkeys and birds such as peacocks, swans and
owls.
There is a stillness of body and reverence on the face of the sages worshipping Dakshinamurthi,
in contrast to the vivacious animals. Flying apsaras and gandharvas (celestial beings)complete
the scene .But as a cobra enters the picture; there is a sudden change in the scenery. A monkey
rushes away while another stares at the new entrant. Another, on a faraway branch, is not yet
aware of the danger. A few sensitive swans flutter their wings in fear. The owls do not react as
the whole thing happens in daylight. A peacock bends his long neck to watch. A squirrel,
unmindful of all this, happily bites into a nut. Below the tree is a herd of elephants; one
ferociously breaks a branch and another runs uphill with its trunk coiled around the branch.
Another one calmly enjoys the peaceful surroundings.
The other panels are fragmentary but they, too, contain some marvellously drawn figures,
bearing testimony to the skilful brushwork of the Chola artists.
25.4. There are also the graceful pictures of the Apsaras.

25.5. Saint Sundaramurti Nayanar

The panel on the west wall depicts the episodes in the life of Saint Sundaramurti Nayanar. In this
panel the scenes of Sundaras wedding are depicted in detail. These include scenes of Lord Shiva
appearing in the guise of an old man clutching a document proving his claim over the
bridegroom Sundara, an angry Sundara in a white coat , examination of the document by the
villagers assembled there, and Sundara appealing to the mercy of Shiva etc.

25.6. The scene of Indra (the king of gods) worshipping the Linga is on the opposite wall.

25.7. The next panel in northwest corner is the scene of four disciples who are now identified as
disciples (Kuravars: Sanka, Sananda, Sanathana, and Sanathkumara) of Sri
Dakshinamurthy. Two figures among them were earlier assumed to be that of Rajaraja standing
behind his Guru, Karuvurdevar, portraying a sense of humility. Now, the scholars seem to doubt
that plausible explanation.

25.8. Tripuranthaka theme of Shiva raiding a chariot like a warrior, going into a war fully armed
and wielding a bow, followed by an army of his supporters was a favourite of the Cholas. The
Brihadisvara too has a panel dedicated to Tripurantaka. It must have once been a magnificent and
awe inspiring painting, bringing to life the power, glory and the grandeur of the imperial Cholas
and their Lord. It is said that Shiva in the mural had a twin expression: the ferociousness in the
eye and the sweet smile on the lips. The daemons too have been depicted in detail. The panel,
sadly, has not survived in its entirety.

The demon with his consort on the Tripurantaka panel.

25.9. There is a picture of Ravana at Kailasa the snow-abode of Shiva; labouring hard to
destabilize mountain peak.

26.Prof. C. Sivaramamurthy , a scholar and art historian of great distinction, described the Chola
frescoes of the Thanjavur Big Temple as a masterpiece of Chola art, distinguished by power,
grandeur, rhythm and composition, and unparalleled by any other contemporary painting. What
is significant about the Chola paintings of Thanjavur is that there is great emotion in all the faces,
whether it is the compassion of the guru counselling Rajaraja, or a contemplative rishi, a devout
queen, an animated dancer or an angry Shiva.
26.1. Those who have examined the Chola paintings closely have observed that even while
depicting a sombre theme of devotion, the artist does not neglect the mundane aspects. The

bedecked royal ladies continue to chatter among themselves, in spite of their being in a holy
place. In contrast, the common ladies and elders seem absorbed in the performance.

26.2. According to Prof. C. Sivaramamurthy, If expression has to be taken as the criterion, by

which a great art has to be judged, it is here in abundance in these Chola paintings. The
sentiment of heroism vira rasa- is clearly seen in Tripurantakas face and form; the figures and
attitude of the Rakshasas (demons) wailing tear-stained faces of their women suggest an
emotion of pity karuna- and terror raudra; Siva as Dakshinamurthy is the mirror of peace
shanta; the hands of the dancer suggests the spirit of wonder adbhuta the ganas (Shivas
followers) in comic attitude represent hasya. The commingling of emotions is complete in this
which is a jumble ofvira, raudraand karuna (Paintings of South India).

27. The Chola artists of the Brihadisvara murals were the inheritors of the hoary tradition of
Chitrasutra. They preserved and practiced the concepts and the techniques of the Chitrasutra. The
delineation of lines, use of colours and shades, arrangement of the figures on the canvass and

treatment of the subject strongly resemble the murals of Ajanta. Its figures are alive with rhythm
and movement.

The saints, kings and queens are celebrated in their idealized forms; the emphasis was on the
ideal person behind the human lineaments rather than on their physical likeness. They figures of
humans, animals, birds and vegetation always seem to suggest to something beyond the obvious.
Its gods and goddesses too are full of virtue, vitality and grace; and have a universal appeal. They
not merely stimulate the senses but also ignite the imagination of the viewer and set the viewer
free from the confines of place, time and ego (self).The Chola murals of Brihadisvara have that
magical quality, which brings out the essence of life and the grace that permeate the whole of
existence.

[ I gratefully acknowledge the corrections and improvements suggested by Shri Vijay Kumar the
creator of the delightfully articulate website on Shilpa and other related subjects :
http://www.poetryinstone.in ]
For the paintings of the Nayaks period : please see the Appendix posted as Part 8

And
Next
The Vijayanagar period paintings on the ceilings of the Sri Pampa Virupaksha temple, Hampi
(Karnataka)

References and Sources:

The Big Temple
http://www.thanjavur.com/bragathe.htm
http://www.thebigtemple.com/emperor_rajaraja.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_art
The Great God of Rajarajeshwaram
http://www.whatisindia.com/opinion/2006/03/wis20060331_the_great_god_of_rajeshwaram.htm
l
Restoration of Chola paintings by ASI
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2003/02/28/stories/2003022801300600.htm
http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2410/stories/20070601000106500.htm
http://www.thebigtemple.com/frescos.html
http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/24/stories/2005122406380400.htm
A.A.S.A.I: Paintings Preservation
http://conserveheritage.org/paintingpreservation.html
Legends across panels by Nandtha Krishna
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?
file=2004061300370200.htm&date=2004/06/13/&prd=mag&
The Swami as photographer
http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2005/06/20/stories/2005062000400500.htm

Tanjavur Paintings in Koviloor, Sittannavasal, Panamalai, Tanjavur Early Chola Paintings;

Photographed by C. Nachiappan (Koviloor Swamy), Kalakshetra Publications.
http://saigan.com/heritage/articles/cholamrl.html
2 Comments
Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 23, 2012 in Art, Chitrasutra, Indian Painting, Legacy of
Chitrasutra, Temple Architecture

Tags: Brihadishvara, Chola murals, Indian wall paintings

Temple Architecture Devalaya Vastu Part Nine (9 of 9)

10 Sep
Some norms adopted in the Shipla shastra
I. Determination of cardinal points (Dik nirnaya)

In Sanskrit, the root, ma, stands for that which gives existence to a thing, gives it a reality in our
world; and demonstrates the relation between things. The term matir, for mother is derived from
that root ma.There is a close relation in the Indian thought, between measurement (maa_na) and
creation.Measurement separates and differentiates the elements of the world and provides them
an identity or a recognizable standard form. Perhaps the first act of measurement in our universe
was the breaking of the barrier between time and timelessness; and, it surely saved our existence
from perpetual chaos.
Maana not merely measures the elements of space and time, but also governs the standard of
ones conduct in life.
It is said that the ritual of measurement performed at the commencement of the temple building
or of a Vedic altar is a re-enactment of creation of the world. The importance accorded to precise
orientation and precise measurements in the construction of the temple reveals the symbolism
involved in the act. The Sanskrit term, vimana, referred to the temple signifies a well-measured
or well-proportioned structure. The standard texts on temple architecture carry extensive
discussions on the systems of proportional measurements and the techniques employed for
determining true cardinal points.
The ancient text Shathapatha Brahmana repeatedly refers to the term prachee meaning the
correct East-West line. Ascertaining the exact cardinal points and drawing the East-West line
(prachee) was one of the primary concerns of the ancients. It was considered essential to align
any auspicious structure say, yupa, the sacrificial altar; a mantapa, the pavilion; or a temple,
along the prachee. The Sulaba Sutras of Bhodayana and Kathyayana too describe methods to
determine true cardinal points.
The Yajna altar of the Vedic times, which was reconstructed each year around the time of vernal
equinox, carried a rich symbolism. The altar built of five layers, represented the five seasons,
five elements and five directions. The altar was surrounded by a wall of 360 bricks representing
360 days of the year. The fired bricks symbolized the elements of fire, earth, and water.
The akasha provided space and air by breathing upon the bricks of the altar and bringing them
to life.
The Shilpa Shastra texts, such as Kashyapa Shilpa sutra; Vastu Vidya; Vishwakarma Vastu
Shastra; Shilpa Rathnam; Ishana Shiva Guru Doctrine and Manasara etc too discuss
elaborately the instruments and the methods employed to determine true directions.
The instrument that the texts talk about in this regard is the Sanku Yantra or the gnomon. The
gnomon is probably mankinds oldest astronomical device. The Sanku in its simplest form is a
piece of sharp edged, smooth surfaced pole made of wood or other material, firmly erected
perpendicular to a leveled ground rendered as smooth as a mirror, The method uses the
movement of the Sun and the shadows it casts . And, it is often described as the Indian Circle
Method.
The Sanku (gnomon) or its variations were used by all ancient civilizations for determining the
east-west direction and also for knowing time. The Indian astronomers also used it for the

determination of the solstices, the equinoxes and the geographical latitudes. For instance,
Brahmagupta described a conical gnomon, the staff (yasti) of which represented the radius of the
celestial sphere and was used for determination of the position of heavenly bodies, and also for
terrestrial surveying. The Sawai Jai Singhs Observatories at Ujjain includes a Sanku
Yantra. (Please check: http://www.engr.mun.ca/~asharan/JAI_SINGH/index.html )

For the limited purpose of our discussion, let us confine to the Sanku discussed in the texts of
Shilpa Shastras and its use for determining the cardinal points. Each text of the Shilpa Shastra
recommends its own set of specifications for the height and girth of the gnomon; the material or
the wood to be used for making the gnomon; the mode of embedding the gnomon into the earth;
the type of ropes and the pegs to be used; and the measurements to be taken etc. Some of the
salient recommendations of only four of Shilpa texts are briefly tabulated under.
Particulars

Kashyapa Vishvakarma Vastu Shastra Manasara

Ishana Shiva
Shilpa
Guru
15 inches 12 to 24 inchesand48 inches Uttama12 inches
for Temples
24inchesMadhyama
-18 inchesKanista12inches

Height of
Sanku above
the ground
level- (In
inches)
Girth of sanku 2 inches
at the bottom

Pointed edge 1 yava

at the top of
sanku

Uttama -2
inchesMadhyama
-1inchKanista-1/3
inch
Like a pin-head

2 inches

A sharp
pointmade of
metal

Diameter of Twice the

the circle
height of
drawn around the sanku
the base of
pole from
Sanku
the ground
Ground on
Level like
which SankuIs a stone
erected
How to embed Fixed
the Sanku?
firmly
Which wood Sara
to be used for vriksha
making Sanku
Season of the
year for taking
measurements

24 inches

Four times the

height of Sanku

Twice the
height ofSanku

Level like water surface

Level- like water

surface

Summer solstice, brighter

half of the month

Any auspicious day Summer

barring Full moon solstice, any
and New-moon
auspiciousday
days

Smooth and
level asa
mirror
Some portion to be buried
Some portion to be Erected on the
underground
buried underground ground
Kadira,Tinduka,Kshira vriksh Kadira, Shami,
SaradaOrivory
a
KshiraOr ivory

Before drawing the plans and designs for a temple, the orientation of the site has to be
established properly. The best way to go about it is to commence the exercise at a time when the
sun is in the northern part of the sky, and on a day when there are no sunspots disfiguring its
visible surface.
Before erecting the Sanku pole, it is essential that the ground is rendered absolutely clean,
smooth and flat. The Mayamata and Manasara describe what is called as water method to
ensure an even and a flat surfaced ground. The selected ground, in a square shape, is leveled and
enclosed by a frame of bricks; and is filled with water. Then, with the aid of a measuring rod the
height of water at different points are checked to ensure that the water column is of same height
throughout. After it is dried out the uneven surfaces, wrinkles and blotches are corrected and
evened out by suitably increasing/decreasing the level at selected points.
The Vastu Vidya Shilpa text suggests an improvement over the above method. After the leveling
by water-method has been carried out, it recommends the use of a device
called avanatha constructed out of three wodden strips of equal length (25 inches each).An
equilateral triangle constructed out of the three wodden strips is placed at different points on the
prepared ground. If the pendulum (plumb line) suspended from the apex of the triangle stayserect
at all test-points; it means that the pegs stand at equal height. If not, suitale corrections have to be
carried out, until it is required. Finally, after the ground has been dried, cleaned and fine-leveled,
it again is checked by the avanatha.

The Sanku has to be erected in the mid region of the prepared ground. The ritual of erecting the
Sanku is called Sanku_sthapana. The sanku is made of either ivory or the seasoned kadira (hard)
wood which does not bend in the heat of the sun. Its surface should be smooth, perfectly circular
and without irregularities; and pointed at one end.
The total length of the sanku would normally be 18 inches; of which six inches would be under
the ground level. The effective height of sanku, above ground, would normally be 12 inches. The
Manasara text however recommends 24 inches as the best (uttama) and 18 inches as next-best
(madhyama) height of the Sanku. The girth of the Sanku at its bottom should range between two
inches to six inches. Its top-end should be pointed; but it should not be too thin; else it might be
difficult to mark its shadow on the ground, especially during the evenings. The diameters at the
top and bottom should be proportionate to their length.
The Sanku should be fixed firmly and it should stand perpendicular to the ground. With the base
of the Sanku as the centre, a circle should be described around the sanku, having a radius equal
to twice the height of the Sanku. It is argued that the radius of that circle should not be too long;
nor should it be too short. In either case of extreme, it would be difficult to obtain correct
readings, especially during the evenings. Most texts recommend that the radius should be twice
the height of the Sanku. [There is some confusion here. Some texts say the diameter
(vyasa) should be twice the height of the Sanku. While some other texts say that the radius
(trigya) should be twice the height of the Sanku. But all texts say that the radius should not be
less than the height of the Sanku. I have, in the interest of uniformity, adopted here the radius as
equal to twice the height of the Sanku.]
The Shilpa texts such as Shilpa Dipika, Raja_vallabha and Kunda _siddhi recommend a unique
method to ensure that the Sanku is
standing

perpendicular to the ground. They suggest that in case the height of the Sanku is 12 inches, a
circle should be described with the base of Sanku as the centre and with a radius of 16 inches.
This in effect forms a right angled triangle , with the radius as the base of the triangle (16
inches), the Sanku as its height (12 inches); and the string(rajju) connecting the top of the Sanku
to the point of intersection of the base of the triangle with the circle forming the hypotenuse. If
the sanku stands absolutely perpendicular then the string (hypotenuse) should measure exactly 20
inches. This exercise was based on the theory of Brahmagupta (6thcentury AD) otherwise known
as the Pythagorean Theorem.
Now, having completed the preliminary work of leveling and smoothening the ground;
erecting the sanku ; and drawing a circle , round its base, with a radius equal to twice its height
you proceed with the task of determining the cardinal points with the help of gnomon. It is
recommended that the first reading is taken at sunrise during a month when the solar path is
towards the north (uttarayana) during a bright fortnight when sunrise is clear, when there are no
spots in the solar disc and when the sun is in the asterism of the appropriate fortnight.

As the sun rises in the morning, you keep observing the sankus shadow. When the shadow of the
top of the Sanku just falls on the circle, mark the point. By evening, when the shadow of the
sanku gets longer, you again mark the point where the shadow intersects the circle.Connect the
two points with a straight line. This line points directly East-West. This East-West line is
called prachee. A line perpendicular to the E-W line is the north-south direction.
In this method, as the sun rises in the east, the shadow points west. Then, as

the day advances, the shadow first swings to the north and then to the east, as the sun travels to
west.The problem with this method is that the shadows are shorter in the summer than in the
winter, because the earth is tilted toward the sun in summer and away from the sun in the winter.
Another issue is that the sun moves most rapidly at the equinoxes. And, therefore the points
marked on the circle indicate only approximately correct directions.

An improvement over this method is the drawing of circles with these East and West points as
centres. The radius of the circles is the distance between those East and West points. The
intersection of these circles creates a fish shaped figure. A line drawn between the points where
the two circles intersect indicate the geographic North-South.

***
In Uttarayana Punyakala or Makara Sankranti, Sun in his entourage, after touching the
southernmost tip of his path (23.5 degrees or Circle of Tropic of Capricorn Makara Sankranti
Vritta), he reverses his movement from travelling in southern direction and from that day
onwards he starts travelling in the Northern direction for next six months, from Makara up to
Mithuna signs, till he reaches northernmost tip of his path (23.5 degrees or Circle of Tropic of
Cancer Karkataka Sankranti Vritta). From that point, which termed as Dakshinayana Punya
Kala, again he starts travelling in Southern direction, again for another six months, from Kataka
up to Dhanu signs, till he reaches the circle of tropic of Capricorn. Utarayana can also be
explained as the progress of the Sun to the north of equator The Summer solstice.
Dakshinayana is the progress of Sun to the south of the equator The winter half of the year.
In a period of six months as the sun moves from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer
his position shifts by 47 degrees. That is, the suns position shifts by about 8 degrees in each
month. Accordingly, the sun shadow on the ground too shifts gradually during this period.
Theoretically, the Indian circle method leads to the error up to 8 in the time near spring and
autumn equinox (March and September). If the East-West line (prachee) has to be fixed
accurately, the readings taken earlier need to be fine-tuned. The Shiva Guru Doctrine suggests
the following method in this regard.
The shadow points of the Sanku intersecting the circle drawn around it should be marked
everyday both in the morning. Over a period of time these markings form a curvaceous line or an
arc. Further, when the shadow of the Sanku is within the circle, three points have to be marked
three circles should be drawn with these three points as the centre. The points of intersections of
these circles should be marked. Let us name these points as A-a; and B-b. When the lines joining
A-a and B-b are joined and extended backwards they converge in the point N, as shown in the
following diagram. A line drawn at 90 degrees to the line indicating North would be the EastWest line.

***
As the sun rises and sets at shifting points on the horizon, the vertical gnomon casts its shadow in
different directions on different days of the year, while the length of shadow also varies from day
to day through the year.
The shadow of the sun will on any given day of the year follow a curved path from west towards
east. From spring equinox to autumn equinox the path will curve towards south. From autumn
equinox to spring equinox (yellow area above) the curving is northerly.
The amount by which the sun changes its declination during the day decreases as the sun moves
away from equinox, and on the days of solstice the change is zero.
Shilpa Shastras caution that the points marked out on the ground based on the shadows cast by
the sanku do not therefore indicate the true cardinal points. The readings need to be suitably
corrected depending on the movement of the sun.
The texts suggest that the East- West line should be established with adjustments- by reductionof the following numbers of digits for each ten day period of each month. There, again, is no
uniformity in this regard. The corrections suggested by each text are different. Please see the
following table for the month -wise corrections suggested by two major texts.
Sr.No. Rashi

ChandramanMonth
Calendar

Corrections

month

Reduction suggested (in inches)

Mayamatha

01

kanya

Bhadrapada

Jul-Aug

A
01

B`
02

C
02

Manasara
A
00

B
01

C
02

02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12

Rishabha
Mesha
Kumbha
Makara
Mithuna
Kataka
Simha
Tula
Vrishika
Dhanus
Meena

Vaishaka
Chaitra
Magha
Pushya
Jesta
Ashadha
Shravana
Ashviyuja
Karthika
Margashira
Phalguna

Apr-May
Mar-Apr
Jan- Feb
Dec-Jan
May-Jun
Jun-Jul
Jul-Aug
Sep-Oct
Oct-Nov
Nov-Dec
Feb-Mar

01
01
05
07
03
03
01
03
05
07
03

02
00
04
06
04
02
00
04
09
08
01

02
00
04
06
04
02
00
04
06
08
01

01
02
06
08
02
04
02
02
04
06
04

01
01
05
07
03
03
01
03
05
07
03

02
00
04
06
04
02
00
04
06
08
02

The first three columns of corrections are as per Mayamata;and the last three columns of
corrections are as per Mansara.
A stands for first 10 days of the month; B stands for days from 11 to 20;And C stands for days
from 21 to 30 of the month
After carrying out the corrections, you plot the readings and draw the lines and arcs. The final
drawing will look as under.

The East-West line is named Brahma Sutra; The North-South line is named Yama Sutra; and, the
Diagonal lines are named Karna Rekhas. The entire exercise is called Dik parchheda or Prachee
sadhana, which is achieving the true cardinal points.

Guided by the stars

The practice of determining the directions, based on the position of stars is rather ancient.
TheKathyayaneeya sulba sutra mentions that the true East can be determined with reference to
the position of the pairs of stars: Chiita and Swathi;Shravana and Prathi shravana;Krutthika and
Prathi krutthika; and Pushya and Punarvasu , when they are 86 inches above the horizon. The
text however does not detail the method to be employed. There is no description, either, of Prathi
Shravana and Prathi Krutthika stars.
The Shilpa texts Kathyayaneeya sulba sutra, Raja Vallabha and Shilpa deepika- mention that
the line connecting the polar star (dhruva) and the two stars of the Ursa Major (Saptha Rishi
mandala) , when extended would point to North.
***
A few points need to be mentioned by way of clarification.
The exercises described were undertaken to find the geographic North Pole which is the pole
about which the Earth seems to spin. They were not talking about the Magnetic North Pole.
The Magnetic North Pole is currently wandering at a few kilometers per year through the far
north of Canada, while the Geographic North Pole is in the Arctic..
The methods which we discussed so far were being followed by the Shiplis until about the
17thcentury .Thereafter, with the introduction of magnetic compasses, the ancient methods were
given up. Now everyone goes by the compass to ascertain the directions. Yet, many feel that
determining the geographic north, as the ancient did, is a superior method.

Incidentally, the diagram, based on the Sanku method, for positioning the yupa, the sacrificial
altar, looked as shown below.

****
II. Four Types of Architects
The ancients mention four types of architects the Sthapati, Sutragrahin, Vardhaki and Takshaka.
The Sthapati is the chief architect or master builderempowered to plan, design and direct the
construction from the beginning to the end. He is well-qualified in Shastras and the Vedas. He is
pictured as a cultured, decent man free from vices. He has the ability to direct his team.
The Sutragrahin is the supervisor and is said to be normally the Sthapatis son or disciple. He is
also well-qualified in the Vedas and Sastras. He is an expert draftsman or Rekhagna, who directs
the rest of the work force. His job is to see that all building parts are aligned correctly. He should
be able to give instructions to the other craftsmen.
The Vardhaki is the painter and has made a special study of it. He is also well-versed in the
Vedas. Vardhaki joins together the building elements shaped by Taksaka.
Taksaka is the craftsman who cuts and shapes the building elements. The Takshaka is also the
master carpenter who is responsible for all the intricate wood work including doors, windows,
pillars etc.

These four classes are considered the representations of Viswakarma, Maya, Manu and Twasta,
the sons of Brahma, the creator.
Acharya is the learned preceptor who gives the yajamana (one who sponsors the temple project)
the necessary advice and guidance in selecting the proper site, the sthapati and other silpins. The
sthapati, yajamana and the ahcarya form the trinity of vastusthapana (construction); they are
compared to Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra .
****
III .Building Materials used in temple architecture
The building materials that are prominently used in temple construction are the stone, the bricks
and the wood (apart from earth which we discussed separately in the earlier part of this series).
The Shilpa texts describe in detail the nature of these materials and the criteria for their selection,
for various purposes. Let us take a quick look at these three materials.
A.Stones
The stones are the major ingredients in temple construction. One cannot think of a temple
constructed without using stones. It is therefore natural that the Shilpa texts discuss the stones
quite elaborately.
The following, in brief, is the summarized observations and recommendations of some shilpa
texts.
The stones collected from open source such as mountain or hill are stronger and more durable as
compared to those dug out of earth. Similarly, the stones or boulders dug out from the coastal
areas are considered weak, as they could be eroded by the chemicals and the salt content of the
sea. They are not considered fit to bear heavy loads. The reason for preferring the stones from
hills or mountains could be that they are well seasoned by constant exposure to the vagaries of
weather; and are unaffected by salts and other chemicals.
Stone should be free from lines, patches, blotches, blots and cracks or other faults. The white
lines or patches in a black or other coloured stone are acceptable. But, black lines or black
patches in white or other coloured stones are not acceptable at all. The explanation given is, the
white lines, the patches of quartz, strengthen the rock structure; while black lines of baser
materials weaken the stones. The traces of chlorite or olivine cause green or black patches and
weaken the stones; therefore, such stones are not recommended for temple construction.
The Vishnu Darmottara Purana talks in great detail about the faults in the rocks and the methods
to test the rocks.
Stones such as marble, steatite, khondalite, sandstone, basalt etc are not fit for carving a diety.
They are not recommended in load bearing areas, either. They could be used in other areas, if
needed.

Colour
As regards their colour, the stones are of four basic colours: white, red, yellow and black. Some
of them could be tainted with traces of other colours. Stones of white colour are regarded the best
for temple construction. The next in the order of preference are the red, yellow and black
coloured stones. . It is preferable to use uniformly the stones of the same colour.
The Kashyapa Shilpa mentions seven categories of white stones: white as milk, as the conch, as
jasmine, as moon, as pearl, as alum and as the kundapushpa (a variety of jasmine).The white
stones with traces of blue or slight brown or bee-like black lines are considered good for temple
construction.
The red coloured stones are of five types: Red as red hibiscus flower (japa kusuma),
as kinsuka(bright red), as the indragopa insect, as parijatha flower, as the blood of a rabbit, and
as pomegranate flower.
The yellow colour of the stones is of two types: yellow as the Banduka flower, and as koranti
flower.
The black of the stones comes in ten colours: black as the pupil of the eye, as mascara, blue
lotus, as bee, as the neck of peacock, as kapila cow, as urd gram etc.
Age
The stones are also classified according to their age-: child (baala), youthful (taruna) and the
old (vriddha).
If a stone when tapped gives out a faint sound or the sound is as that of mud, or of half burnt
brick; such stones are classified as baala- the child; to mean raw or immature. The baala stones
are not fit for making idols or for bearing loads.
If a stone when struck produces the sound resembling the ring of a bell and if such sound
resonates for quite a while, such a stone is classified as taruna youthful. Such stone should have
a cold touch and a soft feel. If the stones emanate fragrance it is much better. The taruna- the
youthful stones are fit for carving images and for crucial areas of temple.
An old, the vriddha, stone does not give out any sound and has a dry appearance.It gives the
touch and feel of a frog or a fish. It might have many holes or might be in a state of decay. Such
old and spent stones are not fit for making images or for load bearing areas.
Gender
Stones are also classified according to their gender. Those stones which give bronze sound at
the hammer weight are called male. Those which give brass sound are called female. And,
those that do not produce any sound are called genderless (neuter).

A hollow stone may be taken as pregnant and hence should be discarded. When smeared with a
paste, overnight, it changes its colour. Shilpa Ratna describes dozens of such pates. Some stones
are said to carry poisonous effects. These stones too should be tested by application a paste; and
should not be used.
It is suggested that male stones are used for carving male deities; female stones are used for
carving female deities; and the neuter stones are used for other constructions. Further it is said,
the male stones could also be used for construction of sikhara (tower) and stone walls; the
female stone could be used for structures above foundations; and the neuter stones could be used
for foundations.
Male stones are big, round or polygonal, are of a singular shape and uniform colour; they are
weighty and give out sparks when hammered. When dug out, its apex will be towards north. If
the apex is inclined towards north or west facing, the rock is considered inauspicious. Highly
compact rocks like dolerites, bronzites, proxenites and peridoties as well as lamprophyres are
regarded male rocks.
A female rock is of medium weight , square or octagonal, thick at root and thin near the apex,
cold to touch, soft to feel and on being struck gives out sonorous notes like that of
a mridanga (drum).
A neuter gender stone is one that doesnt give any sound on being struck and narrow towards its
bottom and triangular on its upper side ; and such stones may be used only for the foundation.
Coming back to the issue of acoustics in the stones, the Shilpis displayed a remarkable skill and
ingenuity in crafting musical pillars, which when struck at right points produce sonorous
octaves. One can see such pillars in the Vijaya Vittala temple at Hampi; Meenakshi temple at
Madurai; and at Sundarehwara temple at Trichendur. There might be such musical in other
temples too. Usually such pillars are of granite and charnockites; and of different girths and
volumes to produce the right octaves.

B.Bricks (Ishtaka)

Bricks have been in use for thousands of years in construction of yupa the sacrificial altars and
Chaithyas the early temples of the Vedic ages. Shathapatha Brahmana as also Shilpa Rathna
describes the methods for moulding and burning the bricks. The Sulba
sutras and Manasara detail the dimensions of the bricks of various sizes in relation to the
sacrificial altars constructed for various purposes. The remnants of the Indus valley civilization
too amply demonstrate the extensive use of bricks in construction of buildings and other
structures.
During the later ages, the bricks were used in the temple structures mainly for erecting Gopuras
the temple towers and Vimanas the domes over the sanctum.
As per the descriptions given in Manasara the bricks were made in various sizes; the size of the
bricks varying from 7 inches to 26 or even to 31 inches in length. The length of the bricks were
1 , 1 , 1 or 2 times the width .The height of the brick was its width or equal to the width.
Thus, bricks of different sizes, shapes, and types were made. The composition, shape and baking
of a brick depended upon the use to which it was put.
Interestingly, the bricks with straight and linier edges were called male bricks; while those with a
broad front side and a narrower back side or those of curved shape were called female bricks.
The bricks in concave shape were called neuter bricks. The male bricks could be used in the
construction of the prasada, the sanctum. The female bricks were used for the sanctum of female
deities. The neuter bricks were generally not used in temple construction; but were used for
lining the walls of the well.
According to Shukla Yajurveda Samhita, bricks were made from thoroughly mixed and
pulverized earth and other ingredients. The earth was strengthened by mixing goat hair, fine
sand, iron flake or filings and powdered stone. Earth was also mixed with raal oil, etc. and
thoroughly beaten and blended in order to increase the strength of the material by enhancing the
cohesion of the earth particles. Triphala concoction is said to render the earth, white ants
(termite) and microbe proof.
Brick lying was done with the aid of moulds; and, the bricks were burnt in enclosed kilns. The
works like Shilpa Ratna and Vastuvidya explain that the brick moulds were baked for 24 hours in
a fire of firewood.
Bricks black in colour or half baked or broken or defective otherwise were rejected. The bricks
should be well burnt and be of uniform colour.
According to Shulba Sutra, bricks measuring 22.8X11.4X5.7 cms were used in construction of
walls. The Bodhayana Sulaba sutra specifies the arrangement of bricks, while constructing a
wall. The brick should be directed in a dextral and laevo order. The brick ends should not be
piled one over the other. The joints of the brick in each third row of brick may fall over the brick
of the first row; this is the Malla Lila style of fixing the brick, based on the arrangement of the
joints of the brick.

The bricks having a smooth surface are not to be set one above the other, but are to be fixed in
straight line and the wall should be of an equal thickness all over. The corners of the walls should
be on the ratio of 5: 3: 4 and at right angle to each other. According to the Sumrangana
Sutradhara, the square of the diagonal of the wall should be equal to the sum total of the square
of the width of the wall.
It is said that the altar constructed for major sacrifices, bricks of about 200 types were used,
depending upon the size and shape of the altar.

C.Wood
Wood has limited use in traditional temple structure of medieval times. Its application is mainly
for carving doors, erecting Dwajasthamba the flag posts and for other utilities such as platforms,
stands etc. But, in rare cases (as in Sri Jagannath temple at Puri or at Sri Marikamba temple in
Sirsi) the principal idol dhruva bhera is made of wood. The most extensive use of the wood is of
course in the construction of the Ratha the temple chariot. In rare cases as in Puri a new chariot
is created each year.
Shatapatha Brahmana a Vedic text of about 1500 BC or earlier makes repeated references to
wood and its applications. During its time the temples and the images were mostly made of wood
(kasta shilpa). The text mentions a certain Takshaka as a highly skilled artist who carved wood.
It names a number of trees the wood from which was used for various purposes. For instance
Shaala (teak) and Kadira a type of hard wood was used for carving images, pillars, gnomon
(sanku) and other durables. Certain other trees are also mentioned as being suitable for pillaras,
posts etc: Khadi, Shaal, Stambak, Shinshipa, Aajkarni, Kshirani, Dhanvan, Pishit, Dhanwalan,
Pindi, Simpa, Rahjadan, and Tinduka.
Trees such as Nibaka (Neem), Panasa (jackfruit), Asana, Sirish, Kaal, Timish, Likuch, Panas,
Saptaparni, wood are said to be best for roofing work.
Coconut, Kramuk, Bamboo, Kitki, Oudumbara (silk cotton etc. wood is suited for hut
constructions, ribs and rafters etc.

However use of certain trees considered holy or godlike was not recommended in temple
construction. The trees such as Ashwattha (Peepal), Vata, Nagrodha (banyan), Chandana
(sandalwood), Kadamba, Badari, Shami, Bilva, Parijatha, kinsuka, and Bakula, were some such
sacred and godlike trees.
Chandana, Kadira, Saptaparni, Satwak, etc. were used for engraving and carving artwork.
The southern text Shilpa Rathnam states that the wood from the following is not suited for
temple construction.;
Trees from a place of public resort, trees from a village or from the precincts of a temple, trees
that have been burnt, trees in which are birds nests, trees growing on anthills, trees in which are
honeycombs, trees fruiting out of season, trees supporting creepers, trees in which maggots
dwell, trees growing close to tanks or wells, trees planted in the earth but reared by constant
watering, trees broken by elephants, trees blown down by the wind, trees in burning-grounds, in
forsaken places, or in places which had been paraclieris, withered trees, trees in which snakes
live, trees in places where there are hobgoblins, devils, or corpses, trees that have fallen down of
themselves, these are all bad trees and to be avoided.
Age
The lifetime of a tree was regarded as 103 years. The trees under the age of 16 were Baala
child trees; and those above 50 years of age were Vriddha- trees in their old age. The trees
between the age of 16 and 50 years were regarded most suitable for construction of temple and
homes.
Tall trees of uniform girth without knot and holes, in their youth, grown on dense hilly regions
are most suited for construction of pillars. The trees that are white under the bark are in the best
category; followed by those having red, yellow and dark interiors; in that order. The juicy or
milky trees are preferable.
Gender
The trees that are round from the root to its apex, give a gentle fragrance, are deep rooted, are
solid and temperate may be taken as masculine trees, yielding male wood.
The feminine trees have slender roots and are thick at apical part, but a much thicker middle part
with no fragrance or odor in the wood.
The wood should be straight and without any knot, crevice or cavity. The structure built by
joining such male and female wood last for centuries
Neuter Trees

Slender and long in the middle of the trunk and having a thick head, is a genderless tree. While
the male trees serve for pillars; female trees for wall-plates, beams, and capitals; the
hermaphrodite trees serve for cross-joists, joists, and rafters.
Agastya Samhita has described the wood that is to be used in a chariot, boat or an aircraft. A
youthful and healthy tree should be cut and its bark removed, thereafter, it should be cut in
squares after which are to be transported to the workshop where these pieces should be stored
upon spread out sand in an orderly manner for 3 to 8 months for seasoning. The root and apex
sides must be marked because in pillars the root side is to be kept down and apex part up.
As far as possible, only one type of wood may be used for one particular construction. The use of
more than tree types of wood in a construction is not recommended.
It is said the ISI standard A-883-1957 regarding a wooden items is based on the specification s
mentioned in the ancient Indian Texts
*****
Precautions in the selection of the building materials:
No used building material should be used.
Stolen and renovated material should never be purchased.
Materials confiscated by the King should not be used.
The wood culled from the trees cut down in a cremation ground; temple, ashram or shrine should
not be utilized.
***
IV.Ayaadi Shadvarga
Ayadi _shadvarga is a matrix of architecture and astrological calculations. According
to Samarangana Sutradhara Ayaadi-shadvarga is a set of six criteria: Aaya, Vyaya, Amsha,
Nakshatra, Yoni and Vara-tithi, which are applied to certain dimensions of the building and its
astrological associations. The purpose of the exercise is to ascertain the longevity of the house as
also the suitability to its owner. These norms are applied to temples too.
The term Aaya could be taken to mean increase or plus or profit; Vyaya decrease or minus or
loss; Nakshatra,- star of the day; Yoni source or the orientation of the building; Vara- day of
the week; and Tithi the day in lunar calendar for construction of building and performing
invocation of Vastu Purusha..

The area of the structure is divided by certain factors assigned to each element of the Aayadi
Shadvarga; and the suitability or longevity of the building is ascertained from the reminder so
obtained.
For instance, if the plinth area of the house is divided by 8; and the remainder is either 1 or3 or 5,
then these are called Garuda garbha, Simha garbha and Rishabha garbha, which are auspicious.
Hence the plinth area of the building should be manipulated or altered to arrive at an auspicious
reminder.
The rule is also applied to ascertain the longevity of the building. According to this method the
total area should be divided by 100 and if the reminder is more than 45, it is good and if it is
more than 60 it is very good. For instance, if the length of the house 11 meters, and the width 5
meters, then its area is 11 X 5 = 55 sq.mts. Multiply the area by 27 (Nakshatra factor) , 55 X 27 =
1485. Divide the product 1485 by 100. The remainder is 85,-which indicates the projected
longevity of the house. Since the reminder is more than 60, .it is a very healthy result.
There is another method for arriving at the Aayadi value. The result is categorized in to eight
types of Aayas. According to this method, the area (length X breadth) is multiplied by 9; and
divided by 8. The reminders 1 to 8 are interpreted as good or bad, as indicated in the following
table.
Aaya
Symbolizin Reminde
g
r
Dhwajaya

Interpretation

Good. Brings wealth

Money

01

Smoke

02

Lion

03

Dog

04

Dhumraya

Not good. ill heath of the head of the family and spouse.

Simhaya

Shwnaya

Very Good. Victory over enemies; health ,wealth and

prosperity.
Bad. Ill health and bad omens.

Vrishabhaya

Good. wealth and fortune.

Bull

05

Kharaya
Donkey

06

Very bad. Head of family will turn a vagabond; premature

death in family.

Gajaya
Elephant

07

Kakaya.

Good. Life of head of family and members brightens;

improvent in heath and wealth.
Very bad. Sorrow to family; and no peace.

Crow

08

Manasara says
When there is more merit than demerit, there is no defect in it; but if the demerit is more than
the merit, it would be all defective.

References:
Vastu Darsha by Dr. G Gnanananda.
Orienting From the Centre by Michael S. Schneider
www.geomancy.org//summer/orienting/index.html
Cosmogony and the Elements by John McKim Malville
http://www.ignca.nic.in/ps_05005.htm
Vastu Interiors

http://www.gkindia.com/vastu/vastubuilding1.htm
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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 10, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Devalaya; Vastu; Temple Architecture;, Dik nirnaya

Temple Architecture Devalaya Vastu Part eight (8 of 9)

09 Sep
Iconometry

The ancient Indian art of sculpture, Shilpa Shastra, developed its own norms of measures and
proportions. It is a complex system of iconometry that defies rigid definitions .It is called

Talamana paddathi, the system of measurements by Tala, the palm of hand (from the tip of the
middle finger to the wrist). It plays a central role in the creation of temple icons and images.
Iconometry (the doctrine about proportions) was an integral part of the Murti shilpa, creation of
the idols.
As explained in the earlier part of this post, the Dhyana shlokas, the contemplative hymns,
delineate the spiritual quality of each deity and its forms and attributes, the lakshanas. The
Dhyana Slokas also provide the details of the flexions slight, triple, or extreme bends; the
details of the number of arms and faces that endow a super-human quality to the idol; and also
the descriptions of its ayudhas the weapons, the ornaments etc. They also specify whether the
image should be dynamic or static, seated or standing; and they also detail the hand gestures and
poses.
But, it is the elaborate rules of the traditional iconometry that guide the practicing Shilpi in
sculpturing the image and realizing his vision. These rules specify thevarious standards to be
adopted for ensuring a harmonious creation endowed with well proportioned height, length,
width and girth. These rules also govern the relative proportions of various physical features of
each class and each type of the deities.
The standards of iconometry are of immense use for other reasons, as well. For instance, the
iconometry of an image helps the sculptures of a later period in restoration work; in checking
which of the known canons of iconometry were followed by the sculptors; in deducing which
methods of sculpting were employed; and in hypothesizing how many sculptors were involved in
executing the work. It also helps the art historians in dating sculptures; and the art students in
studying the iconometric values of different Schools, across different periods and regions; and to
ascertain the variations within a given set of stipulated proportions.

Two systems of iconometry seem to have existed; and both were called taalamana.
In the first system, the tala, measured by the length of the palm (from the wrist to the tip of the
middle finer) of the shilpi or the yajamana, the one who sponsors the project, is taken as an
absolute unit of measurement (and the image-face is made equal to that length). That tala is
subdivided into twelve angulas; and such an angula becomes a fixed-length. In practice, the
angula (literally finger) is a fingers width and measures one quarter of the width of the shilpis
fist (as explained in the earlier posts). The value of the angula so derived becomes a fixed length
(manangulam). And, all other measurements of the image are in terms of that unit.
The second is the system of derived proportions (deha labdh angulam). Let me explain. The
stone or the block of wood selected for carving is divided into a number of equal parts. In case
the selected piece is divided into ten equal parts, the division is known as dasatala (ten facelengths) or in case it is divided in to nine equal parts then the division is known as navatala (nine
face-lengths) and so on.

The shilpa shastra normally employ such divisions on a scale of one (eka tala) to ten (dasa
tala).Each tala is subdivided in to 12 angulas. For instance, if the intended height of the image is
nine tala (which is regarded the standard height for images of certain deities and celestial
beings), the texts mention that the selected piece of material should be divided into 108Its own
angulas .The expression its own angula is explained thus: divide the total length of the
selected stone or wooden piece, which will cover the entire height of the idol from head to foot,
into 108 equal parts. One of the parts would then be its own angula.
There are obvious differences between the two systems. The manangulam system relies on a
fixed set of measurements; while the deha labdh angulam is a system based on derived
proportions. In the former system, the measurements are related to the size of the palm of the
shilpi; and if the image is navatala, it would mean that the height of the image is nine times the
size of the tala or the palm of shilpi; and the size of the image-face is one tala or one-ninth of the
total height of the image.
In the second method, the unit of measurement is derived from the divisions marked on the stone
piece. If the image is said to be navatala, it means that the height of the image is 108 times its
own angula. This system is more flexible.
In Shilpa Shastra, the multiplicity and relative sizes take precedence over the absolute specific
sizes of the units. Therefore, the proportions of the head-trunk-arms-legs of the image; and the
finer specifications of nose, nail, ears and their shapes are always discussed in terms of their
proportions and in relations to the other organs and particularly to that of the size of the face.
Similar logic is extended to panels where more than one variety of images have to be
accommodated harmoniously.
Dr. Gift Siromoney and his team who have carried out remarkable Iconometric studies based on
measurements made by anthropometric instruments says, In Indian art the important figures in
a group are often represented as taller figures and inferior beings are represented as smaller
figures. To such smaller figures a lower tala is often prescribed. However, if both the larger and
the smaller figures were to represent deities of equal rank (say Siva and Vishnu) then strictly
speaking they should be made in the same proportion, or in other words in the same tala.
http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Iconometry/icon_pallavasculpture.htm
I think this needs some explanation .Let us assume that three types of figures of three different
statuses are to be depicted on the same panel. The sculptor, in such a case, would adopt the
image of mid-status, as the standard; and relate the proportions of the other two images to that of
the standard image. Those two images would then have to be made in different sizes; but in same
proportions as that of the standard image. Assuming that the standard image was made by
adopting the nava tala, the image would then have a height of 108 angulas, the angulas being its
own angulas. The image with least status, among the three, would be made to a shorter height,
say, of 96 angulas; but by borrowing the angula value from the image of the standard size.
Similarly, the image with the best status, among the three, would be made to a greater height,
say, of 120 angulas; but here again the angula value is borrowed from the image of the standard
size.

In the two cases, other than the standard one, the basic unit of measure is not its own angula;
but it is a unit borrowed from the standard Image. In other words, the proportions of these two
images are derived from that of a third image. Such instances, perhaps, explain the need for
adopting the second system; the flexible system of derived proportions.
Over a period of time, the two systems got mixed up ; and in some texts it became rather difficult
to make out , which system the text was actually referring to. The confusion got compounded
with both the systems carrying the same title, talamana paddathi. The practicing Shilpis do
therefore have to check carefully whether the specifications mentioned in a given text belong to
the first system or to the second system. In case they belong to the first system, the image- face
length will have to be 12 fixed-angulas; irrespective of its total height.
Despite the differences, there are certain features common to both the systems. The first is, the
face length, in either case, is divided in to three equal parts: the fore-head, nose and nose-tochin. Secondly, the pubis (base of the male organ) is the midpoint of the height of a nude figure.
In other words, the distance from the sole of the feet to the pubis is equal to the distance from the
pubis to the topknot. Thirdly, the celestial beings are assigned a higher tala compared to human
figures. And, fourthly, children are represented in a lower tala like the chatusra tala (four tala).
The face length will be comparatively large for children and dwarfs.

The Indian system makes use of the fact that persons with disproportionately larger faces appear
short and those with smaller faces appear tall. Dwarf figures were therefore made by adopting
the four taala system where the total height is only four times the face length. This
demonstrated that the figures of different sizes can be made while following the same set of
proportions. For instance, the height of a nine tala image might be the same as that of a tentala
image; but, the ten tala image with its smaller face-size looks taller than the nine tala image.
**

As mentioned earlier, the shilpa shastra normally employs a method of division of the imagebody, on a scale of one (eka tala) to ten (dasa tala). Each tala is divided in to 12 angulas. There
are variations within each type of tala. That is, each type of tala is sub-divided into three subtypes: The standard or the mean height is the madhyama tala; while the extended height is
Uttama tala. The diminished height is adhama tala. Accordingly, along with the height, certain
other dimensions of the latter two images are duly modulated, depending on the nature and the
status of the image; and the importance assigned to it in the overall context of the theme of the
sculpture.
For instance, the madhyama navatala (standard length of nine-face lengths) is normally used for
images of celestial beings such as Yakshas, Apsaras and Vidhyadharas. Here, the height of the
image would be nine talas (with each tala divided in to 12 angulas) or a total height of 108
angulas. And, the face length from the chin up to the root of the hair on the forehead would
be 12 angulas or one tala. The length from throat to navel would be two tala; from navel to top of
knee would be three tala; from the lower knee to ankle would be two tala making a total of eight
tala. One tala is distributed equally between the heights of foot, knee, the neck and topknot. The
nava tala thus has a total of nine tala units, in height (108 angulas).

The texts also mention that the images of the devas such as the eight Vasus, the eight Dikpalas
and the eight Vidyeshwarsa are to be depicted in Uttama navatala. Whereas, the images of
Rakshasas, Siddhas, Gandharvas and the pitris are to be depicted in adhama navatala.

In such cases, the images in uttama nava tala type are rendered four angulas taller and the
images in the adhama nava tala type are rendered four angulas shorter. The said four angulas are
to be distributed, evenly, between the heights of the foot, the kneecap, the neck and the topknot.
These two variations are in effect, the deviations from the standard values of the image.

It is said that The uttama dasatala is built on the values of navatala ( regarded purest in terms of
the proportions) by systematically adding one angula to each section of navatala ; the thighs and
legs being , as usual, twice the height of the heart etc. The uttama dasatala aims to project the
majesty of the higher divinities.

***
There is no uniformity among the various Shilpa texts. Some texts describe a system of one to
twelve talas. There is even a mention of a twenty-one tala image of Bhirava; but that measure is
hardly in use.
Some texts mention that human figures and gods at rest, or while involved in some pleasant
activity, should measure ten talas. And, when performing heroic deeds, their height increases to
twelve talas. Further, in their fearsome aspect, they even grow to fourteen talas.

But, the Shilpis in South India do not, generally, go beyond ten talas (dasatala).Thus, in effect,
only ten types of divisions from the eka tala (single tala) to dasa tala (ten tala) are in use. These
ten talas correspond to 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108 and 120 angulas, in sequence. The
series is built by adding 12 angulas for each successive tala.
These talas have their three variations, as state earlier. The standard or the mean height is the
madhyama tala; while the extended height is Uttama tala; and the diminished height is adhama
tala.

Uttama dasatala(124) and nine other talas by Shilpi Shri Siddalinga Swamy
As per the norms that are commonly in use, the animals and birds are depicted in four or less
talas. For instance, tortoise and fish are depicted in one tala; crocodile and rabbit in two tala; and
the dwarfs, the kinnaras , the birds and the vahanas of the deities are depicted in three or four
talas.

Humans and demigods are depicted in five to eight talas; Vamana an incarnation of Vishnu in
seven talas.
The relative height of goddesses is eight or nine talas, while children are six talas high. The
consorts of the deities and minor goddesses are depicted in eight talas.
The talas from nine to twelve are meant for images of deities. But, again, there is no unanimity
among the texts in this regard. Nine tala (nine face-lengths) is largely taken as the height of
certain gods and celestial beings.
According to some texts, the Uttama dasatala is applied to major deities like Vishnu, Shiva,
Brahma, Rama, Buddha and Jina; so that they might look tall and majestic.

The madhyama dasatala is applied to the images of Lakshmi, Saraswathi, Uma and other major.
The rest are depicted in Adhama dasatala, in accordance with the importance assigned to them.

The extra ordinary deities like Trivikrama or Narasimha or the huge demons are at times
depicted in twelve talas.
Out of the ten varieties of talas mentioned above, four varieties are in wider use. The iconometry
of these talas are briefly indicated in the following table.
Vertical proportions of four main types of Images
(Figures in angulas)
Type of the image/Particulars
Face
Neck
Neck to the horizontal line connecting the nipples(heart)
From there to navel(belly, udara)
From navel to genitals(lower belly, vasti)
Thigh
Knee
Leg
Foot

7* Tala
12
03
09
09
09
18
03
18
03

8 Tala
12
04
10
10
10
21
04
21
04

9 Tala
12
04
12
12
12
24
04
24
04

10 Tala
13
05
13
13
13
26
05
26
05

Total height in angulas

84

96

108

120

(One Tala = 12 angulas)

[I am also referring to Brahmiya Chitra Karma Shastram (translated admirably into Kannada by
the renowned scholar Dr. Gnananda) a rare text of the Vaishnava Agama dated around fifth or
sixth century. The text divided into four major divisions (adhikarana), twenty-three chapters has
in total about 1115 verses (sloka).The third Adhikarana of the text titled Maanadhikarana
Kaanda (chapters 16,17 and 18 of a total of 357 verses). This Adhikarana provides various types
of units of measurements and proportions of dasatala and Uttama dasatala image .It specifies
with precision the measure and proportion of the gatra of each body part.
Lets, for instance, take the measures and proportions given in the text in relation to Uttama
Dasatala of 120 + 4 managulam. That is, the height of the proposed image is divided equally
into 120 mana-angulas and providing for another four additional angulas distributed at different
body-parts for corrections/ extensions at joints etc. A standard unit of a mana-angula is reckoned
according to the following table:
Paramanu is the least and incredibly tiniest unit. And, it is described as:when the suns rays
pass through a close knit lattice (jaala) the minute breadth of a beam of light (anu-gatra) is
Paramanu. Human eye, of course, cannot make out a Paramanu.
8 Paramanu=one anu

8 anu = one renu (a speck of dust)

8 renu= one romagra or valagra (tip of a single brand of hair)
8 romagra = one likhya (it is not clear what it is; perhaps the egg of la very small insect)
8 likhya = One Yuka (a minute insect, perhaps)
8 likhya = One yuva (a standard grain of barley)
And
8 yuva = one mana-angula.
(In practice, an angula is taken as 1/12 of a tala. A tala in Dasatala is one-tenth (1 / 10) of the
image height or the length from tip of the middle finger to the wrist of Shilpis or the Yajamana
palm. The subdivisions of a Tala follow the above table.)
To take a specific aspect ,lets say the length of a figure from its shoulder to the tip of the middle
figure , the Sarvatala Vibhagaha - the chapter 18 of the text details the measurements of
fingers, figure joints, nails etc, among others.
According to that, the total length from shoulder point to the tip of the middle figure is taken as
63a 4y (63 a). The length is accounted in this manner: arm= 27a + elbow= 2a + forearm = 21a
+ outer hasta-tala (from wrist to beginning or knuckle of middle finger) = 7a + middle figure
=6a, 4y (6 a).]
Stella Kramrisch explains in her Hindu Temple: the rules are that the proportions of the trunk are
the same in all the four types. The distance from the root of the neck to the genitals is divided in
to three equal parts, in each case: neck-heart; heart-navel; and navel-genitals. The length of the
thigh and that of the leg are twice as long as each of the three earlier mentioned sections. Further,
the knee and the foot are of equal height. The actual lengths of these lengths might vary, but their
proportions are maintained. As regards the size of the face, it is 12 angulas (except in the case of
dasatala).
Sometimes, the height that is not included in the texts is added to the image by enhancing the
height of the parts above its hair, starting from its forehead. Such height, at times, is quite
considerable. Because, the gods of higher hierarchy are adorned with elaborate crowns in order
to emphasize and enhance their majesty and grandeur. The height of the crown might often
exceed the height of the face. The head together with the crown atop would form one sculptural
unit. The elaborately crowned gods thus exceed the proportions of the human body and standout
with a super natural appearance.
Apart from defining the relative height of the various gods, the tala also serves as a module for
all representations of each separate figure. In addition to the norms concerning the height, there
are extensive specifications for horizontal measurements such as the width of the shoulders, the

waist, the head, the neck, the nose, the distance between the eyes, and so on. This is also the case
with the measurements for depth; such as the distance between the back of the head and the tip of
the nose, the back and the nipples, etcetera. There are measurements for the figure in the frontal
position, in profile or in three-quarter profile. For such measurements, a central axis line or a
plumb line is used, brahmasutra, which runs from the crown of the head through the navel to
between the heels.

The position of the body (standing, reclining, seated, dancing, and so on), of the arms and legs,
also plays an important role in the iconographic determination of the images. (please see the
earlier part of this post)
****

Dr .Gift Siromoney and his team of researchers applied computer analysis methods to study a
large sample of South Indian sculptures; those included the sculptures of the Pallava, Chola, and
Pandya and Chera periods. It is said that anthropometric instruments were used for the analysis
of facial proportions of the carvings; cluster analysis was used for collating the sculptures into
groups that contain very similar features.
The team came up with the conclusion that there existed two systems of proportions which had
run into each other. The average values of the facial proportions of the sculptures that were
studied were at variance with the proportions prescribed in the canonical texts.
The sculpture seemed to have enjoyed a certain degree of artistic freedom within the framework
of the Shilpa texts. The shilpis innovated or improvised their working methods for creation of
well proportioned images.
Please visit Dr. Siromoneys home page and other study reports:
http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Iconometry.htm

Next post
Norms in temple architecture
References:
Cannons of Icometry by Dr. Gift Siromoney
http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Iconometry/icon_southindian.htm
http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Iconometry/icon_pallavasculpture.htm
Line drawings

By Shilpi Sri Siddalinga Swamy,

Dr. Jnananada
And from Shilpa Soundarya
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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Temple Architecture.iconometry

Temple Architecture Devalaya Vastu Part seven (7 of 9)

09 Sep
Iconography continued
For the purpose of this post let us confine the discussion to the Dhruva bera images.
The Dhruva bera, iconically, is classified according to its posture; which depicts its attributes, its
dispensation or attitude or Bhava. The Shipa Shastras mention four basic postures of the idols.
They are the sthanaka (standing), Aasana (seated), shayana (reclining) and yanaka (relating to
deities like Hanuman or Garuda who serve as the ride for other deities). Each of these postures
has its sub classifications.
A. Sthanaka
The Sthanaka posture ( standing posture) of the image will be in accordance with its nature
(sattvic, rajas or tamasic) and its attitude of benevolence or otherwise. That expression of
benevolence, grace or the other attitude depicted on the face of the image is enhanced by the
manner and style of its stance. The standing postures are named Bhanga, which involves
appropriate stance, position and bent of the neck (greeva), shoulder (bhuja), waist (kati),
knees (janu) and feet (paada).
The basic styles of the standing postures are five in number. They are, briefly:
Samabhanga is standing erect, with the head, neck and torsos in a line, radiating peace,
fulfillment and benediction, as in the case of Sri Venkateshwara, Chenna keshava or Jina.

Abhanga is a stance with only a slight bent of head or waist, or with a hand on the waist as in the
case of Dakshinamurthy, Velayuda or Vatu the boy Subrahmanya.

Dvibhanga is a posture with a bend at the waist, while the parts from waist to the head and from
waist to feet are otherwise in samabhangha, as in the case of Sri Rama holding a bow, Shiva or
bracket images of damsels.

Tribhanga is when the body is in three distinct delicate and graceful bends at the neck, the
shoulder and the waist, as in the case of female deities, Krishna dancing on Kalinga serpent and
Ganapathi in dancing poses. This is essentially a classic dance pose.

And, athi bhanga is the one with several twists in the body and arms. This bhanga brings out
anger and ferociousness as in the case of Durga slaying the demon; and Ugra Nrusimha slaying
and tearing apart the demon; or to bring out wonder and amazement (adbhuta) as in the case of
Trvikrama; or fearsome or grotesque attitudes as in the case of sculptures of kailasanath temple,
Kanchipuram.

The idols in the standing posture, sthanaka, are also classified according to their nature:
dhirodaatha, the sattvic type; dhira lalitha (rajasa) and Ddhiroddatha (tamasa).
B. Shayana
Shayana is the idol of the deity in reclining or sleeping position. Only Vishnu and the Buddha
images are represented in this position. Apart from this, the baser elements such as the demons
(Apasmara) are shown lying under the feet of Nataraja or the Devi.
Sri Ranganatha or Anantha shayana is the most celebrated form of Vishnu in reclining posture.
Vishnu is represented in three forms of Shayana. In the Yoga shayana posture, Vishnu, with two
arms and without his ayudhas, is depicted in yoga nidra, Yogic sleep, contemplating the
unfolding of the universe. Vishnu is reclining on the coils of Anantha the serpent who symbolizes
time; and Brahma the divinity responsible for creation is seated on the lotus emerging from
Vishnus navel. The Yoga shayana images are installed in temples located in forest region or in
forts on top of hills. Yoga shayana Vishnu symbolizes his creation, shrusti, aspect.

Bhoga shayana Vishnu is similar but is adorned with four arms, auspicious signs of srivatsa,
kausthuba on his chest; and with his usual set of ayudhas. Vishnus gaze is fixed on his consorts
serving at his feet. He has a very pleasing disposition. The temples of Vishnu in Bhoga shayana
form are located in the midst of a populous city or town. Bhoga shayana Vishnu symbolizes his
well-being, sthiti, his preservation aspect.

( Line drawing by Shilpi Shri Thippajappa)

The veera shayana form of Vishnu is adorned with four to eight arms. He is holding his weapons.
He is represented as if he is just about to wage a battle. He is surrounded by the rishis, the
gandarvas and his entourage including Garuda, his ride. Brahma is as usual seated atop the lotus
from Vishnus navel. The demons Madhu and Kaitaba are shown at his feet. Veera shayana
Vishnu symbolizes his absorption, samhara, aspect.
There is also an unusual form of Vishnu in shayana posture. The Abhicharika shayana does not
have the serpent bed or the Brahma. Vishnu is reclining on the floor; he looks emaciated too.
Such an inauspicious form of Vishnu is employed in Tantric worship; and it should not be located
where people especially where women and children dwell.

C. Aasana
Aasana class is when the deity is in sitting posture. There are several modes and styles of sitting;
and among them about eleven or twelve postures of sitting are usually depicted in temple
architecture. These are again classified into sattvic, rajasa and tamasa.
The images depicting the deity in a peaceful, happy and benevolent disposition; radiating peace
and joy; and blessing the devotees are the most common forms of sattvic class of idols in sitting
posture. The deity, in such cases, is sitting in padmasana (lotus position) or yogasana (yogic

posture, as in the case of Yoga Nrusimha or Ayyappa).Dakshinamurthy, the Buddha and

Mahaveera being the other well known examples.

Sukhasana is sitting with one leg bent at the knee and across; and the other leg down and almost
touching the ground. The deity is in a relaxed position looking happy, peaceful and joyous.
Images of Padmapani , Vishnu, Shiva or Devi in Sukhasana are the most common examples.

The images of the deity sitting with its one foot down, almost touching the ground, radiating
majesty and authority are the rajasa type of idols in Aasana posture ; Vishnu , Rajarajeshwari ,
Chandikeshwara( a form of Rudra ) are the common examples. In some cases, the deity rests his
foot on an asura (demon) lying on the ground, as if displaying authority and power.

The images of goddess Durga, Chamundi, Mahisha mardini and such other forms of the Devi,
sitting or mounted on a beast, with her one foot almost touching the ground are the tamasic class
of idols in Aasana posture.

D. Nruthya bhanga: The deity is depicted in a classic dancing posture. The images of Krishna
dancing on the Kalinga, Nataraja, nruthya Ganapathi and Sarawathi are some of the well known
examples of this genre.

E.Yana
In the Yana, the postures of Hanuman, Garuda and Bhuvaraha are depicted.

*****
Ayudha

Ayudha generally translates to weapons; but, in shilpa sastra, the term indicates whatever objects
the idol holds in his or her hands. The Ayudhas delineate the nature, character and functions
associated with the idol. In a way of speaking, they are the symbols of a symbolism. For
instance, Saraswathi holds in her hands a book symbolizing the Vedas and learning; a Kamandala
(a water jug) symbolizing smruthi, vedanga and shastras; a rosary symbolizing the cyclical
nature of time; and the musical instrument veena symbolizing music and her benevolent nature.
All these objects are not weapons in the conventional sense, but the shilpa employs those as
symbols to expand and depict and interpret the nature of the idol and its meaning.

Each of these Ayudhas signifies a certain aspect or it stands for a concept. For instance, the
mirror signifies a clear mind and awareness; the flag signifies victory or celebration; the Ankusha
(goad) signifies exercising control over senses and baser instincts, Damaru in the hands of shiva
signifies creation and origin of sound and learning; and, the scepter signifies authority and rule of
law.
The Dhyana slokas associated with each deity specify the Ayudhas to be held in its right or left or
upper or lower arms. The Ayudhas held by auspicious deities are in even number.
Apart from the weapons a variety of objects are employed as Ayudhas. These include instruments
of various professions (pen, chisel, hammer, plow, sickle etc.), musical instruments (flute, veena,
drums, pipes, trumpets etc.), plants and trees (ashvatta, bilva, seedlings of paddy, grass etc) and
miscellaneous objects (mirror, bell, book, flag, lamp, vase, umbrella etc.)
*****

Mudra:
Mudra means sign or a seal. It is a symbolic gesture or position usually of hands and fingers.
They are commonly used in tantric worship, yoga, dance and music. The Shilpa shastra has
however its own use for the mudras ; and it has developed its own set of mudras .There are in
general two types of mudras, those with one-hand and those with two-hand. The one handed
mudras (asanyuktha orkevala) number about 28; while the two hand mudras (sanyuktha) are
about 23.The mudras give an expression and eloquence to the attributes of the image and to its
message.
All these symbols and mudras form the pool of Indian art language. They are commonly
employed by the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina traditions.
According to Tantrasara Vishnu has 19 mudras (shankha, chakra, Gadha, padma etc.), which
mean attributes; Shiva has 10 mudras (yoni. Trishula, linga tc.); Ganesha has 7(ankusha, dantha,
modaka etc.); Saraswathi has 7(maala, pusthaka, veena, etc.); and Agni has 7 (flames, horns etc,)
and so on. The Tantrika also include Jata, Tilaka, Bhasma, Chandana etc.
Mudras are again classified into those that convey a message (sankethica), which are mostly
single hand mudras. The next are the vastu rupa mudras which suggest as if the diety is holding
in his or her hands some object. And, the third is ayudha grahana , where the diety actually holds
an ayudha.
Among the Sankethica mudras, the better known are the Abhya mudra with right palm fingers
pointing upward assuring protection; Varada mudra with the fingers pointing down ward in act of
giving; Vyakhna mudra as if teaching or explaining as in images of Dakshinamurty and the
Buddha; and ala_padma with raised palm conveying happy welcome as in the images of
dwarapalakas, the guards at the sanctum.
The common examples of Vastu rupa mudra are those of Saraswathi or Dakshinamurthy with
hands in such a position as if the deity is playing on the veena. The other examples are those of
Rishba_rudha Shiva as if Shiva is reclining against his ride the bull; of Sri Rama as if he is
holding the bow; and of Shiva as if he is holding the damaru, a sort of drum (damaru hastha).

Vrishbha-ruda Shiva as if reclining against Nandi bull.

The Ayudha mudras are those where the deity actually holds an object such
as pasha (rope),ankusha (goad or hook) as in the case of Ganapathi; Danda , a staff in the hands
of Skanda(danda hastha)
*****

In Hindu Iconography, Paada mudras the position of the lower

limbs and the feet are as important as the hand gestures (hastha mudras).It is the paada mudra
that suggest movement or animation or stillness of the image. The samarangana Sutradhara lists
six paada mudras: Vaishnavam (one leg straight and another slightly curved- adidaivatha form of
Vishnu); Sampadanam (standing erect with legs joined and body weight distributed evenly);
Alidanam (Standing like an archer, with right leg drawn forward); Prathyalidanam (opposite of
Alidanam- left foot in front); Ardhasam or Mandalam (one leg is thrown out and the other
remains stable as in Nataraja or Vishakadeva); and there are the legs folded in sitting postures
as in Udarabhandam (as in Ganesha) and in paada-patta or Yoga patta (as in Yoga Nrusimha )

Kirita, makuta and Jatamakuta

The headgear is a distinctive feature of the Indian icons. The head-gears that are commonly
mentioned are the Kirita -makuta, Karanda-makuta and Jata-makuta. Mansara, the ancient text
of Shilpa shastra, classifies these types of head gears under the
term makuta or mouli (Mansara: Mauli-lakshanam: 49; 1-232). The kiritas or the makuta
(crown) emphasise the nature (sattva, rajas or tamas) and the nobility of the image. For all the
makuta-s, the width commencing from the bottom should be gradually made lesser and lesser
towards the top.

Among these, the Kirita-makuta is an highly ornate elaborate crown that adorns major gods such
as Vishnu and his forms (Narayana) and also emperors (Sarvabhouma).It has the appearance
of Taranga-s (waves) and its middle is made into the shape of flowers and adorned with precious
stones. The base of the Kirita-makuta should be curved like a crescent (ardha-chandra) just
above the forehead. The height of the Kirita-makuta should be two or three times the length of
the wearers face.
The Karanda-makuta is prescribed for lesser gods and for goddesses when depicted along with
their spouse. It is simpler and shallower as compared to Kirita-makuta. The Karanda-makuta is a
small conical cornet receding in tier. It is shaped like an inverted flowerpot, tapering from the
bottom upwards and ending in a bud. The width of a Karanda-makuta at the top should,
however, be only one-half or one-third less than that at its base. The female deities such as
Saraswathi and Savithri have kesha_bandha or Kuntala type of hair arrangement.

The jata- makuta is suitable according to Mansara for Brahma , Rudra or the Buddha , as also
for consorts of Shiva. Jata-makuta,is made up of jata or matted locks, which are twisted into
encircling braids of spiral curls and tied into a knot looped at the top. It is held in place by
a patta (band); and is adorned with forest flowers and by a number of ornamental discs like
the makara-kuta, patra-kuta, and the ratna-kuta. In the case of Shiva, the jata-makuta is adorned
with a crescent of the moon, a cobra and the Ganga.
The Hoysala School of sculpture in particular adorns its images with elaborate and highly ornate
crowns, rich in design.Usually, highly ornate kirita, makuta adorns images of Vishnu and his
aspects. A simpler crown of the Karanda class is meant for lesser deities.

Jataa-makuta, coiled hair mopped on top of head is for the images of Shiva, Brahma, the Buddha
and the sages.

Natarajas hair is flying in the wind as he swirls in his tandava dance. His hair is prasarith jata,
the flying hair.

Agni has a special hairdo called agni_kesha with his hair spreading out like tongues of fire.

*****
Alankara -ornamentation:

The shilpis took great delight in adorning the image with rich and finely carved ornaments.
While the other segments of the carving are regulated by the prescriptions of the Sahastras and

the tradition, the Alankara element offers the artists abundant scope to exercise their imagination
and to display their ingenuity. Therefore, the amazing varieties, the patterns and the desingns of
ornaments that one comes across in the Indian sculpture are virtually limitless.
The major deities, both male and female, are adorned with rich ornaments; the minor deties and
humans are provided modest ornaments. Often, the ornaments serve as the costume of the image.
The term used for ornamentation is Alankara which encompasses forms of beauty and visual
appeal in all forms of Indian art including poetry and music. Alankara is not merely bejeweling
but it also implies enhancing the grace and beauty of the image and to enchant and please the
eyes of the beholder. Alankara also conveys the nobility, the grandeur and the lovely nature of
the adorable image. The Hoysala sculptures in particular are rich in ornamentation.

Specific names are given to the ornaments that adorn various body- parts of image. The
ornaments below or around the neck are Kanti (like a collar), Skandamaala (necklaces)
and manihara (strings of precious stones or beads).
In the abdomen region, are the Yajnopavitha (sacred thread), Kati bandha or kati sutra (waist
belt).
Katakas are bangles made of gold or precious stones.
The feet are adorned with paada jalaka (ornament made of strings), nupura (the bells) and rings
that decorate the toes.

Continued
Next:
Iconometry

References:
Shilpa Soundarya by KT Pankajaksha
The Lord of Seven Hills by Prof. SKR Rao
Line drawings of kirita and ornaments by the renowned Shilpi and Yogi Sri Siddalinga Swamy
of Mysore
Other Line drawings from Shilpa Soundarya
Other pictures from internet

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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Iconography, Temple Architecture

Temple Architecture Devalaya Vastu Part Six (6 of 9)

09 Sep

Symbolism of the temple

A Temple is a huge symbolism; it involves a multiple sets of ideas and imagery.
The temple is seen as a link between man and god; and between the actual and the ideal. As such
it has got to be symbolic. A temple usually called Devalaya, the abode of God, is also referred to
as Prasada meaning a palace with very pleasing aspects. Vimana is another term that denotes
temple in general and the Sanctum and its dome, in particular. Thirtha, a place of pilgrimage is
its another name.
The symbolisms of the temple are conceived in several layers. One; the temple complex, at large,
is compared to the human body in which the god resides. And, the other is the symbolisms
associated with Vimana the temple per se, which also is looked upon as the body of the deity.
And the other is its comparison to Sri Chakra.
Lets start with the temple complex being looked upon as a representation of Sri Chakra.
At the centre of the temple is the image of divinity and its purity that generations after
generations have revered and venerated. That image residing at the heart of the temple is its life;
and is its reason. One can think of an icon without a temple; but it is impossible to think of a
temple without an icon of the divinity. The very purpose of a temple is its icon. And, therefore is
the most important structure of the temple is the Garbagriha where the icon resides.

In fact, the entire temple is conceived as the manifestation or the outgrowth of the icon. And,
very often, the ground-plan of a temple is a mandala. Just as the Sri Chakra is the unfolding of
the Bindu at its centre, the temple is the outpouring or the expansion of the deity residing in
Brahmasthana at the centre.
The temple as also the Sri Chakra employs the imagery of an all enveloping space and time
continuum issuing out of the womb. In the case of Sri Chakra the Bindu is the dimension-less
and therefore imperceptible source of energy. The idol, the Vigraha, in the Garbagriha represents
the manifestation of that imperceptible energy or principle; and it radiates that energy.
The devotee- both at the temple and in Sri Chakra- moves from the gross to the subtle. In the
temple, the devotee proceeds from the outer structures towards the deity in the inner sanctum,
which compares to the Bindu in the Chakra. The Sri Chakra upasaka too proceeds from the outer
Avarana (enclosure) pass through circuitous routes and successive stages to reach the Bindu at
the centre of the Chakr, representing the sole creative principle. Similarly the devotee who enters
the temple through the gateway below the Gopura (feet of the Lord) passes through several gates,
courtyards and prakaras, and submits himself to the Lord residing in the serenity of garbhagrha,
the very hearts of the temple, the very representation of One cosmic Principle.

The other symbolism is that the human body is a temple in which the antaryamin resides. The
analogy is extended to explain the various parts of the body as being representations of the
aspects of a temple. In this process, the forehead is said to represent the sanctum; and the top of
the head, the tower. The space between the eyebrows, the ajna chakra, is the seat of the divinity.
The finial of the tower is the unseen the sahasrara located above the head.

Accordingly, the sanctum is viewed as the head; and Right on top of that head is the passage
through which the currents of life ascend to the tower through that stone slab Brahmarandra_shila. Around the four corners of this slab are placed the images of the vehicles or
emblems that characterize the icon inside the sanctum.
Another interesting aspect is that the temple concept is a curious mixture of Vedic, Tantric and
Agama principles. The Tantra regards the human body as a Mandala; and it is mobile (chara or
jangama) Mandala. The Agama shastras regard a temple too as Mandala; and here it is an
immobile (achala or sthavara) Mandala. The analogy of the temple with the human body finds
closer relationships.
The symbolism extends to the conception of Vimana or the central part of the temple as the
physical form of god. For instance, the sukanasi or ardhamantapa (the small enclosure in front of
the garbhagrha) is the nose; the antarala is the neck; the various mantapas are the body; the
prakaras are the hands and so on. Vertically, the garbhagrha represents the neck, the shikhara
(superstructure over the garbhagrha) the head, the kalasha (finial) the tuft of hair (shikha) and so
on.

The names assigned to various parts of the Vimana seem to go along with this symbolism. For
instance, Pada (foot) is the column; jangha (trunk) is parts of the superstructure over the base;
Gala or griva (neck) is the part between moulding which resembles the neck; Nasika (nose) is
any nose shaped architectural part and so on. The garbhagrha represents the heart and the image
the antrayamin (the indwelling Lord). These symbolisms also suggest seeking the divinity
within our heart.
The temple is also seen as a representation of the subtle body with the seven psychic centres or
chakras. In the structure of the temple, the Brahma randra is represented in the structure erected
on top of the sanctum. The flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum is overlaid by a single square stone
slab known in the texts as Brahma-ranhra-sila (the stone denoting the upper passage of life). The
sanctum is viewed as the head; and right on top of the head is the passage through which the
currents of life ascend to the tower through this stone slab.

Interestingly, the Kalasha placed on top of the Vimana is not imbedded into the structure by any
packing it with mortar or cement. It is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of
the centre of the tower and runs through the vase, the Kalasha. It is through this tube that the
lanchana tokens (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. One of the explanations is the
hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra,
the seat of consciousness, through the Brahma randra.
The other symbolisms associated with the Sanctum and the tower above it are, that sanctum is
the water (aapa) principle and the tower over it is Fire (tejas); the finial of the tower (Vimana)
stands for air (vayu) and above the Vimana is the formless space (akasha). The sanctum is thus a
constellation of the five elements that are basic to the universe. And fire being the active element
that fuses the others, the tower becomes an important limb in the structure of a temple.
***
Iconography
Before we deal with iconography per se , lets briefly go-over some its general principles
associated with it .
The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. It
can be viewed as nishkala, formless absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects.
Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. It is analogues, as the Agama
texts explain, to the oil in the sesame-seed, fire in the fuel, butter in milk, and scent in flower. It
is in human as antaryamin, the inner guide. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense
organs, which includes mind.

Sakala, on the other hand, is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel, oil
extracted out of the seed, butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the
fragrance that spreads and delights all. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and
humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. The Agamas recognize that means
as the archa, the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity.
The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas. Rig Veda at many places talks in terms
of saguna, the supreme divinity with attributes. The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were
later condensed to three viz. Agni, the aspect of fire, energy and life on earth; Vayu, the aspect of
space, movement and air in the mid-region; and Surya the universal energy and life that sustains
and governs all existence, in the heavenly region, the space. This provided the basis for the
evolution of the classic Indian trinity, the Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
The concept of polytheism gave tremendous impetus to all branches of Indian arts, literature and
iconography. The polytheism is, in fact, the lifeblood of iconography; for it is only through a
divinity with aspects one can represent and worship ones ideal with love, adoration and
earnestness. Making an image involves an understanding of its attributes, virtues, powers,
characteristics, symbols and its disposition. An image is the visual and concrete form of idealism;
the idioms of beauty grace and power nurtured and honed by generations after generations. It is
a representation of a communitys collective aspirations.
Iconographic representations of gods and goddesses are the idioms aiming to give expression to
their attributes, powers, virtues and disposition. Multiplicity of heads denotes presence of their
concurrent abilities; and multiplicity of hands denotes their versatile abilities. For instance, three
heads of a divinity indicates trio guna (guna-triad: sattva, Rajas and tamas) or shakthi
traya [iccha (will), jnana(consciousness) and kriya (action) shakthis or powers].Four heads
represent compreneshion or enveloping four Vedas; or overseeing four directions. Five heads
stand for five principles or elements (pancha-bhuthas) or five divine attributes or five stages of
the evolutionary process [shristi (creation),shthithi (expansion), samhara (withdrawal),
triodhana (concealing) and anugraha (preserving till the commencement of the next cycle of
evolution)]
Not all divine representations are made through icons. Shiva is represented usually by a conic
linga or an un-carved rock; Vishnu and Narasimha are worshipped at homes as Saligrama (a
special types of smooth dark stones found on bed of the Gandaki river); Ganapathi is best
worshipped in the roots of the arka plant, and he is also represented by red stones (sona shila) or
turmeric cones or pieces (haridra churna). The Devi in Kamakhya temple is worshipped in a
natural fissure of a rock. Yet all these divinities have specified well defined iconographic forms.

Since the very purpose of the temple structure is the image residing in it; and the temple is
regarded the virtual expansion of the image, let us talk for a while about temple iconography.
Iconography, in general terms, is the study and interpretation of images in art. But, in the context
of this discussion it could be restricted to the study of icons meant for worship and the images
used in temple architecture. The temple iconography is more concerned with the concept,
interpretation and validity of the icon in terms of the themes detailed in the scriptures or the
mythological texts; and with the prescriptions of the shilpa shastra. There is not much discussion
on the styles of architecture or the art forms, per se.
[A short explanation about the term iconography. We are using it for want of a better term in
English. The word icon is derived from Greek eikon; and it stands for a sign or that which
resembles the god it represents. In the Indian tradition what is worshipped is Bimba, the
reflection or Prathima, the image of god, but not the god itself. Bimba means reflection, like the
reflection of moon in a tranquil pool. That reflection is not the moon but an image (prathima) of
the moon. In other words, what is worshipped in a temple is an idea, a conception or the mental
image of god, translated to a form in stone or metal or wood; but, it is not the god itself. The
Indian term for Iconography is therefore Prathima lakshana, the study of images.]
Besides the agamas, there are several texts that detail the processes involved in practicing the art;
and specify the rules governing iconography and iconometry. The Brihat Samhita of
Varahamihira (6th century AD) is an ancient text that provides descriptions of certain images. It

refers to one Nagnajit, as the author of a contemporary work on Silpasastra but not much is
known about him or his work. Shukranithisara is another treatise which discusses aspects such as
the proportions and the measurements recommended for the images of various classes and
attributes. The subject he dealt with has since developed into Iconometry. Someshwaras (a 1th
century western Chalukya king) Abhilashitartha Chintamini contains interesting iconographical
details of many important deities. And, Hemadri (13th century AD) who hailed from Dakshina
Kannada region authored Caturvarga_chintamini, which deals with temple architecture and
construction. He is credited with introducing a method of construction that did not use lime.
In addition, there are the major and authoritative texts that deal comprehensively with all aspects
of Devalaya Vastu. These include Kashyapa shilpa samhitha, Mayamata, Manasara, Shilpa
rathna, Kumaratantra, Lakshana_samuchayya, Rupamanada; and the Tantrasara of Ananda Tirtha
(Sri Madhwacharya) , which contains sections dealing with the study of images (iconography
and iconometry).
Among the puranas, the Agnipurana details the Prathima_lakshanam (the characteristics of
images), Prathimavidhi (the mode of making images), and Devagraha nirmana (the construction
of places of worship).
Similarly, the Matsya Purana (dated around second century AD) has eighteen comprehensive
chapters on architecture and sculpture. This purana mentions as many as eighteen ancient
architects (vastu_shatropadeshkaha): Brighu, Atri, Vashista, Vishwakarma, Brahma, Maya,
Narada, Nagnajit, Visalaksa, Purandara, Kumara, Nanditha, Shaunaka, Garga, Vasudeva,
Aniruddha, Shuka and Brihaspathi. Many of these names appear to come from mythology; but
quite a few of them could be historical. Sadly, the works of most of these savants are now lost.
The Mathsya purana says that the best aspect of karma yoga is the building temples and
installing deities; and therefore devotes several chapters to the subject of temple construction and
image making.
The Vishnu purana (dated about 3rd century AD) too contains several chapters on the subjects of
architecture and sculpture. Further, it includes the Vishnu_dharmotthara_purana (perhaps an
insertion into the Vishnupurana at a later period), which is a masterly treatise on temple
architecture, iconography and painting. This work which is in the form of a conversation
between the sage Markandeya and the King Vajra is spread over 42 chapters. In part three of the
text there is virtually a catalouge of the various deities with descriptions of their features, stance
and gestures (mudras) apart from their disposition and attributes.
In addition to the Sanskrit texts, the Tamil works Mandalapurushas Chintamini Nigandu and
Sendanars Divakara nigandu, are well known and widely accepted. Besides, there is an ancient
work by an unknown author, Silpam (perhaps a translation of an ancient Sanskrit text), which is
popular among the shilpis.
A special mention needs to be made about iconography s (prathima lakshana) relation with
Natyasastra.

The Shilpa and Chitra (painting) are closely related to Natyasastra (ca. second century BCE).
The rules of the iconography (prathima lakshana), in particular, appear to have been derived from
the Natyasastra. The Indian sculptures are often the frozen versions or representations of the
gestures and poses of dance (caaris and karanas) described in Natyasastra. The Shilpa (just as the
Natya) is based on a system of medians (sutras), measures (maanas), postures of symmetry
(bhangas) and asymmetry (abhanga, dvibhanga and tribhanga); and on the sthanas (positions of
standing, sitting, and reclining). The concept of perfect symmetry is present in Shilpa as in
Nrittya; and that is indicated by the term Sama.

The Natya and Shilpa sastras developed a remarkable approach to the structure of the human
body; and delineated the relation between its central point (navel), verticals and horizontals. It
then coordinated them, first with the positions and movements of the principal joints of neck,
pelvis, knees and ankles; and then with the emotive states, the expressions. Based on these
principles, Natyasastra enumerated many standing and sitting positions. These, demonstrate the
principles of stasis, balance, repose and perfect symmetry; And, they are of fundamental
importance in Indian arts, say, dance, drama, painting or sculpture.

The demonstrations of those principles of alignment could be seen in the sama-bhanga of Vishnu,
Shiva, abhanga of Kodanda-Rama and tribhanga of Nataraja; and in the vibrant movements of
dance captured in the motifs carved on the walls of the Indian temples depicting gandharvas,
kinnaras, vidyadharas and other gods and demigods. If the saala bhanjikas (bracket figures)
recreate the caaris(primary movements) , the flying figures recreate the karanas (larger
movements).The representations of about one hundred and eight of the karanas described in the
Natyasastra find expression on the walls of temples spread across the country.
It is as if the rich and overpowering passages of Natyasastra are translated in to stone and
published on temple walls.

For the purpose of creating an image , initially, a square grid is divided into sixteen equal squares
. These squares are grouped into six segments : Brahma -bhaga ( the central four squares) ; Deva
-kesha or Deva shiro-alankara -bhaga ( two squares on top of Brahma-bhaga for depicting the
crown or elaborate hair arrangement) ;Vahana-bhaga or peeta-bhaga ( space for pedestal two
bottom squares , below the Brahma-bhaga);Bhaktha -bhaga ( two bottom sqares on either side of
Peeta -bhaga for locating images of the worshipping devotees); Devi-bhaga ( two squares each
on either side of Brahma-bhaga for the accompanying female deities) ; and Gandharva-bhagha
(two squares in the top on either side of Shiro-bhaga for depicting the Gandarvas).
The image of the main deity along with that of the consorts and subsidiary figures are located
within the square grid. The central part of the main deity is accomodated in the Brahma-bhaga;
its head or crown or hair-do is figured in the Deva-shiro-bhaga, while the f eet of the deity, the
pedastal and the mount (vahana) are in the lower vahana-bhaga.
The verticle and horizontal axis of the square as also its diagonal axis of the square pass through
what is known as the Brahma-bindu right at the centre of the Brahma-bhaga. It is at the Brahmabindu the navel (nabhi) of the deity would be located. All other image parts are co-related to the
Brahma-bindu.

Dhyana shlokas

One of the main resources for a practicing shilpi is the collection of Dhyana shlokas.
Before a shilpi starts on a project to sculpt an image, he needs to be clear in his mind on its form,
its aspects, its countenance, the details of its physiognomy, its facial and bodily expressions; its
posture, details of the number of arms, heads and eyes; and details of its ornaments, ayudhas
(objects it holds in its hands) etc. For this purpose, the Shilpis generally refer to a wonderful
collection of most amazingly articulate verses called Dhyana Shlokas, the verses in
contemplation. These verses culled from various texts of Shipa Shastra, the Agamas and the
Puranas; and also from Buddhist and Jain texts, describe, precisely, the postures (dynamic or
static, seated or standing), the Bhangas (flexions slight, triple, or extreme bends), Mudras
(hand gestures), the attitudes, the nature, the consorts and other vital details of each aspect that
provides the deity with power and grace. it is said that there are about 32 aspects or forms of
Ganapathi, 16 of Skanda, 5 of Brahma, 64 of yoginis, and innumerable forms of Vishnu, Shiva
and Devi .Each one of those forms has a Dhyana shloka illustrating its aspects and attributes.
Dhyana shlokas are more than prayers or hymns; they are the word-pictures or verbal images of a
three-dimensional image. They help the Shilpi to visualize the deity and to come up with a line
drawing of the image. It is said that there are more than 2,000 such Dhyana shlokas. How this
collection came to be built up over the centuries is truly amazing. These verses have their origin
in Sanskrit texts; and the scholars who could read those texts knew next to nothing about

sculpture. The Shilpis who actually carved the images had no knowledge of Sanskrit and could
not therefore read the texts or interpret the shlokas. This dichotomy was bridged by the
generations of Shilpis who maintained their own set of personal notes, explanations and norms;
as also references to shlokas; and passed them on to their succeeding generations and to their
disciples.
Thus, among the many traditions (parampara) inherited in India, the tradition of Vishwakarma is
unique. The mode of transmission of knowledge of this community is both oral and practical.
The rigor and discipline required to create objects that defy time and persist beyond generations
of artists, has imbued this tradition with tremendous sense of purpose, and zeal to maintain purity
and sensitivity of its traditions; and to carry it forward. This has enabled them to protect and
carry forward the knowledge, the art and skills without falling prey to the market and its
dynamics.
With the emergence of the various academies of sculpture and organized efforts to collate and
publish the old texts with detailed explanations, there is now a greater awareness among the
shilpis of the present day. Yet, the neglect of Sanskrit and inability to read the texts in Sanskrit is
still an impediment that badly needs to be got over.
Please look at the summary of a few Dhyana shlokas.

The image of Lord Narayana must be made with eight, four or two arms. His head should be in
the form of an umbrella, his neck should be like counch, his ears like sukthi, he should have high
nose, strong thighs and arms. His breast must bear the Srivatsa mark and be adorned with the
Kaustubha gem. He should be made as dark as the Atasi (Linum usitatissimum), clad in yellow
robes, having a serene and gracious countenance. He should be wearing a diadem and ear-rings.
Of the eight hands the four on the right side must have the sword(nandaka), mace(kaumodaki),

arrow and abhaya _hastha, mudra of assurance and protection (the fingers raised and the palm
facing the devotees), and the four on the left side, the bow(saranga), buckler, discus
(sudarshana) and conch (panchjanya).
In case the image is to have only four arms, the two hands

on the right side will display the abhaya mudra or lotus; and discus respectively. And, in his
hands in the left, he holds the conch and mace. And, in case he is made with only two arms, then
the right hand bestows peace and hope (shanthi-kara-dakshina hastha) and the left holds the
conch. This is how the image of the Lord Vishnu is to be made for prosperity. When Vishnu is
two armed and carries discus and mace, he is known as Loka-paala-Vishnu.
Yogasana_ murthi (yoga Narayana) is Vishnu seated in yogic posture on a white lotus, with halfclosed eyes. His complexion is mellow bright like that of conch, milk or jasmine. He has four
hands with lower two hands resting on his lap on yogic posture (yoga mudra). ; And the upper
two hands holding conch and discus. He is dressed in white or mild red clothes. He wears modest
but pleasant ornaments. He wears an ornate head dress or a coiled mop of hair. [Yogesvara is
sometimes shown with four faces and twelve hands.]

Surya, the Sun-God should be represented with elevated nose,

forehead, shanks, thighs, cheeks and breast; he should be dressed in robes covering the body
from breast to foot. His body is covered with armor. He holds two lotuses in both of his hands, he
wears an elaborate crown. His face is beautified with ear-rings. He has a long pearl necklace and
a girdle round the waist. His face is as lustrous as the interior of the lotus, lit up with a pleasant

smile; and has a halo of bright luster of gems (or, a halo that is made very resplendent by gems
on the crown). His chariot drawn by seven horses has one wheel and one charioteer .Such an
image of the Sun will be beneficial to the maker (and to the worshipper).
The dhyana shloka preceding the middle episode of Devi Mahatmya gives the iconographic
details of the Devi. The Goddess is described as having eighteen arms, bearing string of beads,
battle axe, mace, arrow, thunderbolt, lotus, bow, water-pot, cudgel, lance, sword, shield, conch,
bell, wine-cup, trident, noose and the discuss sudarsana. She has a complexion of coral and is
seated on a lotus.

The Mahakali is Wielding in her hand the sword, discuss, mace, arrow, bow, iron club, trident,
sling, human head, and conch, she has three eyes and ornaments decked on all her limbs. She
shines like a blue stone and has ten faces and ten feet. That Mahakali I worship, whom the lotus
born Brahma lauded in order to slay Madhu and Kaitaba when Hari was asleep.

Pancha bera
The images in the Hindu temples can be classified into three broad groups: Shaiva, Shakta and
Vaishnava, representing the three cults of Shiva, Shakti and Vishnu, respectively. The images in
the temple could be achala (immovable) Dhruva-bimba or dhruva-bera; and chala(movable).
The chala bera, usually made of pancha loha (alloy of five metals), are meant for other forms of
worship and ceremonial services.
The dhruva-bera is the immovable image of the presiding deity of the temple and resides in the
sanctum and to which main worship is offered (archa-murti). It is usually made of stone. In a
temple following the Vaikhanasa tradition, the immovable (dhruva-bera) represents the primary
aspect of the deity known as Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva). The other images in the temple that are
worshipped each day during the ritual sequences are but the variations of the original icon (adimurti). These other forms are emanations of the main idol, in successive stages. And, within the
temple complex, each form is accorded a specific location; successively away from the Dhruva
bera.
A major temple, apart from the Dhruva bera, would usually have four or five representations of
the principal deity (pancha bera).They are:
Kautuka bera is a mini replica of the main idol (usually madeof gems, stone, copper, silver,
gold or wood and about 1/3 to 5/9 the size of the Dhruva-bera), and is placed in the sanctum
near the main idol and is connected to it by a metal string or silk thread. It receives all the daily
worship(nitya-archana) including those of tantric nature.

The next is the Snapana-bera (usually made of metal and smaller than Kautuka) which receives
ceremonial bath (abhisheka) and the occasional ritual- worship sequences(naimitta-archana).
The third is the shayana-bera, to which the services of putting the Lord to sleep are offered.
The fourth is the Uthsava (always made of metal); is meant for taking the idol out of the temple
premises on ceremonial processions.
The fifth idol is Bali bera ( always made of shiny metal) taken out , daily , around the central
shrine when food offerings are made to Indra and other devas, as well as to Jaya and Vijaya the
doorkeepers of the Lord ; and to all the elements.
To this, sometimes another icon is added for daily worship, special rituals, and processions and
for food-offering, it is known as Bhoga-bera.
These five forms together make Pancha bera or Pancha murti. But, these different icons are not
viewed as separate or independent deities; but are understood as emanations from the original
icon, Dhruvabimba.
[One of the few cases (that I am aware of) where the principal deity is taken out of the sanctum
for procession, is that of Lord Jagannath of Puri. Such images are regarded chala-achala (both
movable and immovable)]
According to Vyuha -siddantha of the Agamas, the dhruva bera which is immovable represents
Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva); and it symbolizes Para, the transcendent one (Vishnu). The kouthuka is
bhoga (worship idol) representing purusha (personification of the Supreme), Dharma and
Vasudeva. The snapana is ugra (fearsome aspect) represented by Pradyumna or Achutha. The
uthsava bera is vaibhava (the resplendent) representing Jnana (knowledge), truth (Sathya) and
Sankarshana. And, the Bali bera is antaryamin (one who resides within) representing Vairagya
(spirit of renunciation) and Aniruddha.
And again it is said, Purusha symbolized by Kautuka-bera is an emanation of the Dhruva-bera.
Satya symbolized by Utsava-bera emanates from Kautuka-bera. Achyuta symbolized by
Snapana-bera emanates from Utsava-bera. And, Aniruddhda symbolized by Bali-bera emanates
from Bali-bera.
The symbolisms associated with the four murtis (chatur-murti) are many; and are interesting.
The four are said to compare with the strides taken by Vishnu/Trivikrama. The main icon
represents Vishnu who is all-pervasive, but, does not move about. When the worship sequences
are conducted, the spirit (tejas) of the main idol moves into the Kautuka,-bera, which rests on the
worship pedestal (archa-pitha). This is the first stride of Vishnu.Again, at the time of offering
ritual bath, the tejas of the main idol moves into the Snapana-bera which is placed in the
bathing-enclosure (snapana mantapa). This is the second stride taken by Vishnu. And, the third
stride is that when the Utsava-bera is taken out in processions. This is when the tejas of the Main
idol reaches out to all.

In Marichis Vimana-archa-kalpa the five forms, five types of icons, the pancha-murti (when
Vishnu is also counted along with the other four forms) are compared to five types of Vedic
sacred fires (pancha-agni): garhapatya; ahavaniya; dakshinAgni; anvaharya; and sabhya. These
in turn are compared to the primary elements (earth, water, fire, air, and space). And, the
comparison is extended to five vital currents (prana, apana, vyana, udana and samana).
Further it is explained; the Vaikhanasa worship-tradition retained the concept of Pancha-Agni,
but transformed them into five representations of Vishnu (pancha murthi): Vishnu, Purusha,
Satya, Achyuta and Aniruddha. And, that again was rendered into five types of temple deities as
pancha-bera: Dhruva, Kautuka, Snapana, Utsava and Bali.
Let us, for instance, take the case of the idols in the shrine on the hills of Tirumala. The practices
at the Tirumala temple are slightly at variance with the standard procedures, perhaps because the
temple predates most of the other temples in South India and that it has a tradition of its own.
The dhruva bera at the Tirumala shrine is of course the magnificent and most adorable image of
the Lord made of hard-black-stone; and has a recorded history of about two thousand years. He
is addressed as Sri Venkatesgwara, Sri Srinivasa and by host of other names. (Lets talk more
about the dhruva bera, towards the end of this post).
It is said that around the year 966AD, the Pallava Queen, Devi Samavai, donated an almost (but
not exact) replica of the dhruva bera, made of silver. In terms of the Agama texts, this image is
called kouthuka bera; but in the Tirumala shrine it is called Bhoga Srinivasa., In Tirumala , the
kauthuka serves as snapana bera too (that is, the one to which ceremonial bath service is
rendered). This image has come to be known as Bhoga srinivasa; perhaps because the other
services such as the daily ceremonial bath and ekantha seva that are due to the dhruva _bera are
rendered to it. There is a six cornered Vaishnava chakra (mandala) placed at the foot of the
kauthuka, representing the six virtues of knowledge (jnana), abundance (Aishvarya), power
(shakthi), strength (bala), resplendence (tejas) andvalor or virility (veeerya). The kauthuka is
placed right in front of the Lords foot stool (paada pitha) and is linked to the dhruva_bera
through a string with strands of gold, silver and silk. It is ever linked to the dhruva bera and is
never brought out of the antarala (bangaru vakili). For that reason it is also addressed as
sambhandha-sutra-kauthuka-murthy.

The Uthsava_bera at Tirumala shrine is named Malayappan, the earliest reference to which is
found in an inscription dated 1369 AD. This idol might have entered into the temple regimen
with the rise of the Pancharathra School of worship. Malayappan is a very skillfully crafted,
beautiful image, made of panchloha, standing three feet tall on a pedestal of fourteen inches. It
does not greatly resemble the dhruva_bera. Yet, it has a very pleasing disposition and is modestly
ornamented. His consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi (of about twenty-nine inches height) are on his
either side. All services, processions and celebrations conducted outside the sanctum are
rendered to Malayappan.

The Bali bera in Tirumala shrine is addressed as Koluvu srinivasa. After the rendering the
ceremonial food service to the dhruva_bera, offerings are made to the bali_bera who accepts it
on behalf of the basic elements in nature , the host of spirits guarding the temple and other minor
deities. A unique feature of the bali_bera in Tirumala shrine is that it presides over the formal
court summoned at the commencement of the day, where the days almanac is read out, and
where the accounts of the previous days collections at the Srivari hundi are submitted. The
traditional distribution of the daily remuneration, in the form of food grains and provisions, to
the temple priests and attendant staff takes place in the presence of koluvu_srinivasa. It is not
clear how this practice came into being at Tirumala.

The other bera in the Tirumala temple is the Ugra Srinivasa, which apart from the dhruva bera is
perhaps the oldest idol in Tirumala shrine. But, it has a rather sad history. The earliest reference
to this idol is in an inscription dated 10th century. Ugra Srinivasa was used as the Uthsava
murthy till about 14th century, when a fire broke out in the temple; and thereafter it was replaced
by Malayappan. The Ugra Srinivasa no longer serves as the uthsava bera and it is never bought
out of the temple after sunrise; except on a single occasion in a year (utthana dwadasi in
karthika) that too well before the sunrise. It is feared that if the sunrays touch the idol, it would
spark fire in the temple premises.
The iconography of Sri Venkateshwara in the Tirumala temple:
There are no known descriptions or specifications of the iconography of the Sri Venkateshwara
idol in any texts of the Shilpa shastra. Till about the Vijayanagar period there were no temples of
Sri Venkateshwara, outside Tirumala, Tirupathi and Mangapura regions. The idol does not also
fall within the interpretations of any of the known schools of architecture such as Pallava,
Chalukya, and Chola etc. That might be because the image of Sri Venkateshwara predates all
such schools.

The sanctum at Tirumala is eka murthy griha a sanctum housing a single deity; Sri Vekateshwara
is standing alone, not accompanied by his consorts. The icon is made of hard- black polished
stone (often described as saligrama shila) .Though the precise measurements of the image of the
deity cannot be ascertained, it is said, it stands more than six feet in height, with the Kirita ,
the crown, measuring about twenty inches high; and the idol is mounted on a pedestal of about
eighteen inches. The pedestal with lotus motif is almost at the ground level. The total height of
idol is estimated to be a little more than eight feet (A person of normal height with arms raised
just falls short of reaching the top of the idols crown) .

The idol, crafted with great skill, is wonderfully well proportioned and is very pleasing to look
at. It has four arms though its two upper hands are always kept covered (for whatever reason). Of
the other two hands, the right hand is in Varada mudra, in a posture of benediction, blessing the
devotees. The left hand is almost near the left knee in Katyavalambita mudrawith the thumb
almost parallel to the waist, as if to assure that the mire of the samsara , the mundane existence ,
is only knee deep for those who submit to him and seek salvation.
Lets discuss some specific forms of iconography in the next segment.

Iconography continued in the next part>

References:

Shilpa Soundarya by KT Pankajaksha

The Lord of Seven Hills by Prof. SKR Rao
Line drawings of kirita and ornaments
By the renowned Shilpi and Yogi Sri Siddalinga Swamy of Mysore
Other Line drawings are from Shilpa Soundarya
Other pictures are from internet
6 Comments
Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Temple Architecture, temple iconography

Temple Architecture Devalaya Vastu Part Five (5 of 9)

09 Sep

Measures and proportions

The structural harmony, the rhythm and a fine sense of proportion is the hall mark of Indian
temple architecture. It not merely resolves the contradictions but also expresses harmony by
encompassing all contradictions, transforming into pure and uncompromised details of structure.
The aim of a proportional system, meaning not merely symmetry, is to manifest a sense of
coherence and harmony among the elements of the temple and its whole. The proportional
harmonization of design, therefore, is of utmost importance in the construction of a temple. It is
believed that the power and purity of the structure radiates from its exact proportions and
measures as specified in the texts. It is also believed that a meticulously well constructed temple
radiates peace and joy; and ensures the welfare of the world and its people.
Without harmony, symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the design of any
temple. This is analogues to the precise relation between the features and organs of a well
proportioned, good-looking person.
The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of precision in their measurements. The
standard text Mayamata mentions Only if the temple is constructed correctly according to a
mathematical system can it be expected to function in harmony with the universe. Only if the
measurement of the temple is in every way perfect, there will be perfection in the universe as
well.
The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual aspects, and wherever one engages one of
them, entering a doorway, circumambulating or approaching the inner sanctuary or worshipping
there one is accessing an aspect of the whole.
The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty, structural stability and quality of spaces by virtue of
light, sound and volume management. They also evoke in the devotee an attuning of his person
to its structure and ambience.
The lighting of spaces inside a temple is orchestrated such that the mukha mantapa (i.e. entrance
porch) is semi-open with maximum light. If the directions and measurements are followed
correctly the sun rays should fall into the mantapa for at least six hours (from 9.00am to 3.00pm,
if the sun rise is at 6.00am). The Sabha Mantapa (for worshippers) has moderate light with few
openings. Garbhagirha with a single opening in front of deity allows light only on deity; and, is
illumined by natural oil lamps, placed on either side of the deity. The net effect of this
arrangement is that it projects the images against the dark wall. Further, the surroundings of the
Garbhagriha are modest in sculptural details. These help the worshippers to keep away the
distractions and to focus their attention on the deity.
Echoes are avoided by a clever manipulation of open spaces, elevations and designs in the
structured areas. Absolute quiet is ensured in the Sanctum vicinity. The Shilpis, in some cases
(Meenkshi temple, Madurai; Sundareshwara temple Tirchendur; and the Vijaya Vittala temple of
Hampi- Vijayanagar) displayed remarkable ingenuity in sculpting musical pillars, which when
struck at precise parts, produce the seven swaras (octaves).

As regards the volumes, every part of the temple is rigorously controlled by a precise
proportional system of interrelated measurements, maintaining the fundamental unity of the
architecture and sculpture.
The ancient shilpis used a great degree of precision in their measurements. Much of this system
is followed by the present shilpis too. An interesting feature of these systems is the standard unit
of measurement; the smallest unit mentioned is the anu or the particle, which is hardly
perceptible. The anu measure was employed for extremely delicate or intricate or the most vital
aspects of a sculpture; for instance, the eyes and facial features of the image of presiding deity;
or in the amaziningly delicate and minute carvings of the Hoyasla images. The norms and
measures specified in the Southern texts, it is said, are still in use. These measures are in two
categories; one for delicate and intricate work and the other for normal structures.
Look at the table of measurements for minute and delicate carvings.
Eight anus (particles) = one nulu (breadth of a fine cotton or silk fiber),
Eight nulu = one hair (breadth of horse hair),
Eight hairs = one grain of sand,
Eight grains of sand = one mustard seed,
Eight mustard-seeds = one bamboo seed,
Eight bamboo-seeds = one angula.
The angula (1.875 cms) and the hasta (cubit, 45 cms) are the units that are normally used for
deriving the dimensions, proportions, the height and other details of a sculpture. The Danda (four
cubits) used for measuring less-delicate or lengthier structure is equivalent to 180 cms.
One Hastha = one cubit= 45 cms;
Four Hasthas = one Danda= 96 angulas = 180 cms.
One Hastha =24 angulas = 45 cms.
Thus one angula = 1.875 cms.
The old Sanskrit texts too mention a set of measurements. According to them Anu or paramanu,
the particle, was the smallest measure.
8 anus = one ratha renu (grain of dust);
8 ratha renu = one valagrasa (hair end);

8 valagrasa =One grain of yava;

4 yavas = one angula;
12 angulas = one vitasta or Tala (span)
2 Vitasta or Tala = Hastha (cubit) = 24 angulas
26 angulas= Dhanurbhagha (handle of a bow).
4 hatas = One Danda;
8 Dandas = One Rajju (rope)
1000 Rajju = One Yojana
The proportions of the head-trunk-arms-legs of images; and also their finer specifications like
nose, nail, ears and their shapes are specified in the texts. Generally: it is dasatala (ten talas) for
the height of image of male deity, navatala (nine talas) for his consort and astatala (eight talas)
for bhakta. These are not absolute measurements; but are meant as guidelines to maintain proper
proportions.(We shall discuss more about these aspects in the part dealing with Temple
Iconography.)
Further, the Vastu believes that every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of
space measure; and derives that the time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space
vibrations is quantified in terms of eight and as multiples of eight. According to the Vastu, at the
subtle level the human form is a structure of eight spatial units apart from elements like the hair,
kneecap and toe nails, each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and,
when added on to the bodys eight units, increases the height of the total form to nine units.
Traditionally, these nine units are applied in making sculptures of gods.
Similarly, the lengths, the breadths the heights of various elements of the temple too are related
to each other by certain ratios. These lend esthetic appeal and stability to the temple structure.
For instance, it is said, by restricting the height of the tower, Shikhara, to twice its width at the
base, the weight of the tower is contained within itself. Further, as the size of the pada (bay,
distance between two pillars) increases, the cross section of pillars also increases in size and
width of beam has to be exactly same as that of the pillar.
The size of the structure will also determine the various kinds of building materials to be used at
different stages of the construction. They also help to control the proportions of the dimensions
of the temple. These norms carry shades of religious intentions too; the set of six formulae or
Ayadivarga viz., the Aaya, Vyaya, Yoni, Tithi, Vaara and Nakshatra are applied by the Acharya to
derive the proper orientation and dimensions of the structure. (More of Ayadivarga in the final
part.)

The Vastu Purusha Mandala of the temple projects the temple in two main sections: the ground
plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon patterns
drawn in the Mandala relate to the horizontal section or the ground plan. The subdivisions of the
ground plan detail the Brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller shrines) and the Mantapas
(pavilions). The vertical alignment consisting the pyramid, the circle and the curve are meant for
designing the Gopura (entrance ways), the Vimana (the structure above the main shrine) and the
prakara (the walls).

How these designs of certain measurements and proportions are translated into three dimensional
constructions, is really interesting.

Hindu temple construction is strictly based on a complex system of measurements and

proportions. These proportions control every aspect of a temples design, from its width and
height to the size of its doorways and moldings. There are a number of prescribed methods. Let
us look at just two of them.
A. This relates to the construction of the Garbhagriha (sanctum) and the Vimana or Prasada on
top of it.

In this method, the square of 4 (16) and the square of 8(64) are considered auspicious. All the
main horizontal as well as vertical proportions are with reference to either of these numbers
(mulasutra).The area of the Vimana (the prasada or the tower above the sanctum) is divided into
16 squares (maha-pitha) or 64 squares (manduka), as the case may be; in which case the width
would be 4 or 8 units.

If the width of the Vimana is 4, then the width of the sanctum would be 2 units; the height of the
Vimana would also be 4; and the base of the Vimana would be a cube. The Sikhara on top this
cube would be twice its height (that is, 42).The cube and the Sikhara would together rise to a
height of 12 units. This proportion builds a relationship between the vertical and horizontal
extents of the other parts of the temple.
In case the width of the sanctum is 8 units, The total height of the sanctum with Sikhara would
be three times the width of the sanctum(83), of which the height of the Sikhara would be 2/3
the total height.
B. In this method, the size of the sanctum and the Dwajasthamba is determined by the height of
the image of main deity in the sanctum. The size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the
height of image of main deity.
The normal height of a man is taken as six feet; and the sanctum would be in the shape of a
square of its inner length and width, of six feet. The width of the sanctum walls would be two
feet. The outer measurement of the sanctum would be 10 feet on each side.
A mantapa, in front of the sanctum, would have certain special features. The inner length and
breadth of a mantapa should be twice that of the sanctum. For instance, in this case, the outer
side of the sanctum is ten feet; and therefore the inner side of the Mantapa should be 20 feet, in
width. This is achieved by extending the face (door) side of the sanctum on either side to form
the inner dimension (20) of the Mantapa.
If the directions and measurements are correctly followed the sun rays should fall into the
mantapa for six hours (from 9.00am to 3.00pm, if the sun rise is at 6.00am).
For a sanctum of this size, the idol, in standing position, should be six feet tall. If the idol is less
than six feet tall, its pedestal should be raised to obtain the required height. The idol should be
installed exactly at the mid-point of the chosen direction (usually facing east).
The Dwaja sthamba should be perpendicular and placed directly opposite to the idol.
A line drawn at an angle of 22 degrees from the mid-point between the brows of the idol
should cut the top of the Dwajasthamba. The height of the Dwajasthamba thus is related to the to
the height of the image. Some scholars say, this perhaps is relates to the axis of the earth which
makes an angle of 22 degrees with the sun.
Sometimes, a hole is made in the roof of the mantapa, at the point where the imaginary line
drawn from the idol emerges out of the roof of the mantapa, on its way to reach the top of the
Dwajasthamba. Thus, it is ensured that the mid point between the brows of the idol, the hole in
the roof and the top of Dwaja sthamba are all aligned along one straight line.
The line when extended further from the top of the Dwaja sthamba should touch the Kalasha on
top of the Gopura.

Thus, the distance and the height of the Gopuram get related to the height of the idol and the
Dwajasthamba.

The actual construction process of a temple can be divided into three steps. The first is the
planning of the temple by architect, second is the carving of different parts and the third is
assembling the parts.
In the first stage, the architect prepares a list of all the parts that go into the details of the temple;
like the figures, pillars, beams, and brackets etc. These parts are usually composed of several
elements. For example, a pillar is made of at least five parts, while the dome is made of several
units. This is one of the reasons, it is said, why the temples do not normally collapse in case of
earthquakes or cyclones; as its parts are not joined rigidly (say by materials like cement) but can
vibrate within the surrounding structured space.
In the second stage, the teams of assistants of the Shilpi carve the parts and segments according
to the temple Acharyas and Shilpis drawings, designs, specifications and guidelines. The parts
thus got ready are transported to the site. And, at times the transportation to the site, itself,
becomes a huge task. For instance, it is said that a four km long ramp was constructed to
transport and place in position the dome of the Brihadishwara temple in Tanjore.
The stability of the temple structure is attributed to its principles of unity, harmony, balance and
distribution of weight. It is said, if one member of this family breaks, the unity, peace and
stability of the family is sure to crumble. . Hence, no member moves from its place, and holds
the structure together even in the face of destruction all around. These aspects are ensured during
the third stage.
The third stage is the assembling of the readied parts i.e. the actual construction of temple. The
various elements and parts of temples are interlocked to hold in position. All the parts have
mortise and tenon joint for ensuring strength; and a hole or slot is cut into each piece of readied

part, for a projecting part tenon of the adjacent part to be inserted into the next. These mortise
and tenons not only hold the parts their positions securely but also allow space for the stones to
expand in heat or even to vibrate modestly.
The third stage and the second stage have to be well coordinated in order to take care of precise
alignments and possible corrections. Though this stage, inevitably, means the slowing down of
the construction pace, it is said, the Sthaphti or Sthalapahi, the one who supervises the actual
construction process on site, takes extra care to ensure precise positioning and alignment of each
part and segment; and to meticulously follow the overall proportion, stability and visual appeal,
as specified and envisaged in the Vastu mandala and the construction plans.
The size and the nature of the structure will determine the various kinds of building materials to
be employed at different stages of its construction. Generally the use of iron, considered the
crudest of metals, is strictly avoided within the temple structure, as iron tends to get rusty and
endangers the stability and the life of the structure. The stone which has a far longer life and is
less corrosive, is the major building material employed in temple construction. (There are
elaborate methods for testing and grading the stones; and more about that in the final part) The
main structure and the dome are invariably constructed of tested stone.
The Building materials like stone, brick, mortar, wood, etc., are selected for the main body of the
temple, whereas elements like gold and silver are be used for final ornamentation. Marble is not
used in Southern structures. Materials like simulated marble, plastic and asbestos, strictly, are not
acceptable building materials. Only organic materials are used in temple architecture. The
traditional Indian temples of stone, it is said, are designed to last for 800 years unlike RCC
structures which are guaranteed for 80 years. Incidentally, the Ayadi aspects are worked out to
ensure longevity of the temple.

Some essential aspects of Temple Structure

A typical South Indian temple has a certain fairly well defined features and a generally accepted
layout. The most important structure of a temple is the garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum which
houses the idol of the presiding deity.

The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions. Mantapa means any roofed,
open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on pillars, standing independently or connected to the
sanctum of the temple.
The first of the mantapas is the antarala (sometimes called sukanas or sukanasi or
ardhamantapa), a narrow pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the navaranga. It usually will
have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a deity, with attendant divinities in
secondary niches flanking the central niche. In a few temples the antarala serves as the
navaranga too.
The next mantapa is nrttamantapa or navaranga, is a big hall used for congregational services
like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious discourses and so on. The
navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will have nine anganas (openings) and
sixteen pillars.
This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial purposes. This leads to mukha
mantapa the opening pavilion.
The Dwajasthamba (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or

antarala or the mantapa is another common feature. It represents the flag post of the King of

kings. The lanchana (insignia) made of copper or brass fixed like a flag to the top of the post
varies according to the deity in the temple and his/her nature.
The Balipitha (pedestal of sacrificial offerings) with a lotus or the footprints of the deity is fixed
near the Dwajasthamba, but nearer to the deity. Red-colored offerings like rice mixed with
vermillion powder, are kept on this at appropriate stages of rituals for feeding
the parivara_devatas and panchabhuthas or the elements.
A Dipastambha (lamp post) is situated either in front of the Balipitha or outside the main gate.
The top of this post has a bud shaped chamber to receive the lamp.
The whole temple is surrounded by a high wall (prakara) with one main and three subsidiary
gates, opening in the cardinal directions. A gopura (high tower,) adorns these gateways.
These were of course later developments; and in due course became characteristic features of
South Indian temple architecture. It is said, the Agama texts provide for as many as 32 prakaras,
the concentric enclosing walls. But, they recommend five to seven as advisable, in case more
than one enclosure is needed. In many cases, the main area of the temple, plus the halls, tanks,
and gardens are surrounded by a single wall (prakara) or enclosure. But many major temples do
have a series of enclosures. As mentioned earlier the Sri Rangam temple has seven enclosing
walls, enveloping the whole township.
The Agama texts prescribe that each enclosure must have door-ways in all four directions. But,
very few temples followed this rule, perhaps with the exception of the great temple at
Tiruvannamalai. In most cases, the doorways lead from one courtyard to the next, finally leading
to the sanctum. And, it became customary, since 10th century, to erect towers (gopuras) over
such gateways, though a gopura was not an essential feature of the temple per se. It is needless to
mention that the prakara contributes to the security and beauty of the temple
With the growth and development of the temples , their structures and details became
increasingly complicated .The structural arrangements of the major temples became more
elaborate. The prakara in its many layers provides for a number of minor temples or shrines for
the deities, connected with the presiding deity of the temple. Apart from these, the temple
precincts include a yagasala, (a hall for occasional yajna or yagas), kalyana-mantapa, marriage or
a general purpose hall; asthana-mantapa, where the processional deity holds court; Vahana
mantapa , to store the various vehicles used to mount the processional deity during festivals
and processions; alankara-mantapa, where the processional deity is dressed before being taken
on procession; vasanta-mantapa, a hall in the middle of the temple tank used for festivals; and
utsava mantapa, hall used on festive occasions. Temples will also usually have a treasury, a
kitchen (paka-sala), a store room (ugrana), and a dining hall. A well or a puskarini (tank), flower
garden and Ratha (the temple chariot) and its shed are the other essentials associated the temple.

The garbha-

griha is encircled by the first prakara, called antara-mandala. This is a passageway, often narrow,
permitting the devotees to circumambulate the sanctum in a customary act of devotion. The flight
of stairs that connects the first prakara with the sanctum sanctorum is called the sopana. In front
of the sopana is the main mantapa.
Around the main mantapa and antara-mandala is the second prakara (antahara). This forms a
broad verandah with doorways on all four sides. The antahara leads out into an enclosure
containing the main bali-pitha.
The next enclosure is called madhyahara. Beyond this and just outside the main bali-pitha is the
flagstaff (dhvaja-stambha).
The fourth enclosure is called bhayahara. The fifth prakara (enclosure) is the maryada (limit), or
last wall.

*****
Let us briefly go over the broad features of some of the essential aspects of the temple.
Sanctum
The most important part of a temple, its very heart as it were, is the garbhagrha or the sanctum
sanctorum, the cave-like cube-shaped womb room, located within the Brahmasthana of the
Vastu Purusha Mandala, directly above the gold box, placed earlier in the earth during
the garbhadhana ceremony. Here on the altar, the deity in the Dhruva Bheru (immovable) form
is installed.
According to the nature and placement of the Duruva Bheru, the presiding deity, the entrance
will be determined either to North or to East of Garbagriha. The placement of other deities will
also be determined accordingly.
Garbhagriha usually is a cube with a low roof and with no doors or windows

except for the front opening. The image of the deity is stationed in the geometrical centre, facing
the midpoint of the chosen direction. The whole place completely dark, except for the light that
comes through the front opening. The name garbhagriha perhaps has reference to the devotee
finding his way to this secret inner place and being reborn from it, emerging later, transformed,
by grace.
***

The sixth century text, Vishnu dharmottama purna, indicates certain specifications of the
sanctum. It says the idol should preferably face east; and the placement of the other deities in the
temple should be in relation to the main idol.
It is commendable to place the central door of the temple in one of the cardinal points. The
height of the door should be made double its width, o king. [One should make] the image
together with the pedestal on 1/8 lower than the height of the door. The image [should be] two
parts [of the whole] and the pedestal a third part. It is commendable to make the width of the
door equal to 1/4 of [the width of] the shrine
The height of the door should be [that of] the deities increased by 1/8. One should make the
height of the door double [its] width.
To illustrate, if the total height of the idol is 6.0; the pedestal would then be 2.0 high and the
image would be 4.0 high. The height of the sanctum door would be 6.9; and its width, would
be 3.4 . The width of the sanctum would be (four times the width of the door) 13.6. The
sanctum would be in the shape of a square.
As regards the thickness of the sanctum walls (bhitti), the text seems to suggests that the walls
should be 1/8 the width of the sanctum. Applying this norm to our illustration , the walls of the
sanctum would be about three feet thick. (It is a bit confusing, here. I am not sure, if the portion
relating to the sanctum walls sounds reasonable.)
Next, the text seems to suggest that the width of the sanctum should be 8/15 of the length of the
enclosure surrounding it. If we apply this to our illustration, it seems to suggest that the passage
around the sanctum would be about 3 feet in width. (I am not certain.)
***
The sculpture and carvings at the doors and the vicinity of the Garbagriha are modest and not so
exuberant as to distract the attention of the devotee. Absolute quiet is ensured in the vicinity of
the sanctum. Further, the only light entering into that part of the temple falls on the deity. The oil
lamps that illumine the deity enhance the ambiance of serenity and peace.
Garbagriha is the very purpose of the temple. Its enclosures are supplementary in nature. Some
texts therefore argue that that the temple, per se, comprises only the sanctum and the tower on
the top of it; and these two are the only essential parts of a shrine.
Some texts say that the shrine extends up to Balipeeta, the dispensing seat and no further. In
some temples, a pradaksinapatha (a circumambulatory passage) is provided just round the
garbhagrha, to enable the devotees to go round the deity. The vesara temples do not have this
passage.
The walls of the sanctum raise above a series of moldings, constituting the socle (adhisthana), a
base that sticks out from under the bottom wall. The adistana should be strong and massive, as it

carries the entire weight of the Garbha griha, the mantapa and the path for circumblation
pradakshina; and also of the weight of the super structures, such as the Vimana and its details.

The adhisthana consists of several mouldings (from bottom up); Upana or upatala (the base),
Padma (a layer of lotus motif), Jagathi (straight and mnodestly decorated), Kumuda (round and
ribbed), Kanta (neck) and Kapolapalika (double layer of lotus petals)
In the Hoysala or the Vesara architecture, particularly from the late 10th century onward, this
arrangement of the superstructure is loaded with decoration.

While on the subject, the sanctum of the most celebrated temple in India that of Sri
Venkateshwara in Tirumala is a square of twelve
feet and nine inches. The

sanctum is considered so holy that it is addressed as Koil Alwar meaning the divinity in the form
of temple. The three sides of the sanctum (other than the one with the opening to view the deity)
are enclosed by another set of wall/s. The total thickness of the walls surrounding the sanctum is
about seven feet and two inches. Perhaps this is the most secure sanctum wall one can find. The
pleasing Ananda Nilaya Vimana stands on these sets of walls. It is surmised that the outer wall
might have been erected sometime around 1260AD.
Vimana

The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations. Sometimes the term Vimana stands for the
temple. Often, Vimana means the tower shikara, raised to its final height above the sanctum .
But, some say that the term Vimana should, strictly, refer to the rotund structure above the series
of elevations (tala) which stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum). In other words, the
term vimana, it is said, should refer to the structure between the final Tala and the stupi, the end.
The Vimana rests or is surrounded by the Kanta (neck).
Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain peak, refers to the rising tower of a
temple constructed as per the architecture of North India; and is its most prominent and visible
feature. While the Northern texts identify the Sikhara as Prasada; the Southern texts call them
Vimana. The Vimana is pyramid like; and Prasada is curvilinear in its outline. We may for the
present go with the last mentioned interpretation.
Among the several styles of Sikharas that obtain in temple architecture, the three most common
ones are: the Dravida prevalent in south India; the Nagara the most common style; and the third
born from the synthesis of the other two called the Vesara, seen mostly in Hoysala and later
Chalukya temples of Karnataka.

The Dravida style is highly ornate; the Nagara style is simpler and consists of a curvilinear
dome. In the Vesara style, the dome is highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or from the
richly carved outer walls of the temple. In every style of Sikhara/Vimanam, the structure
culminates with a Kalashaat its peak.
The early vimanas, in south, were circular until they ended in a point of the finial (stupi);
like the vimanam of Kadambar koil.

In some cases , the flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rest and rises is overlaid
by a single square stone slab known in the text as the stone denoting the upper passage of life
(brahma-ranhra-sila). In certain structures, slab after slab is placed in a diminishing order with
the final slab crowned by a perforated stone ring (amalaka) giving the structure a pyramid shape.
During the later times, the body of the Vimana tended to be more complex and multi layered
rising up in several stages (tala). Each stage of the sikhara contained within itself several layers
of mouldings depicting traditional motifs. The layers in a Tala are called Varga; and the sadvarga
(six modules) is regarded the classic version. The southern texts describe the temples as sadvarga
Devalaya. The sadvargas of a Vimana are Adistana, Pada, Prastara, Kanta, Sikhara and stupi. The

vertical expansion of the sadvarga developed into Vimanas of Dvitala (in two stages) and tritala
(in three stages) structures.
The most celebrated Dvitala Vimana is the Ananda Nilaya Vimana atop the sanctum of the Sri
Venkateshwara shrine on the hills of Tirumala. It is not clear when it was constructed and who
caused it to be constructed. The earliest reference to the Ananda Nilaya Vimana was in the
inscription of Virasinga Deva Yadava who ruled the Tondamandala region, around 1250 AD. It is
said; he performed Tula-bhara and donated gold, equitant of his weight, for covering the Vimana.
The Vimana was renovated in the year 1417 by the Kings of Chandragiri. The most famous
patron, in the later years, was, of course, Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar Empire, who, in the
year 1517, donated 30,000 pieces of gold for covering the Ananda Nilaya Vimana with gold
polish.(please also see para below)
Before we go further we may talk a little more about Vimana.
The Vimana in the South Indian temple history had an interesting career. For instance, the most
magnificent Vimana of the Raja-rajeshwara temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an imposing
height of 58 meters. Another temple of the same period at Gangaikonda-chola-puram (1025 AD)
rises to a height of 48 meters. Thereafter, in the subsequent periods, the Vimanas tended to grow
shorter. But the Gopuras, the towers that stand over the gate-ways (dwara-gopura) became
increasingly ornate, complicated and huge.
The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished size. While the
sculptures on the outer Gopuras could house secular and even erotic themes, the Vimana had to
be austere and carry only the prescribed divinities associated with the mula-bhera in the sanctum.
The Vimana is verily the representation or the outer visible form of the murthi that resides within
it; and is revered as such. It represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the antaryamin who
resides within it. The Gopura on the other hand does not usually command an equal status.
While the temple complex is designed as a Mandala with the sanctum at its heart (Brahma
sthana); the sanctum along with the Vimana atop is itself regarded a Mandala. The image is
located in the mid-point of the sanctum which is designed as a square; that is, where its diagonals
intersect each other. This point is elevated, in a three dimensional projection, and rendered as the
sthupi or the central point of the Vimana. The Kalasha is installed at this point.
In order to appreciate the Mandala configuration of the Vimana, one could take its top-elevation;
that is, take an aerial view from directly above the Vimana. The entire structure of the Vimana
resting on a square base, projecting into the air in successive diminishing tiers and concluding
into a needle (bindu) is a Mandala resembling the Chakra. The sanctum with its Vimana, thus,
represents the worshipful (archa) form of the divinity. The different deities associated with the
mula-bhera are aligned along the four sides of the Vimana (Mandala), according to their
importance, starting with the grosser ones on the outer periphery of the Vimana (outermost layer
of the Mandala).The sthupi , the central point , the needle of the Vimana being the bindu of its
Mandala configuration.
*****

Ananda Nilaya Vimana is of Vesara architecture; and the Vimana is in Dvitala, meaning that
structure above the Kapotha slab has risen in two stages; and on the top of the second tala is the
Vimana, per se, in a rotund shape. Its total height from its base to the top of the Kalasha is
3208 .Both the Talas are square in shape. The lower Tala depicts, in its four sides, the icons of
the Vaikhanasa School: Purusha, Sathya, Achtuta and Aniruddha. The upper tala depicts about
fifty-nine images including those of Hanuman, Garuda and several Rishis. The most famous Sri
Vimana Venkateshwara is on the North face of the upper Tala.
The Kanta (neck), at the end of each Tala , is circular in shape. The rotund Vimana, atop the
second Tala and enclosed by the circular Kanta (neck) is adorned with lotus motif.
In the later stages of South Indian architecture, the Vimanas grew more complex and muti-sided.
The six-sided and eight-sided Vimans became quite common. It is said there are a few temples
with their Vimana having as many as sixteen sides. The temple in Madurai is reputed to have as
many as 65 sides!.
The basic shape of the Vimana is pyramid like. The imagery associated with its shape is that of
an inverted tree with its branches spreading downwards. This has reference to the ancient
imagery of the universe.
Sri Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram i (mid-8th century) has a unique and an
interesting arrangement of three sanctums, one above the other, encased within the body of the
superstructure.

Some of the best examples of the Vimans come from the massive temples erected by the Chola
kings. The Brhadisvara or Rajarajesvara, temple, built at the Chola capital of Thanjavur is a fine
example of the grandeur and majesty of the temples of this period. The temple construction
begun around 1003 and was completed about seven years later. The main walls are raised in two
stories, above which the superstructure rises to a height of 190 feet. It has 16 stories, each of
which consists of a wall with a parapet of shrines carved in relatively low relief.

The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana
comprising two huge, sculpted, granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering skills
and the expertise that made the mounting of these huge stones atop a structure that is nearly 200
feet high must have been way ahead of their times. Legend says that the stone was brought
from Sarapallam (scaffold-hollow), four miles north-east of the city, using a specially designed
ramp.
Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base, creating
spaces for niches and windows in between. However, the temple departs from southern Indian
convention in one significant way: the vimana is taller than the gopura (gateways) of the
temples walls. Normally the gopuras are taller than the vimana.
The Vimana rises to a height of abut 216 feet, a tower of fourteen

storeys. The basement of the structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square. The
gilded Kalasa over it is 12.5 feet high. It is believed the sikhara and the stupi does not throw on
the ground. The dome rests on a single block of granite, 25.5 feet square.

The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal
structure. They say it is more robust than its counterparts from north India with their complex
curvilinear profiles.
Another fine example of the Chola temple architecture is the temple in Gangaikondacholapuram,
which succeeded Tanjore as the capital of the Chola Empire. The Vimanam of this temple, in
contrast to the rigid pyramidal structure of the Brihadeeswara temple, rises up in a concave
manner with fluid lines. (For more information, please
visit http://www.thanjavur.com/bragathe.htm)
The tallest Sikhara of a Hindu temple, it is said, is under construction at Mayapur in west Bengal.
The temple when completed (say by 2014) will be 35 stories tall and almost as high as the great
pyramid in Giza.

Kalasha
The crowning glory of the Vimana is its Kalasha, the vase. Some say it is reminiscent of the life
giving Amrita-kalasha that emerged out of the milky ocean when it was churned. Kalash
symbolizes blessings and well-being.

In the development of the Indian temple this feature appears to have arrived

rather late. The early kalashas were perhaps made of stone blocks, round or ribbed. They might
have been in the nature of cap-stones that structurally held the tall and tapering vimana, as in
the North Indian temples. The copper and brass vases seem to have been the later innovations;
and the agama books favor use of copper vases.
Kalasha has several members, such as the foot-hold (padagrahi) which is its foothold, the egg
(anda) or the belly, the neck (griva), the lotus-band (padma-pashika), the rim (karnika) and the
bud (bija-pura). The shape of this unit could resemble the bell, the flower bud, the lump,
coconut, alter or pot. all these shapes symbolize the potential and the possibilities of life.
Interestingly, the Kalasa placed on top of the Vimana, it is said, is not imbedded into the structure
by packing it with mortar or cement. It is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out
of the centre of the tower and runs through the vase, the Kalasha. It is through this tube that the
lanchanatokens (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. One of the explanations is the
hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra,
the seat of consciousness, through the Brahma randra. This is completes the analogy of the
temple to the purusha ot to the human form.
I have heard of inserting a golden person inside the Kalasha; but have not come across much
discussion about it. It appears, the Kalasha, the pot, has an important hidden component, the
golden person (suvarna purusha) who is regarded the personification of the temple-spirit. The
belly of the Kalasha contains a tiny cot made of silver, copper or sandal; over which is laid a soft
feather mattress. A tiny golden icon holding a lotus flower and a triple flag rests on that cot. Four
tiny pots made of gold, silver or copper containing consecrated water are placed on the four sides
of the cot. There is also a tiny pot of ghee near the cot. This entire procedure of introducing the
golden-person into the Kalasha is known as hrudaya-varnaka-vidhi.
Another kalasha is deposited under the sanctum. And, like the one on top of the Vimana, this
Kalasha also contain tokens of growth and prosperity, viz., cereals with subtle seeds (such as
millet) and nine types of precious stones. The womb, the icon and the sthupi the finial run along
the same axis.
There are a few other symbolisms associated with the Kalasha. The structure of the Kalasha
resembles an inverted tree; and is almost a replica of the womb buried under the sanctum. Both
are described as roots. The one at the bottom urges upward growth; while the one atop is the root
of the inverted tree.

Mantapas
The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions. Mantapa means any roofed,
open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on pillars, standing independently or connected to the
sanctum of the temple.
The first of the mantapas is the antarala (sometimes called sukanas or sukanasi or
ardhamantapa), a narrow pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the navaranga. It usually will
have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a deity, with attendant divinities in
secondary niches flanking the central niche. In a few temples the antarala serves as the
navaranga too.
The next mantapa is nrttamantapa or navaranga, is a big hall used for congregational services
like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious discourses and so on. The
navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will have nine anganas (openings) and
sixteen pillars.
This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial purposes. This leads to mukha
mantapa the opening pavilion.
Bali pitha
Bali_pitha is an indispensable associate of the sanctum. It is an altar or the dispensing seat of the
deity. It is a small but stylized stone seat that is installed directly in front of the icon and very
near the sanctum. It is the seat on which offerings to deity are placed.
The chief (pradhana) Bali_pitha will be directly in front of

the icon and often near the Dwajasthamba. It is usually made of hard granite and will be highly
stylized, ornate, and majestic, with several limbs such as the base, cornices, wall-surface with
door-lets or niches. Most texts suggest that the size of the altar should be 1/8, 1/7 or 1/5 of the
dimension of the sanctum. Depending on their sizes and shapes, the altars are classified into
several types such as Sri-bandha, Sri-bhadra, and Sarvato-bhadra and so on.
The Pradhana Bali-pitha will often be covered metal sheets .The more affluent temples as the one
at Tirumala, give the Pradana Bali-pitha a metal covering with gold polish.
It is on this Bali_pitha that the food offerings, in the form of vermilion colored rice, and rice
mixed with pepper are offered to the attendant divinities and the guardian goblins. These

offerings are placed only after the main food offering to the presiding deity, in the sanctum, is
completed.

While the main (pradhana), Bali_pitha will be directly in front of the icon; there will be several
such other altars, located in the prakara, positioned in eight directions, around the sanctum. Their
positions are determined in accordance with the prescriptions of the canonical texts that the
temple follows.
Some suggest that the yupastambha (Sacrificial post) and the balipitha (sacrificial pedestal) of
the Vedic age have metamorphosed into the dhvajastambha and the balipitha of the present day.
A dipastambha (lamp post) is situated either in front of the balipitha. The top of this

post has a bud shaped chamber to receive the lamp

Flag staff
The dhvajastambha (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or antarala or the mantapa is
another common feature of the temples. It should be perpendicular and directly opposite to the
idol. It will be located very close to the Bali pitha; and the Bali pitha will be

between the sanctum and the Dwajasthamba. It represents the flag post of

the King of kings. The lanchana (insignia) made of copper or brass fixed like a flag to the top
of the post varies according to the deity in the temple. The figure on the lanchana is invariably
that of the vahana (carrier vehicle) of the deity. For instance, in Siva temples it contains Nandi.
In Devi temples it is the lion that finds its place. In Vishnu temples the Garuda gets that honour.
The practice of erecting tall columns of fifty to eighty feet in height appears to be of recent
origin. In the early stages, these flag posts were perhaps meant to indicate the position of the
sanctum. Even today, the temples in North India fly long flowing banners and flags from the
tower atop the sanctum.
The old texts favoured wooden or bamboo poles, with odd- number of joints, up to twenty-five.
And, the flag-staff was not intended to be a permanent structure. The ceremony of flying the
temple flag marked the inauguration of a major Uthsava at the temple. The flag also served as
signal to indicate to the people of the town and the visitors that a Uthsava is on. The old customs
required that no major domestic auspicious functions be held in the village while the temple flag
is hoisted. This was perhaps to suggest that the celebrations at the temple took precedence over
those at homes; and that everyone in the village should participate in the temple celebrations.
In course of time the permanently fixed flag-staff became a common feature in temple
architecture. The older temples had flagstaffs made of stone. That gave place to the practice of
erecting a stone pillar or wooden pole covered with copper, brass, or even silver plates gilded
and installed on a raised stone platform, often square in shape,located in front of the sanctum.
The top portion of this tall mast will have three horizontal perches (symbolizing righteousness,
reputation and prosperity, or the three divinities Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver and
Siva the destroyer), pointing towards the sanctum.

The pedestal or the seat of the flag-staff as well as the mast with perches became highly stylized
in South India during the days of the Chola and Pallaya rulers, for the flag-staff was uniquely a
royal insignia.

Gopura
In the case of major temples, the entire temple area is surrounded by a series of conectric
protective walls, the prakaras. The lofty
towers erected

over the entrance gateways of these walls are the Gopuras. These rectangular, pyramidal towers,
often fifty metres high dominate the city skyline. And, adorned with intricate and brightly
painted sculptures of gods, demons, humans, and animals, have become the hallmark of southern
architecture; though, strictly, they are not the essential aspect of a temple layout or its
structure. The Gopura emphasizes the importance of the temple within the city.

The Gopura is a unique feature of the Dravidian architecture. It had its origin and development in
South; and the other schools of architecture do not have equivalent features.
The advent of Gopura in Dravidian architecture was rather late. The practice of erecting a
Gopura at the entrance gateway to the temple seems to have come into being during the mid-12th
century. And, with the decline of the mighty Cholas and with the increasing threat from invading
armies, the temple cities (prominently Madurai and Sri Rangam) found it expedient to erect a
series of protective walls to safeguard and defend their temples, palaces and cities. The Gopuras
constructed on the gateways leading from one enclosure to the next, initially, served as watch
and denseive towers.
What started as a defensive structure rapidly developed into a prominent and an architectural
extravaganza with great visual appeal. The Gopuras grew in size from the mid-12th century and
came to be greatly emphasized, until the colossal ones rose to dominate the temple complex,
surpassing the main sanctum .Some of them are extremely large and elaborately decorated with
sculpture,; and quite dominating the architectural ensemble.
Among the finest examples are the Sundara Pandya Gopura (13th century) of

the Jambukesvara temple at Tiruchchirappalli and the Gopuras of the great Siva temple at
Chidambaram, built largely in the 12th13th century.
The Gopuras of the Meenakshi temple at Madurai are of course the most magnificent array of
temple towers.There are twelve impressive Gopuras soaring over the three tier Prakara walls.
The outer four towers dominating the city landscape are truly huge in size and magnificence.

The nine -storied towers came up between 13-16th centuries during the reign of Madurai Nayaks.
The edifice of the Gopuras measure 174 ft. from north to south, and 107 ft. in depth.The gateway
is 21 ft. 9 in. wide; and the gatepost is 6o ft high, made of blocks of granite, carved with the most
exquisite scroll patterns of elaborate foliage. The heights of the Gopuras range from 161 feet to
170 feet.
The Gopuras appear to have influenced revision in the temple design and layout. Such was the
emphasis placed on the eminence of Gopuras that as time went by; the Southern temples came to
be designed as a series of courtyards, as if to justify the Gopuras. The spaces around the shrine
became hierarchical; the further the space was from the main shrine, the lesser was its eminence.
The outermost ring had buildings of a more utilitarian or a secular nature shops, dormitories,
sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a purely place of worship to the hub of
a vibrant living city. A particularly interesting example of this is the Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri
Rangam, which has seven enclosure walls and as many as twenty-one Gopuras, halls, other
temples and township constructed over several centuries. The seventh, the outer most, enclosure
is 3072 feet in length and 2521 feet in breadth; enclosing an area of about six hundred acres.

The grand Meenakshi temple in Madurai is another great illustration of this development which
was initiated by the Pandya kings. It was during this period that the building of a temple became
the nucleus of a town-planning exercise, which we discussed in the earlier parts of this article.

Though the evolution of the Dravidian temple architecture stalled briefly after the demise of the
Pandyan Empire, the architectural expression scaled new heights during the reign of the
Vijayanagara kings (15th and 16th centuries). Although the later temples were not huge in size,
they often were of very fine workmanship. For instance, the Subrahmanya temple of the 17th
century, built in the Brhadisvara temple complex at Thanjavur, indicates the vitality of
architectural traditions even at that late date.
The Raja-Gopuram of Sri Rangam temple, completed during the year

1987, is perhaps the tallest in South India. The Gopura with 13 stories is 243 feet high; and with
twelve Kalashas adorning its peak.
In the meantime a 249 feet tall gopura, said to be the tallest gopura in Asia, has come up in the
Shiva temple at Murudeshwar in the coastal district Uttara Kannada, in Karnataka. The twentyone story high gopura measures 249 feet high and is taller than the 243 Raja Gopura at Sri

Rangam and 239 feet tall gopura of Brihadeshwara. The gopura is fitted with elevator services
and the temple plans to have museums and art galleries on all the 21 floors of the gopura.

A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure of brick and
pilaster. It is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials.
It differs from the Vimanam in that it need not necessarily be square-based. Above that
rectangular base a pyramidal structure covered with brightly coloured plethora of sculpture is
raised to a great height. A Gopura has to be towering and massive.
In the ancient times, the cities all over South India could be discerned from afar by the distinctive
shape of their Gopuras dominating the skyline.
When viewed from top, the Gopura too resembles a Mandala; With the Goblins, Yalis, mythical
animals and other beings located in the outer enclosure, as if supporting the weight of the
mandala. The humans and the divine beings are in the inner enclosures. The peak of the Gopura,
the Kalasha is at the centre of the Mandala
Symbolically, the Gopura and the entrance to the temple represent the feet of the deity. A devotes
bows at the at the entrance, the feet of the Lord, as he steps into the temple and proceeds towards
the sanctum, leaving behind the world of contradictions.
In the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to represent the seven
layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and intelligence-that envelop the
consciousness of the living entities in the material world. The gopuras, or gateways through the
prakaras, are symbolic of being liberated from the bondage of matter as one enters the temple
and proceeds toward the central shrine.

*****

*****
CONTINUED in the next part->
Sources:
A. Maps of Madurai and Sri Rangam
By courtesy of Kultur in Indien
B.Other pictures from Internet.
C. Devalaya Vastu by Prof. SKR Rao
D. Vastu Astrology and Architecture
E. Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple,
Others:
http://www.sanathanadharma.com/temple/essential.htm
http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/
Encyclopaedia Britannica
http://www.britannica.com/dday/print?articleId=109585&fullArticle=true&tocId=65333

https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/2668/1/299_022.pdf

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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Devalaya Vastu, Iconography, measures and proportions in temple, symbolism in temple,
Temple Architecture

Temple Architecture- Devalaya Vastu Part Four (4 of 9)

08 Sep
Temple Layout

The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvlangdu, by the famous artist Silpi.
The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen
(Shodasha) types of temple layouts: the Square (Chandura); Rectangle (Agatra);Trapezium
( with uneven sides like a cart shakata); Circle (Vritta); Elliptical (kritta vritta); triangular
(dwaja); diamond or rhombus (vajra) ; Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ; fish (meena);back of a
tortoise (kurma);conch (shanka); crescent (ardha-chandra); pot (kumbha);sword (khadga); and
lotus (kamala).

These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the back
of a tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are recommended only
for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura), Rectangle (Agatra), fish
(meena), diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are recommended for Devi temples.
The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities.
But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and
most auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best of all. In case the
layout is rectangular ,the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. It
is also said , it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.
For the limited purpose of this discussion let us stick to the square or rectangular layout, ignoring
the rest. Else, I fear, it might get too complicated.

*****

Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple, and having drawn up the
Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location ; the next stage is to draw up a
construction plan .This specifies the location, the size and the orientation of the various temples
to come up in the proposed complex. This again involves preparation of another Vastu Mandala.
***
Pada Vinyasa
The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi) and
placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in the shape
of a rectangle or a square. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area may be 4:8;
4:7; 4:6; or 4:5. (The square would be 4:4). Shapes of sites to be avoided are: circular (vritta),
triangular (trikona), rod shaped (dandakriti), bow shaped (dhanur akara) and other irregular
shapes. And, in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a land of such un approved
shape, the area meant for the temple should be demarcated and rendered a square or a rectangle
in shape.
Incidentally, the Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same principles. Even the Sri
Harmandir Sahib, the Golden Temple at Amritsar is structured in a square shape; with the
Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana.

The following is the layout of a Jain temple.

In case of a rectangular site, it must have north south orientation. The depth of the site (Aayaprofit) should be more than its breadth (vyaya-loss). That is the reason we find our temple walls
(prakara) on north-south shorter than the walls on east-west.

The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east and the north direction should be in the
northeast corner.
Fountains or lotus ponds of the temple should be in the northeast direction.
In the open space surrounding the temple, Basil plant with raised bed should be in the east; the
Jasmine, white Champak, Star Coral plants etc. should be in the northwest corner or the east.
Four approach roads are much recommended.
***
The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan, Vastu Purusha
Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. The entire process is rich in
symbolism.
The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind
and define it; and the Vastu is the extent of existence in its ordered site; Purusha being the source
of existence.

The ground plan, again, is symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. The Vastu
Purusha represents terrestrial world with constant movements. The grid made up of squares and
equilateral triangles is imbued with religious significance; with each cell belonging to a deity.
The position of the deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him .The central portion
of the square (Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple ; while the outer
cells house deities of lower order.
Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the
temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have
its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a
series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture.
This process of drawing the Mandala , known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu mandala Vinyasa is
essential not only for construction of the main temple but also for deciding upon the location, the
orientation and the size of the sanctum; and for placement of retinue-divinities.

Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout.

The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends from
Pitrah (in the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner).
The Vastu purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth
mandala having astronomical reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around
the border representing the four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. It is the
representation of all cyclical time; lunar and solar. Brahma is the God at the centre.
The Manduka Mandala (88) the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go Northsouth and East-west.

In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (99) , the entire square would be unevenly divided.

The center of the mandala consisting nine cells is dedicated to Brahma, the first of beings and
the engineer of universal order. The Three cells to its east are for Aryaman, three cells to its west
are for Mitra and three cells to its north are for Prihvidhara. In this site plan 32 spirits reside in
the outer ring. There are 8 spirits in four corners. There are four spirits surrounding Brahma.
Thus there are in all 45 spirits (including Brahma).
Dikpalas or guardian deities of different quarters, who assist in the affairs of universal
management, are an important part of the Vastu. Indra, Agni, Yama, Niritti, Varuna;, Vayu ,
Kubera and Isana; reside in the East , South-East , South, South-West, West, North-West, North
and North-East respectively. All except Kubera are principal Vedic deities. This provides a
method that determines the requirements of architecture in relation to its directions.
Establishing Vastu Mandala on the site
The vastu-purusha-mandala, forming a sort of map or diagram of astrological influences that
constitute the order of the universe, is now complete. When placed on the building site the vastupurusha-mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the time for
commencing the construction. Only by the combination of the vastu-purusha-mandala and the
astrological calculations can this factor be ascertained.

From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect next

proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The square, the
rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground
plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are more prominent. The
subdivisions of the ground plan include thebrahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels)
and the mantapa(balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of
drawings for the gopura (entrance ways), the vimana (the structure above the main shrine or
chapel) and the prakara (the walls).
The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional forms, in exactly the patterns laid
out by the mandala. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual
physical appearance of the temple can best be understood by viewing it from above (top
elevation).
In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on the construction site, it is first drafted on
planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The ground for civil
construction is demarcated by dividing the site into 81 cells, by drawing 10 lines from East to

West and 10 lines from North to South in which Vastu Mandala deities are installed. In addition
the deities of the Sarvathobhadra-mandala are also established after performing Vastu Homa.
The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite
in itself. The cells sustain the temple in their own sphere of effectiveness, in the manner that the
actual foundation supports its weight.
Garbhadhana,
Shilanyasa is the ceremony for laying foundation stone. It is the laying of the first stone (square
in shape) or a brick signifying the start of construction. It is laid in the north-western corner of
the building plan, drawn on the ground. After this, the construction of the foundation is taken up.
The foundation is built and the ground filled up, up to the plinth level, except in the middle
portion of the garbhagraha area, which is filled up three-fourths.
The sanctum is technically known as Garba-Griha. This part of the temple is usually constructed
first. The ceremony related to it is known as Garba-dana or Garba-nasya; and, it involves letting
in to the earth a ceremonial copper pot, containing nine types of precious stones, several metals,
minerals, herbs and soils symbolizing creation and prosperity. The following is alittle more detail
about it.

The Brahmasthana , the principal location in a temple where the Garbagraha will eventually
come up, is the nucleus of the Vastu Purusha Yantra. At thebrahmasthana, as drawn on the
grounda ritual is performed calledgarbhadhana, inviting the soul of the temple (Vastu Purusha)
to enter within the buildings confines. In this ritual, a golden box is imbedded in the earth. The
interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling thevastu-purushamandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with earth. In the thirty-two units
representing the nakshatras (lunar mansions), the units of Brahma and the twelve sons of Aditi,
the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the
corresponding divinity .An Image of Ananta , the hooded serpent , is also placed in the box.
Ananta, meaning eternal or timeless, also represents theenergy that supports the universe. The
box also contains nine precious stones diamonds, emeralds, rubies, pearls, yellow sapphire, and
blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade to appease the nine planets.
A stone slab (adhara-shila) is thereafter placed over the spot the copper pot is buried.And, over
this slab will rise the foundation for installing the Mula-bhera. The copper pot signifies the
womb; and icon the life arising out of it. The sanctum constructed around it is the body.

That pot represents the roots of the temple-tree; and the icon its sap. The four walls around
the icon represent the branches spreading around. The structure of the Vimana rises above it in a
series of tiers. The roof resting over the walls is called Kapotha, meaning where the doves rest.
The imagery suggested is that of a tree with birds perched on its branches. The sanctum is thus a
model of a growing tree.
Another set of symbolism is that the foundation of the temple represents the Earth (prithvi); the
walls of the sanctum the water (apaha); and the tower over it the fire (tejas). The final tier of the
Vimana is air (vayu) and above it is the form-less space (akasha).The sanctum is thus a
constellation of five elements that are basic building blocks of all existence.
Once the garbhadhana and agni-hotra ceremonies are complete the actual construction of the
temple commences according to the plan. When the foundation is finished the vertical structure
is raised. The external features of the temple are brought to life through finely sculpted figures
and paintings. The art and sculpture frequently portray the forms of divine entities and the
different stages of consciousness in the gradual evolution of life throughout the universe.
It is believed that the Vastu Purusha sleeps during Bhadrapada, Ashviyuja and Karhika months
facing east. During Margashira, Pushya and Magha months he sleeps facing south; In phalguna,
Chaitra and Vaishaka, he sleeps facing west. And, in Jeysta Ashada and Shravana, he sleeps
facing north. The doors facing towards those directions are fixed in the respective months.
****
Temple Layout and its symbolism

Sri Venkateshwara temple , Cleveland

The Agama Shastras say that the Temple structure is a mini cosmos. The Temple entrance should
face east the direction of the Rising Sun. The ideal Temple should have at least one entrance,
an Ardh-Mandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall, a Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the
Garbha-Griha. The design comprises:

1. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at the
entrance to the Temple.
2. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine immediately after the Rajagopuram.
3. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for offerings, called the Balipeeta.

4. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees.

5. The passage through the Mandapa leads to the Garba-Griha (womb chamber) where the
Main Deity is installed.
6. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the Garba-Griha.
7. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a structure or
sanctuary called the Vimana.
8. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity is called Shikara or Gopuram which is a
dome.
9. There is a circumnutating passage or Pradakshira Patha around the Garba Griha and
Mandapa.
The above design applies both to the Shiva and Vaishnava Temples with small variations.
Architecture is otherwise called Shilpa and the one who constructs the Temple is called a
Sthapathi. The Sthapathi is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. The procedure
of worship in the Temple is known as Agama Vidhi.

The Temple is not only a home of God but his representation in the structure of temple which
resembles human form. The symbolism of the temple plan and elevation suggests that the
garbhagrha represents the head and the gopuram the feet of the deity. Other parts of the building
complex are identified with other parts of the body. For instance, the sukhanasi or ardhamantapa
(the small enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose; the antarala (the passage next to the
previous one, leading to passage next to the previous one, leading to the main mantapa called
nrttamantapa) is the neck; the various mantapas are the body; the prkaras (surrounding walls) are
the hands and so on. Vertically, the garbhagrha represents the neck, the sikhara (superstructure
over the garbhagrha) the head, the kalasa (finial) the tuft of hair (sikha) and so on.

Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple, he is virtually entering
into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. His progress through the pavilions to
reach the sanctum is also symbolic. It represents the phases of progress in a mans journey
towards divine. In accordance with this scheme, the architectural and sculptural details vary from
phase to phase ; gradually leading him to the experience, which awaits him as he stands in front
of the deity in the in the sanctum. This is explained in the following way.
On reaching the main gateway, a worshipper first bends down and touches the threshold before
crossing it. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world of God. Entering the
gateway, he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls; representing the outward
and diverse concerns of man.
As he proceeds, the familiar mythological themes, carved on the inner walls attune his attitude.
The immediate pavilion and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and
decorations; these simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put
aside distractions and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. Finally the shrine, devoid of any
ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to tranquility, to
fulfilment and to the presence of God.
The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a circumambulatory path, around which the devotee
walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu and Buddhist thought, this represents an encircling of
the universe itself.

Positions and orientations of the temples

The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses in an 81 celled temple-site. This
plan relates to construction of a Vishnu temple.

Atri Samhita prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must be divided into four
equal parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-western
side thereof. The shrine must have five sanctums, to house five forms of Vishnu;
and the shrine should have three stories.

The seventh-eighth century Pallava temple Viz. Sri Vaikunta Perumal temple of Kanchipuram
(which follows the Pancharatra Agama) is an excellent illustration of the fulfillment of these
requirements. Its architecture is unique, with three sanctums on the three floors one over the
other and a concealed staircase leading to the upper floors. The three sanctums enshrine Vishnu
in three postures seated, reclining and standing. The Vimana is represented as a three
dimensional Mandala. The central figure in the sanctum of the ground floor is Vasudeva facing
west, i.e. the Earth; Sankarshana facing north, the realm of human life; Pradyumna facing east
towards heaven; and Aniruddha facing south, the realm of ancestors. The sculptural scheme
matches the Pancharatra concept, representing the six `glorious excellences: omniscient
knowledge (jnana), power (bala), sovereignty (aishwarya), action (virya), brilliance (tejas) and
potency (sakthi). The sanctum of the third floor represents the realm of space-time, depicting
Vasudeva as he appeared in the human form of Krishna (manusha Vasudeva). The temple per se
signifies the `body of God.

Coming back to the issue of placing the sanctum slightly to the North-

West; this feature occurs in the temple of Sri Venkateshwara at Tirumala too. The enclosure
immediately surrounding the sanctum called Mukkoti Pradkshina is rather skewed. The width of
the enclosure is uneven; and the enclosure is open on only three sides.
The path in the south (on the right side of the deity) is seven feet wide and twenty feet long;
while the path on the other side (towards the left of the deity) is seventeen feet wide and ninetytwo and half feet long. This skewed position of the sanctum, slightly to the North West; within
the Brahma bagha was perhaps to satisfy the requirements of the temple vastu norms.

The Shiva temples too have their own configuration. In a Siva temple, the Shivaliga would be
placed at the Brahma sthana, the shrines are dedicated to Parvathi, Ganapati, Subramanya ,
Veerabhadra and Candesvara would placed in the surrounding cells of the temples Vastu Purusha
Mandala; as illustrated in the following typical layout of the famous Shiva temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram(mid 11th century).
Similarly in the Sri Kailasanathaswamy and Nithyakalyani Amman Temple, Karaikudi, Shiva
shrine is at the Brahmastana, opposite to Shiva is lined Nandi, Bali pita and Dwajasthamba. The
shrine of Nitya_kalyani Amman is located independently in the North. In the Mantapa adjoining

the Sanctum are Ganapathi, Durga and Skanda. The Sapth Mathrikas, the seven female divinities,
have their shrine in the Prakara behind the shrine.

The Shakthi temples have their layout with shrines for other manifestations of the Mother
Lakshmi , Saraswathi , Durgi , Chamundi and related goddesses.

Sources:
A. Maps of Madurai and Sri Rangam
By courtesy of Kultur in Indien
B.Other pictures from Internet.
C. Devalaya Vastu By Prof. SKR Rao
D.Kashyapa Shilpa Sastram by Prof.G Gnanananda
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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 8, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Devalaya Vastu, pada vinyasa, Temple layout

Temple Architecture-Devalaya Vastu Part Three ( 3 Of 9)

08 Sep
Vastu Purusha Mandala

Before we proceed further, let us briefly discuss the concept of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The
faith that Earth is a living organism, throbbing with life and energy; is fundamental to the Vastu
Shastra. That living energy is symbolized as a person; he is the Vastu Purusha. The site for the
proposed construction is his field; Vastu Purusha Mandala. In fact the Vastu Purusha Mandala,
the site plan, is his body; and it is treated as such. His height extends from the South West corner
(pitrah) to the North East corner (Agni).The Vastu Purusha Mandala also depicts the origin of the
effects on the human body. All symbolisms flow from these visualizations.
Purusha means person literally and refers to Universal Man. Purusha is the body of god
incarnated in the ground of existence, divided within the myriad forms. He is also that
fragmented body simultaneously sacrificed for the restoration of unity.
Vastu Purusha is associated with the Earth and its movable and immovable basic elements of
nature, such as the earth, water, fire, air and space; just as a human being does. The Vastu

purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala
having astronomical reference points. Further, the Vastu Purusha Mandala is also the cosmos in
miniature; and the texts believe what obtains in a microcosm, obtains in macrocosm too (yatha
pinde thatha brahmande).
Similarly, it believes that,Everything is governed by one law. A human being is a microcosmos,
i.e. the laws prevailing in the cosmos also operate in the minutest space of the human being. In
the end, the nature, the man and his creations are all one.
The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the
temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him,
and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being
and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in
temple building. (Stella Kramrisch,; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I)

The Vastu Purusha is visualized as lying with his face and stomach touching the ground; to
suggest as if he is carrying the weight of the structure. His head is at North East (ishanya) and his
legs are at the South West corner (nairutya).
The South West corner (nairutya) where the Vastu Purusha has his legs corresponds to the
Muladhara chakra and denotes the earth principle. Just as the legs support the weight of the body,
the base (adhistana) for the muladhara should be stable and strong. Accordingly, the South West
portion of the building is the load bearing area; and should be strong enough to support heavy
weights. Just as the feet are warm, the South West cell represents warmth and heat; even
according to the atmospheric cycles the South West region receives comparatively more heat.

Svadhistana chakra is in the lower stomach region near the kidneys. It is related to water
principle (apa).On the Vastu Purusha Mandala; it is to the South and to the West .Therefore the
wet areas like bathroom etc are recommended in the south or in the west portions of the building.
It is for sewerage (utsarjana).
Manipura Chakra is at the navel; and relates to energy or fire or tejas. While in the womb of the
mother, the fetus is fed with the essence of food and energy through the umbilical chord
connected with its navel. The Vastu Purusha Mandala shows Brahma at the navel of the Vastu
Purusha. Further, the lotus is the base (Adhistana) of Brahma.Thus navel connects Brahman with
Jiva or panda or life. It is left open and unoccupied. The central portion of the building is to be
kept open. It is believed that Vastu Purusha breaths through this open area.

Anahata chakra is near the heart. It is related to vayu air regulated by lungs. The lung region of
the Vastu Purusha should be airy.
Vishuddaha chakra is near the throat from where the sounds come out and reverberate in space.
This region represents Space (Akasha).The word OM is uttered through throat. The echo of that
sound vibrates in the hallow of the bone-box of the head and in the space in brain. The head of
Vastu Purusha is in the North East corner (Ishanya). The ajna chakra is between the
eyebrows. .This direction is related to open spaces (akasha). Atmospherically, North East is
cooler; and so should be ones head. The puja room Devagraha is recommended in the North east
portion of the house.
The limbs of Vastu Purusha, other than the above are also related to the construction of the
building. Liver (yakrt) is towards South East. The cooking area is recommended in South East,
because it is related to Agni. The rays of sun reach here first and cleanse the atmosphere.

The North West, vayuvya, is presided over by air vayu. The Organs like spleen, rectum of the
Vastu Purusha fall in this portion. The store room is recommended here; perhaps because the
spleen in the body does the work of storing and restoring blood.
[
There is a belief that the vastu purusha is awake during eight months of the year and is asleep in
the other four months (eight months of wakefulness: mesha, vrishabha, kataka, simha, tula,
vrichika, makara and kumbha; and the four months of sleep : dhanur, mina, mithuna and kanya).
Some others say that the vaastu purusha sleeps in vaastu chakra on the left side and rotates
clockwise during twelve months with his head towards:
Jan: west-south-west; Feb: west; Mar : west-north-west ;Apr : north-north-west; May : north ;
June : north-north-east ; July : east-north-east ; Aug : east ; Sept : east-south-east ; Oct : southsouth-east; Nov : south ; and Dec : south-south-west.
While taking up construction of a structure, digging in the sector where Vastu-purushas head lies
is not recommended. The schedule for erecting the doors is also based on this concept.
For instance:
If Leo is ascending, set up the south door; if Taurus set up the west door; if Kubera set up the
north door;
If the moon is passing the meridian, set up the east door.
When Leo is ascending is the proper time for placing a door in a temple of Vishnu. When Taurus
is ascending is the proper time for placing a door in a temple of Mahadeva. When Kubera is
ascending is the proper time for setting a door in Ganesa's temple. When the moon is passing the
meridian, a door may be set up for any one.
I think, this concept of purusha sleeping may have only astrological significance; and therefore
varies from person to person and from site to site. They cannot be generally applied. Even
otherwise, now, hardly anyone goes by this schedule, as it is impractical.
Perhaps the four months of non-activity as recommended, might have something to do with the
onset of monsoon , winter and such seasonal constraints.]
Vastu and directions

These areas are also related to various planets and their position.The vastu purusha mandala, like
the horoscope is another way of illustrating the intersection where the sky and earth meet at the
horizon, at the equinox points; and the zenith and nadir
The Vastu Purusha lies with his back up, .perhaps to suggest that he carries the burden on his
back. Pillars are not recommended on sensitive parts of Vastu Purusha; they are the inlets and
outlets.
The general guidelines are, the South West should be heavier and North East where gods dwell
should not be so .The base should be heavy and the apex be lighter; just as in the case of a hill or
a tree. The sensitive organs like brain, eyes, ears tounge are in the head; and the head should be
lighter and secure. The head of the Vastu Purusha is in the North East and it should be kept free
of pillars. Activities like worship, study are recommended in and towards east and adjoining
directions.-North east and South East.

Sun is at the centre of the solar system; the earth and others rotate around it. The Vastu follows
the same principle. The middle house , the dining hall and work space represent the sun aspect.
After sun set the South West and North West are warmer; bedrooms and store house are
recommended here.
It is said that, although water is everywhere that which cleanses the body is water; and that which
purifies mind is Thirtha. A brick and stone construct is house. A vastu is temple.
****
The Hindu temple typically involves a multiple set of ideas. Perhaps Hindu traditional
architecture has more symbolic meanings than other cultures. It is highly articulated. The temple
is oriented to face east, the auspicious direction where the sun rises to dispel darkness. The
temple design includes the archetypal image of a Cosmic Person spread out yogi-like,
symmetrically filling the gridded space of the floor plan, his navel in the center, and it includes
the archetype of the cosmic mountain, between earth and heaven, of fertility, planets, city of the
gods, deities, etc.). One encounters these simultaneous archetypal themes and meanings
conveyed (and hidden) in the semi-abstract forms in many Hindu temples. There are rules of
shape and proportion in the authoritative texts of Hindu tradition (shastras and agamas) which
give birth to a variety of complex temple designs. The Brihat Samhita text (4th century CE) says
the temple should reflect cormic order. To understand the uses of recursive geometrical forms
involving self-similarity on different scales (fractals) in the Hindu temple complex we will need
to explore some of these deep images and their uses.

The form of the temple, all that it is and signifies, stands upon the diagram of
the vastupurusha. It is a forecast of the temple and is drawn on the levelled ground; it is the
fundament from which the building arises. Whatever its actual surroundings the place where
the temple is built is occupied by the vastupurusha in his diagram, the Vastupurusha mandala.
It is the place for the meeting and marriage of heaven and earth, where the whole world is
present in terms of measure, and is accessible to man.(25) The cosmic person became the
universe, and to recreate this origin is to construct a cosmos which offers a return to the
transcendent oneness.
The vastupurusha mandala is a microcosm with some fractal qualities. As shown in the
illustration, there are self-similar squares within squares within squares. The geometric
configuration of central squares with others surrounding it is taken to be a microscopic image of
the universe with its concentrically organized structure. Thus the grid at the spatial base and
temporal beginning of the temple represents the universe, with its heavenly bodies. It is also
more it simultaneously symbolizes the pantheon of Vedic gods each square [is] a seat of
particular deity. The gods altogether make up the composite body of the Purusha.

If the temple symbolises the body of god on the macrocosmic plane, it equally symbolises the
body of man on the microcosmic palne. The names of the various parts of the temple are the very
names used to denote the various parts of human body! Look at the following technical names:
paduka, pada, carana, anghri, jangha, uru, gala, griva, kantha, sira. Sirsa, karna, nasika, sikha.
Pada (foot) is the column, jangha (shank) is parts of the superstructure over the base. Gala ot
griva (neck) is the part between moulding which ressmbles the neck. Nasika (nose) is any
noseshaped architectural part and so on. The garbhagrha represents the head and the image, the
antrayamin (the indwelling Lord). This symbology tries to impress upon us the need to seek the
Lord within our heart and not outisde.
The temple also represents the subtle body with the seven psychic centres or cakras. The
garbhagrha represents the anahata cakra (the fourth psychic centre in the region of the heart) and

the topmost part of the kalasa point to the sahasrara (seventh and the last centre situated at the
top of the head). The first three centres (muladhara, svadhisthana and mainpura situated
respectively near the anus, sex-organ and navel0 are below the ground level. The fifth and the
sixth (visuddha and ajna cakaras, situated at the root of the throat and in between the eyebrows)
are on the sikhara area.
(Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. I)
Sahasra chakra is regarded the seat of consciousness. An aperture on top of the head, called
brahma randra, leads to it.In the structure of the temple, the brahma randra is represented in the
structure erected on top of the sanctum. The flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum is overlaid by a
single square stone slab known in the texts as brahma-ranhra-shila (the stone denoting the upper
passage of life). The sanctum is viewed as the head; and right on top of the head is the passage
through which the currents of life ascend to the tower through this stone slab.
Interestingly, the kalasha placed on top of the vimana is not imbedded into the structure by any
packing it with mortar or cement. it is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of
the centre of the tower and runs through the vase, the kalasha. it is through this tube that the
lanchana tokens (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. one of the explanations is the
hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the shushumna that connects to the Sahasra,
the seat of consciousness, through the Brahma randra.

The expressions Mandala, Chakra and Yantra are synonymous. Mandala is explained as that
which gathers the essential detail (mandam laati).The Chakra and Yantra too perform similar
functions. Like Chakra, the Mandala too denotes visualization, an act of bringing together all
significant details; those details might pertain to the world or the body or the structure of the
building or whatever. It also brings together the outer and the inner faculties or energies.
Though all the three mean the same, they have somehow seemed to have acquired distinct forms.
For instance, Chakra suggests a circular form, while the Mandala might be a figure of any shape,
but commonly a square. While both Chakra and Mandala are lenier representations, Yantra is a
three-dimensional projection.
In the Vastu Purusha Mandala too, the ground plan and the vertical plan are cast in two
dimensions and in three dimensional representations of the structure.
Whether you call it Chakra or Mandala or Yantra; it represents a sphere of influence and brings
together and energizes all its components.
In a way of speaking the Vastu Purusha and the Chakreshwari of the Sri Chakra represent the
same principles. They embody and preside over all the aspects of their domain, which is

universal. They not merely resolve the internal and external contradictions, but also usher in
complete harmony of existence.
Just as the Sri Chakra is the unfolding of the Bindu at its centre, the temple is the outpouring or
the expansion of the deity residing in Brahmasthana at the centre.
Both the forms employ the imagery of an all enveloping space and time continuum issuing out
of the womb. In the case of Sri Chakra the Bibdu is dimension-less and is the imperceptible
source of energy. The idol, the Vigraha, in the Garbagriha at the Brahmasthana represents the
manifestation of that imperceptible energy or the principle; and it radiates that energy.

[There is an theory that suggests that the board of chess was inspired by the 64 celled Vastu
Purusha Mandala. It states
The form of the chess-board corresponds to the classical type of Vastu-mandala, the diagram
which also constitutes the basic lay-out of a temple or a city. It has been pointed out that this
diagram symbolizes existence as a field of action of the divine powers. The combat which takes
place in the game of chess thus represents, in its most universal meaning, the combat of
the devas with the asuras, of the gods with the titans, or of the angels with the demons, all
other meanings of the game deriving from this one. (Please check:
( http://www.cultdeadcow.com/archives/2006/11/the_symbolism_of_che.php3 ]

References;
The Hindu Temple, by Stella Kramrisch,.
Devalaya Vastu by Prof.SKR Rao
Vastu -, Astrology and Architecture

: A collection of essays by various authors

Pictures are from internet.

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Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 8, 2012 in Temple Architecture

Tags: Devalaya, Devalaya; Vastu; Temple Architecture;, Mandala, Temple Architecture, Vastu,
Vastu purusha

Temple Architecture-Devalaya Vastu Part Two (2 Of 9)

08 Sep
Temple and Township

Madurai
The Indian temple is not a building; it is an image, a conception of divinity. While it is both
natural and necessary for the image to be projected into a spatial arrangement and concretized by
a structural movement, the image does not depend upon such activities for its continuance. The
temple is an enclosure to the icon, and centres round the icon. A temple must be built for the
icon, and not an icon got ready for the temples, for a temple is really an outgrowth of the icon, an
image of the icon. One cannot think of a temple without an idol.
The temple construction process involves several steps. The procedure is cryptically expressed as
Karshanadi Pratisthantam, meaning beginning with Karshana and ending with Pratistha.
The details of the steps involved vary from one school of Agama to another; but broadly these
are the steps in temple construction:
Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land should
be fertile and soil suitable.
Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the
location is fit for town/temple construction.

Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata.

Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out and removed.
Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water
mixed withnavaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the
temple is constructed.
Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves
creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed.
Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of
main deity.
Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.
Let us now try to briefly go over some significant stages commonly involved in temple
construction, in a summary form.
Sthala (temple site)
The temple construction project begins with the appointment of a team of experts headed by a
qualified and an experienced Sthapati, the Acharya, the director for the temple construction
project and the Shilpi (sculptor). They are the key figures in the construction of a temple. The
first step is, of course, to look for a proper site. This involves examination of all aspects relating
to the location, the extent, the quality of Soil, the water source, the environment and astrological
suitability of the site. This elongated process goes by the name: Bhupariksha.
The Temple construction, in the past, often began as the nucleus of a new village or a township
which went by names such as grama, kheta, kharvata, durga, pura, nagara etc. Mansara explains
that the proposed site for setting up a township should be determined by its smell, taste, shape
and direction, sound and touch. The preferred sites for such townships should be along the banks
of a river or near a tank or the seashore. Else, the water table had to be at about eight feet (height
of a person standing with raised arms). If the site was located along the river bank, the township
had to be on the convex side of the river-bend. For instance, the ancient city of Madurai was
located along the Vaigai; the holy city of Varanasi is situated along the convex side of the river
Ganga and presents a semi-lunar phase.

The temperatures had to be modest in summers and winters (sukha samsparsa). The sites with
inclination (slope) towards its Eastern or the Northern side, to receive sunlight, were preferred;
or the site had to have equal elevation on all the sides. The sites located to the west of a hill
were avoided.
The Village boundaries should always be marked by rivers, hills, bulbous planes, caves, artificial
buildings, or trees such as milky trees. Etc.

The ground (Desha) is classified into three categories on the basis of sixteen criteria of physical
features of the land (desha-bhumi). The three broad categories are: the Barren land where warm
winds blow is Jangala; the second is Anupa, beautiful countryside with moderate climate and
water sources; and the third Sadharana is of the average quality consisting vast stretches of
unused land areas. The best land is Anupa, which abounds in lotus and lilies (supadma) and
which inclines towards east or north.
As regards the colors of the soil, the colors could be white, yellow, red or black. A land which
abounds in any one of these colors is preferable; a combination of colors, mixed colors are to be
avoided. Sandy soils with assured supply of water are preferable.

The soil should have pleasant odor as of flowers, of grains; of ghee, of cow urine etc. The soils
with obnoxious odor as of excreta, dead bones, of corpse, of fermented liquor etc should be
avoided.
The taste of the soil too should be acceptable. The taste of sweet is said to be best. The others in
order are astringent (kashaya), bitter and pungent. The soils tasting sour, salty should be avoided.
As regards the sound tested by pounding the soil , the soils giving out sounds of musical
instruments like drums (mridanga), neighing of horse, or like waves of the sea are considered
best. The next in order is the soils that sound like birds, animals like sheep , goats etc. And, the
soils that sound like donkey, drainage, broken pot etc are to,be avoided.
The soil should be pleasant to touch; warm in winter, cool in summer and one should generally
evoke a happy feeling.
The sites which were earlier graveyards or the land bloated like the belly of sick animal, broken
up with dead roots, bones, ash, or rotten material should be avoided.
There also other tests for determining the strength of the soil by digging test pits, filling them
with water or driving pegs at various points are discussed in various texts.
The site should have in their surroundings milky trees (four variety of trees having milky
sap:nigrodha, oudumbara, ashvatta and madhuka), trees bearing fruit and flowers; and also
plenty of anti- malarial Neem (nimba) trees. The site should be suitable for growing Tulasi,
Kusha, Dharba, Vishnukrantha, Hibiscus and Dhruva grasses and flowers.
The site should be large and should evoke pleasant feelings (manorama) and should generally be
acceptable to all.
Township Layout
The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen
(Shodasha) types of temple layouts: the Square (Chandura); Rectangle (Agatra);Trapezium
( with uneven sides like a cart shakata); Circle (Vritta); Elliptical (kritta vritta); triangular
(dwaja); diamond or rhombus (vajra) ; Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ; fish (meena);back of
a tortoise (kurma);conch (shanka); crescent (ardha-chandra); pot (kumbha);sword (khadga); and
lotus (kamala).

These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the back
of a tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are recommended only
for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura), Rectangle (Agatra), fish
(meena), diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are recommended for Devi temples.
The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities.
But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and
most auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best of all. In case the
layout is rectangular, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. It
is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.
Generally , the Vastu Shastra recommends five types of town -shapes: the Square (Chandura);
Rectangle (Agatra); Circle (Vritta); Elliptical (kritta vritta); and circular (Gola). A diamond or a
rhombus shape is not recommended. A bow shaped town is considered powerful. The square
shape is considered secure and amenable to progress.
The plan for the village or the township commences with placing the temple right at the centre
and expanding the layout in layers and layers of streets, and entrances, in accordance with the
appropriate Vastu Mandala. The entire township is laid out in the form of a square. If a square
shape is not possible then the city could be laid out in a rectangular shape.The following are a
few of the general recommended features of a city.
1. The city should appear as a big square or a rectangle comprising of so many small squares,
separated by the roads that run north-south and east-west.
2. Fortifying walls should be built round the city.

3. The city would be divided into four parts by two broad royal roads (Raja marga) that run
north-south and east-west. Their width would be about 10 to 12 meters.
4. To go round the city, on the interior side of the fortifying wall, a broad road would be built. .
5. The dwelling places of the people of various castes and professions are identified.
6. The markets would be in North East and prisons would be in South West.
7. Places like the royal palaces should be in the East.
8. And in case of temple cities , say as in the case of Srirangam and Madurai, the principle
temple would be at centre of the city, in the Brahma Sthana.. And, there would be fortifying
walls built round it; and in which the temples of other deities are accommodated.. And the place
beyond that fortified wall would belong to the humans and other beings.
The best example of such a formation is the ancient city of Madurai. Please check this site
(Madurai, the architecture of a city by Julian S Smith) for the layout map of the old city.
Another example of a well laid out Temple Town is that of the Tirumala Tirupati .The holy
deity of the temple has a history dating back to about two thousand. The temple structures around
it, developed in stages, spread over several centuries. The temple is on top of a hill series, at
about 3200 ft above sea level. But, the temple, per se, is located in a depression surrounded by
raising hills on its three sides; leaving open an approach from the North-East. The temple is
enclosed in a box-like formation, with bulging mounds of about fifteen feet, rising in all four
directions. Some parts of these mounds now been levelled to make room for developments.

The outer walls of the temple, enclosing an area of more than two acres, measure 414feet (E-W)
and 263(N-S), in length. The temple complex is in a rectangular shape, with the depth (Aaya)
being more than the breadth (Vyaya). .The streets (maadas) running around the outer walls of
temple are of uneven length. The North-South streets running by the side of the outer walls
measure 800 feet, in length. The west side street (behind the temple) measures 900 feet in length;
while the East side street (in front of the temple) measures 750 feet, including the swamipushkarani area.

The temple is facing east. Swami Pushkarani is located to the northeast of the temple. A waterfall
is in the northern direction and the water from it is used for the holy bath of the main deity every
day. The Kitchen is in Southeast, while the temple store houses are in the North-West and North
side.

The outer walls of the temple, enclosing an area of more than two acres, measure 414feet (E-W)
and 263(N-S), in length. The temple complex is in a rectangular shape, with the depth (Aaya)
being more than the breadth (Vyaya). .The streets (maadas) running around the outer walls of
temple are of uneven length. The North-South streets running by the side of the outer walls
measure 800 feet, in length. The west side street (behind the temple) measures 900 feet in length;
while the East side street (in front of the temple) measures 750 feet, including the swamipushkarani area.
The temple faces east and has only one entrance, about 11 feet wide. There are three enclosures
or Pradakshina-pathas, for circumambulating the temple.The main entrance leads into Sampangi
Pradkshina , of about 120 feet in depth.There are are a number of pavilions within this
enclosure,; such as Prtathima mantapa, Ranga mantapa, Tirumalaraya mantapa and others. The
Dwajasthamba is in front of the Tirumalaraya mantapa.Presently this enclosure is closed to
pilgrims.
The Second enclosure is the VimanaPradakshina, measuring about250 feet(E-W) and 160feet(NS).This enclosure contains shrines to house Varadaraja, and narasimha .The Kalyana
mantapa(8036) and kitchen are also here.

The third enclosure is the Mukkoti Pradkshina, which encloses the sanctum. Presently, it is rather
difficult to identify it as an enclosure. The width of the enclosure is uneven; and the enclosure is
open on only three sides. The path in the south (on the right side of the deity) is seven feet wide
and twenty feet long; while the path on the other side(towards the left of the deity) is seventeen
feet wide and ninety-two and half feet long. This skewed position of the sanctum within the
Brahma bagha was perhaps to satisfy the requirements of the temple vastu norms.
In the case of Sri Rangam an entire township was placed within the well laid out rectangular
temple complex.
The prakaras or walls that fortify the temple may vary in size and number according to the
dimensions of the temple. Larger temples, like the one in Sri Rangam, are sometimes surrounded
by up to seven concentric walls , said to represent the seven layers of matter-earth, water, fire,
air, either, mind and intelligence-that cover the original consciousness of the living entities in the
material world.

Jaipur was another city which was laid out according to Vastu Shastra, with the Palace and
temple at the centre; and roads with East-west and North South orientation.Roads running in
Eastern axis ensure purification by sun rays; and the roads running North South ensure
circulation of air and cooler atmosphere.

Vastu Purusha Mandala for the township

To start with the Vastu mandala of the entire village needs to be drawn and the location of the
temples to gods, Vishnu and others be fixed. Here, the layout of town, its size, breadth of
different levels of streets, locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined based
on the size of town.Then the location of temple (Brahma sthana) in the town is decided. Temple

is usually in the center of village. The entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa. The thumb
rule is , the area demarcated for the temple at the centre should at least be 1/9th of the total area of
the proposed township.

There are, different types of Vastu Purusha Mandalas depending upon their applications such as
residential buildings, palaces, auditoriums, temples etc. About 32 types of Vastu Purusha
mandalas are enumerated, the simplest among them is with one square. But the most common
ones are those with 64 squares (padas), 81 padas and 256 padas. They are
called Manduka, parama-saayika andtriyuta, respectively. As for Manduka Mandala (88), the
whole square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south and East-west. In the case
of Parama Saayika Mandala (99), the entire squire would be unevenly divided.

Among these, the different texts such as Marichi, Maya-mata and Vastu-Vidya have their slight
variations. To summarize their position on the question of locating the Vishnu temple within the
town; a shrine may be constructed in the centre of the township or on the western side; but
always facing the town. When it is in the centre, the site plan should provide for locating the
shrine at the North-western direction within the Brahma bagha.The Vishnu icon may be in any
posture: standing, sitting or recumbent. Vishnu may be single or accompanied by the two
Devis. The sanctum may house only the Dhruva and Kautuka Bheru (immobile) idols. It is best if
the temple complex has nine, six or five forms of Vishnu installed, if one can afford; else, a
single icon of Vishnu would suffice.
Orientation of the temples in existing towns

As regards constructing temples and their orientation in already existing village or towns three
principles are generally followed: First, the temple should face the rising Sun in the east. Second,
the temple should face the centre of the town or village. Third, the deity in a peaceful (shanta)
aspect should be located in, and facing towards the place where people live, and wrathful (urga)
aspect should be situated outside and facing away from where people live.
In certain exceptional cases a temple may face south, provided it faces a natural formation say a
hill or a water body .
The temples and images to be turned away include Narasimha and Rudra. Siva should be turned
away except when situated in the east or west. The proper place for Siva temples is in forests and
mountains according to one text.
The direction of a temple is according to this triple orientation towards the Sun, towards the
centre, towards man. The majority of the preserved temples do face the east, but it is not
necessary that they physically must. The other directions can be described as being east. To the
tantrics who have some obscure symbolism about Sunrise in the east, south, west and north
relative to ones spiritual evolution; any direction may represent east.
Most temples face east, west is next best, even south is permissible but they definitely should not
face the north.
Where it is impossible, for some reason, for the temple to face the town, this is remedied by
painting an exact likeness of the sacred image in the Garbhagrha upon the wall of the temple
facing the desired way towards the village.