Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Science
Science
Making hypothesis
Planning an experiment
Controlling variables
Collecting data
forming a conclusion
Physical quantity
SI unit and symbol
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Electric current
Prefix
Giga
symbol
*
*
*
*
*
metre (m)
kilogram (kg)
second (s)
Kelvin (K)
ampere (A)
value
Mega
1 000 000
Kilo
1000
Hecto
100
Deca
da
10
Deci
0.1
Centi
0.01
Milli
0.001
Micro
0.000 001
Nano
Pico
Tera
T1
Femto
Mass is a
measure of the
amount of material in an object
Mass does not change with a body's position, movement or alteration of its
shape, unless material is added or removed.
Kg,g,mg
1.Each
made up of
(cytoplasm
cell
animals cell is
cell protoplasm
and nucleus) and
membrane.
2. The
semi-solid or
substance.
protoplasm is a
jelly-like
3. The nucleus is
in the centre of a
2. The plant cell has a rigid cell wall. A cell wall is made up of cellulose which is a form
of carbohydrate.
3. There are regions in the plant cell which do nt contain cytoplasm. These are called
vacuoles. Vacoules contain cell sap which is a very dilute solution of sugar and salt in
water.
4. In very young cells, the vacuoles may not be seen. But as the cell grows older, more
and more vacuoles are formed.
5. Chloroplast builds chlorophyll, a green pigment, only found in plant cells.
1. The function of cell structures are shown in the table and figure below:
Examples of microorganisms
1. Unicellular and multicellular organisms carry out all the life processes in order to
live,
although they may be very small.
2. Unicellular and multicellular organisms:
a) move
b) need food
c) need air
d) grow
e) reproduce
f) give out waste substances
g) are sensitive
3. Organisation Of Cells In The Human Body
1. All organisms including human beings are built from basic units called cells.
2. The simplest organism such as an amoeba consists of only one cell, but is able to carry
out all the life processes.
3. Cells are microscopic and can only be seen under a microscope.
4. The human body has different types of cell with each type carrying out a different
function.
5. Some examples of cells in the human body are shown below:
6. Some functions carried out by cells are explained in the table below.
2. Figure in the below shows the main organs in the body and their functions.
1. A book which weighs 1 kg and takes up space on you desk is said to have mass and
occupy space.
2. Non-living things such as books, water, soil and air have mass and occupy space.
3. Living things such as plants, animals, and human beings have mass and occupy space.
5. The following activities are carried out to show that matter is made up of small
particles.
1. The arrangement of particles determines the shape of matter i.e. whether it is a solid,
liquid or gas.
2. The following activity is carried out to study the arrangement of the particles in the
three
states of matter and to explain the differences between them.
1. The particles in matter are always in a state of motion as shown in the figure below.
2. Diffusion occurs when molecules of one substance become mixed with the molecules
of
another substance. This motion of molecules is called Brownian motion.
3. Diffusion occurs much more easily in gases followed by molecules by molecules in
liquids
and then solids.
4. The following activities are carried out to study the movement of particles in matter.
The comparison of the three state of matter are summarised as shown below:
CONCEPT OF DENSITY
1.Different things of the same volume do not have the same mass.
2. For the same volume, iron, for example, has more mass than wood. Therefore, iron is
said
to have a higher density than wood.
3. Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
4. The unit of density is g per cm3 (g/cm3) or gram per cubic centimetre.
5. Density can be calculated using the formula shown below.
Example 1
10 cm3 of mercury weighs 136g. Find its density in g per cm3
6. The density of water is 1 g/cm3 and the density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. This means that 1
cubic centimetre of water possesses 1 gram of water and 1 cubic centimetre of
gold
possesses 19.3 gram of gold.
7. The density of a substance depends on the mass of the substance and the arrangement
of the particles or the volume of the substance.
Eksperiment 1
12. The volume of objects that have a regular shape can be calculated. The volume of
objects
such as cubes and rods or cylinders can be calculated using the following
formula.
Eksperiment 2
13. The following activities are carried out to compare the densities of substances.
1. The three different states of matter are gas, liquid and solid.
2. Each state of matter has its own characteristis properties which man uses for his own
benefit.
3. A gas is easily compressed and liquiefied under high pressure. So gases used for fuels
such as petroleum gas and butane are liquefied under high pressure and stored in
gas
cylinders for easy use and transport.
4. Air is easily compressed. So it is pumped into bicycle tyres and motor car tyres to be
used
as wheels.
5. A liquid takes up the shape of its container. People who sell perfumes and liquor such
as
wine and brandy make very beautiful container of all sorts of shapes to keep
these liquids
to attract customers.
6. Water finds its own level. This principle used in the spirit-level. This instrument used
to
obtain a perfectly level surface such as for the top of a billiard table.
7. Logs are less dense than water. They floated down rivers to the saw-mills.
3. Rafts
(a) Rafts are formed from logs which are less dense than water.
(b) A raft can be used to carry goods and people on a river.
(b) Buoys float on the sea. They are placed in certain parts of the sea to keep ships away
from
unsafe areas.
5. Trawling nets.
(a) A trawling net has floats attached to it so that it can stay upright in the sea for
catching
fish.
(b) The floats are usually plastic balls which are big enough to hold up the net.
(b) It has large ballast tanks. filling the ballast tanks with the sea water makes the
submarine
denser than sea water and sinks. Emptying the ballast tanks makes it
submarine less
dense and enables it to rise to the surface of the sea.
c) The aim of respiration is to get energy for carrying out the life processes.
d) Any living thing enclosed in a container will die due to lack of air (oxygen).
e) Astronauts going into outer space bring oxygen (in cylinders) along with them.
f) Mountain climbers and deep sea divers carry along cylinders of oxygen for breathing.
6. Combustion
a) Combustion or burning needs air (oxygen).
b) No substance can burn without oxygen.
c) Burning produces carbon dioxide as well as water and energy in the form of heat and
light.
7. Decay
a) Decay is a process of breaking up a substance into simpler and smaller parts by
bacteria
and fungi.
b) The process of decay uses oxygen.
c) Decay is important because it removes unwanted organic substances from our
surroundings.
8. Photosynthesis.
a) Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make food in sunlight.
b) This processes uses water and carbon dioxide from the air, and produces glucose and
oxygen.
c) This process needs the presence of leaf-green (chlorophyll) and light energy.
Soil
1. Soil is the first layer of particles on the surface of the Earth. It is formed from the
weathering of rocks.
2. Importance of soil.
a) Soil is the habitat for a large variety of plants and animals such as earthworms,
insects and microorganisms.
b) Soil form the foundation for human beings to build their homes.
c) Soil contains spaces which are filled with air or water. This enables plants and
animals to
live in the soil.
d) Soil is rich with mineral salts such as the salts of potassium, calcium, magnesium and
nitrates, which are required by plants to grow well.
e) Soil is rich in humus (decayed parts of plants and animals.) Humus is a source of food
for
animals such as earthworms and provides minerals for plants.
f) Soil is also a very useful substance for human beings. Soil is used for:
i- making bricks for building houses and factories.
ii- making utensils such as cups and saucers, bowls, teapots, vases ad flower pots.
g) Soil allows us to carry out farming and so produce food to feed and increasing world
population.
h) Soil stores important fuels such as coal, natural gas petroleum. These fuels support
many
industries.
Minerals
1. Soil is rich in mineral ores.
2. Mineral ores are important because they are used to produce metals.
3. Some examples of ores are given in the table below.
c) building materials
d) fuel
These materials are the basic needs of human beings.
2. Generally, matter can be divided into elements, compounds and mixtures, and
classified as follows:
7. Elements can exist in three different states, i.e solid, liquid or gaseous.
3. Non-metallic elements can exist in three states i.e solid, liquid and gaseous.
4. The following shows examples of matellic elements and non-metallic elements.
1. Non-metals have a dull appearance. The surface of non-metals does not shine.
Below are some examples showing the uses of metals and non-metals and the properties
that make them suitable for use.
3. Examples of compounds are iron rust (iron oxide), magnesium oxide, carbon dioxide
and
copper sulphate.
4. The smallest possible particle of a compound is a molecule.
1. A mixture is a substance that consists of two or more substances which are not joined
together chemically.
2. There is no chemical reaction in the formation of mixtures.
3. The constituents of a mixture keep their own original properties which are
unchanged.
4. A mixture may consists of elements, compounds or both. Also, the substances in a
mixture
may be in a solid, liquid or gaseous state.
1. Mixture of sulphur and iron is prepred by mixing iron filings with sulphur powder.
2. The black iron filings and the yellow sulphur powder can be clearly seen with the
unaided
eye.
3. The iron sulphide compound is prepared by heating iron filings with sulphur powder.
4. The mixture glows as a chemical reaction takes place.
5. A new black substance is produced. A compound is formed.
2. The following experiment can be carried out to show the differences between
compunds
and mixtures.
Experiment 2
1. A mixture can be separated into its constituents without any chemical changes.
2. The constituents of a mxture can be separated using physical means as described in
the
following page.
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
e) mineral ores
f) fossil fuels
2. a) Air, water and soil are recycled in nature.
b) plants and animals reproduce themselves.
c) These resources are renewable.
3. a) Mineral ores (such as tin ore and iron ore) and fossil fuels (such as coal, natural gas
and
petroleum) cannot be renewed or non-renewable.
b) One day resources will be used up.
4. Our natural resources must be looked after and used carefully because life on earth
depends on them.
5. Unfortunately man's activities are fast destroying these resources.
6. These resources must be protected through preservation, conversation and recycling.
4. Reasons for preserving, conserving and recycling earth's resources include the
following.
a) maintaining our good health (polluted air and water cause sickness)
b) ensuring our air and water are always clean and plentiful for use (to avoid water
shortage)
c) maintaining the fertility of soil and preventing soil erosion (so that soil is suitable for
farming and land is safe for building houses on)
d) preventing the extinction of plants and animals such as Rafflesia and orang utan (so
that
our descendants can enjoy watching and studying them)
e) maintaining and replanting our forests (so that logs are always available)
f) ensuring that our resources are not wasted and can last (recycling aluminium tins
reduces
the use of ores)
1. Earth's resources have been badly affected by man's activities. They must be
protected
before they become harmful (air and water), are used up (minerals ores
and fossil fuels) or extinct (plants and animals)
2. Some ways for preserving and conserving them are given in the table below.
COMPOSITION OF AIR
6.Nitrogen
(a) Nitrogen is a very inactive gas.
(b) Nitrogen does not burn and does not support combustion i.e it does not allow things
to burn ini it.
(c) Nitrogen dilutes oxygen in the air so that processes such as respiration, burning and
decay go on more slowly.
7. Oxygen
(a) Oxygen is used up during:
i- respiration
ii- burning
iii- decay
iv- rusting
(b) Oxygen is needed for living things to survive.
(c) Oxygen is set free during the process of photosynthesis.
8. Rare gases
(a) The rare gases in air are:
i- helium
ii- neon
iii- argon
iv- krypton
v- xenon
vi- radon
(b) these gases are very incative but have their uses.
9. Carbon dioxide
(a) Carbon dioxide is set free during:
i- respiration
ii- burning
iii- decay
(b) It is absorbed by green plants during photosynthesis
10. Water vapour, dust and microorganisms
(a) These things vary in air.
(b) Most microorganisms in air are bacteria and spores from fungi.
Eksperiment 1
Eksperiment 2
Eksperiment 3
Eksperiment 4
Eksperiment 6
Eksperiment 7
Confirmatory tests for oxygen and carbon dioxide are shown below.
(a) Confirmatory test for oxygen
8. The following experiment shows that living things use oxygen and give out carbon
dioxide.
Eksperiment 8
Eksperiment 9
1. In the process of breathing, air from the surroundings is inhaled or sucked into the
lungs.
This air is known as inhaled air.
2. Air that is exhaled or breathed out from the lungs is known as exhaled air.
Breathing process
3. The exhaled air of humans can be collected by breathing out air through a rubber
tube into a container filled with water and overturned in water (method of water
displacement) as
shown in the figure below.
1. The quantities of nitrogen and rare gases in exhaled air stay unchanged i.e. 78% and
0.9%
respectively.
2. The quantity of carbon dioxide in exhaled air is 4%, which is over a hundred times
greater
than normally present in the atmosphere.
3. Exhaled air is saturated with water vapour.
4. Exhaled air is warmer than ordinary air due to the release of energy during
respiration.
Eksperiment 10
Eksperiment 11
Eksperiment 12
1. Combustion is a chemical reaction which takes place when a substance combines with
oxygen and produces:
(a) an oxide
(b) heat energy
(c) light energy
Examples:
(a) Carbon dioxide, heat energy and light energy are produces when carbon burns in
air.
(b) Magnesium oxide, heat energy and light energy are produced when magnesium
burns in
air.
3. The reactions in the above examples show that combustion needs oxygen. This can
also
be shown in the following ways:
(a) i. If a gas jar of oxygen is inverted over a burning candle, the candle goes on burning
until
the oxygen it used up.
ii. If a gas of nitrogen or carbon dioxide is inverted over a burning candle, the candle
flame is extinguished at once.
(b) i. If two glass jars, one small and one big, are inverted over two similiar burning
candles,
the candle in the large jar burns longer. This is because the large jar
contains more
oxygen than the small jar.
AIR POLLUTION
1. Unwanted and harmful subtances are added to the air by factories, motor vehicles,
forest
fires, the development of large housing estates and the extensive use of
chlorofluorocarbons.
2. The addition of unwanted and harmful substances to the air is known as air pollution.
3. The unwanted and harmful substances are called the pollutants.
4. The air such as dust and sulphur dioxide harm our health and the environment.
5. The air in industrial areas because there are more factories, motor vehicles and
development projects going on in industrial areas.
6. Air pollutants are due to man's activities.
7. Man must control his activities so that they do not pollute the air, because clean air is
essential for a healthy life.
The main air pollutants, their sources and effects are given in the table below.
1. Air pollution causes harmful effects on living things, including man and on the
enviroment.
2. Some of these harmful effects are explained below.
3. Health problems
(a) Harmful gases, dust and soot in the air cause several health problems such as:
i. headaches
ii. skin diseases
iii. asthma
iv. bronchitis
v. lung and throat cancer.
(b) Radioactive wastes thrown into the environment cause:
i. giddiness and vomiting
ii. infertility
iii. cancer
iv. defects to unborn babies.
(c) Haze caused by dust and smoke:
i. reduces visibility
ii. increases the risk of road accidents.
4. Depletion of food resources
(a) Dust and soot on the leaves of plants reduce the rate of photosynthesis, causing less
food to be produced by plants.
(b) Acid rain causes plants to die because they become unable to absorb water.
(c) Acid rain causes aquatic animals such as fish and prawns to be lkilled.
5. Destruction of habitats.
(a) Acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide which dissolve in water to
form
acid rain have destroyed large areas of forest and made ponds and rivers
unsuitable for
plants and animals.
(b) As a result the natural habitats are destroyed.
6. Extinction of species
(a) Destruction of natural habitats has caused many plants and animals to die and
several
species become extinct.
(b) Plants and animals in danger of going extinct include Rafflesia, orang utan, tapir,
hornbill
and leathery-back turtle.
7. Destruction of property
(a) Acid rain is corroding buildings and important historic monuments.
(b) Smoke and soot have turned many buildings black.
8. Global warming
(a) The Earth's atmosphere now contains excess carbon dioxide. This is due to fewer
forests
to absorb the gas and industries releasing a lot of it.
(b) This layer of carbon dioxide traps heat from the sun and prevents it from escaping
into
outer space. As a result the Earth's temperature is rising. The phenomenon
is called the
green house effect or global warning.
(c) Global warning causes:
i. icebergs in the poles to melt quickly
ii. level of sea water to rise
iii. floods in low-lying areas such as some coastal regions
1. Air pollution must be controlled so that its harmful effects can be reduced. Some ways
for
controlling air pollution are explained below.
2. Rubbish
(a) Do not allow open burning in residential areas.
(b) Burning should only be done in approved sites or in incinerators built for the
purpose.
3. Motor vehicles
(a) Fix catalytic converters to the exhaust pipes of motor vehicles so that harmful.
exhaust
gases can be converted to harmless substances.
(b) Use unleaded petrol in motor vehicles.
(c) Ensure that the engines of motor vehicles do not give out excessive exhaust gases
and
black smoke.
4. Factories
(a) Build tall chimneys in factories so that smoke and waste gases are discharged high
up in
the air and can be easily blown away by wind.
(b) Build electric precipitators on the chimneys to attract particles in the waste gases to
prevent them from escaping into the air.
(c) Treat waste gases in air cleaning systems before releasing them into the air.
5. Agriculture
(a) Advise farmers to reduce the use of pesticides.
(b) Encourage farmers to use biological control ways to kill pests. For example, suitable
owls
can be reared in oil palm plantations to catch rats.
6. Chlorofluorocarbon
(a) Reduce the use of chlorofluorocarbon and other gases which destroy teh Earth's
ozone
layer.
(b) Use ozone friendly gases such as hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)
7. Nuclear subtances
(a) Store and throw radioactive wastes in the recommended ways.
(b) Ban nuclear tests through an international aggrement to be organized by the United
Nations.
8. Reforestation
(a) replant forest for absorbong carbon dioxide. This reduces global warming.
9. Educating the public
(a) Educate members of the public to be aware of the dangers of air pollution and how
to
control them.
(b) This can be done through campaigns in school and talks over radio and television .
10. In order to control air pollution effectively, everyone in the world must co-operate
and
play his part.
IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING THE CLEAR AIR
1. Smoking is the cause for many deaths through disease such as:
(a) bronchitis
(b) lung cancer
(c) heart diseases
(d) emphysema
2. Emphysema is a condition in which the air-sacs in the lungs are demaged by cigarrate
smoke and cannot function properly. As a result the patient is short of breath. It
cannot be
cured.
3. Cigarette smoke contains over a thousand poisonous chemicals. Some of them may
cause
cancer of the lungs.
4. Nicotine in cigarrate smoke:
(a) stimulates the nervous system. (keeps you awake)
(b) damages brain tissues
(c) hardens blood vessels (makes blood difficult to flow)
5. Tar in cigaratte smoke:
(a) consists of tiny black particles
1. There will be plenty of health problems without clean air. Patients suffering from
breathing difficulties, asthma, bronchitis and skin diseases will increases.
2. Haze will reduce visibility and more accidents will occurs.
3. Less food will be produced as crops affected by acid rain, soot and dust cannot carry
out
photosynthesis effectively.
4. The air will become warmer with more carbon dioxide in it, causing global warming.
5. Warmer air in temperate countries will cause tropical diseases to spread to them.
6. The ozone layer will be depleted and more people will suffer from cataract and skin
cancer.
Energy exists in different forms. The main forms are illustrated below:
2. Care must be taken when using electrical energy for it can kill a person if the electric
current is very high.
3. Soucers of electrical energy include the following:
(a) lightning.
(b) batteries
(c) bicycle dynamos
(d) solar cells
(e) electric generators in power stations
4. Among the uses of electrical energy are:
(a) to light lamps such as fluorescent lamps.
(b) to turn electric motors in fans and engines.
(c) to produce heat in appliances such as electric irons and stoves.
(d) to operate appliances such as radios, televisions and computers.
5. The amount of electrical energy used in our homes is measured by a meter.
1. Mechanical energy is the total potential energy and kinetic energy possessed by an
object.
2. Mechanical energy is sometimes referred to as driving energy.
3. An object possesses mechanical energy because its position is changing.
4. Your legs have mechanical energy when you are pedalling a bicycle because your legs
are moving up and down.
5. A falling object has mechanical energy. Half way through its fall, it has both potential
energy and kinetic energy.
1. The primary source of the energy for the earth is the Sun.
2. The Sun generates a large amount of energy by nuclear fusion. During this reaction,
hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms, setting free a large amount of
heat energy
and light energy.
3. The Earth receives heat energy and light energy directly from the Sun.
4. Life on Earth depends on energy from the Sun.
(a) In fact without energy from the Sun, green plants cannot make food by
phtosynthesis.
(b) Without plants no human beings or animals will live.
(c) In fact energy from the Sun is being transferred to plants, animals and human
beings.
5. Energy in the wind, waves and rain comes indirectly from the Sun's. For examples,
wind is
due to the Sun's heat energy causing air to move.
6. Energy in natural gas, petroleum and coal originated from the Sun.
7. Many appliances used in everyday life make use of energy from the Sun or solar
energy e.g. solar cells and solar heaters.
1. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the Sun. This
causes air
to move from a cool place to a warmer place, creating a wind.
2. Winds possess kinetic energy.
3. Energy in the winds is used for:
(a) moving sailing ships
1. Waves moving in and out from the seashore have potential energy and kinetic energy.
2. Waves can be used to turn turbines and then dynamos to produce electrical energy.
3. Tides flow in and out from the shore twice a day. These moving tides posses kinetic
energy while the high tides contain potential energy.
4. Some countries use tides to turn turbines and dynamos to produce electrical energy.
3. In hydroelectric power station, energy from the water in a dam is used to turn
turbines.
The turbines turn dynamos for producing electrical energy.
1. "Geo" means "Earth" and '"thermal" means "heat". Geothermal energy is heat
energy
obtained from deep in the Earth.
2. Hot springs, geysers and volcanic eruptions show that the Earth is very hot deep
inside it.
3. Sometimes steam or hot water trapped in the Earth is pumped to the surface by
boring
holes in the ground.
4. Sometimes water from a lake is channeled inside the Earth to be heated by hot rocks
and is then pumped out again as steam.
1. Biomass energy is the energy obtained from plant and animal materials by:
(a) burning them
(b) decomposing them using bacteria.
2. In some countries, rubbbish from houses is burnt in special incinetarors and the heat
is
used to produce steam to warm houses or drive turbines and dynamos to
produce
electrical energy.
3. In India, dried cow dung is burnt as a fuel
4. In Malaysia, organic materials from rubber estates and oil palm plantations are
decomposed in tanks by bacteria to generate methane gas for us as a fuel.
5. In, Brazil, sugar cane juice is fermented to produce alcohol for use as a fuel in
vehicles.
1.Fossils are the remains of plants or animals burried in the Earth long ago.
2. Fossil fuels consist of coal, natural gas and petroleum which were formed by the
remains
of plants and animals buried in the Earth long ago.
3. More than half of the energy used today comes from fossil fuels.
4. Coal is used in temperate countries for warming houses. It is also burnt in some
power
stations to get steam for driving turbines and dynamos to produce
electrical energy.
5. Natural gas is mainly used as a cooking fuel. It can be liquefied and stored in
cylinders. It is
also piped to houses and factories for use.
6. Petroleum is a very important source of energy in modern times. It contains many
types of
fuel such as aviation fuel, petrol, kerosene and diesel.
3. During an energy change, some energy may be wasted (usually in the form of heat),
but not destroyed.
1. Energy conversion or energy change is the changing of one form of energy into
another.
2. Energy conversions can be observed by carrying out simple experiments.
1. Every day we use converters which change energy from one from into another.
2. Examples of these converters are given below.
5. Renewable energy sources have less environmental impact than fossil fuels and
nuclear energy.
6. All non-renewable energy sources create pollution, in part, due to their extraction
from the crust of the Earth but mainly from burning them.
7. Sources of energy that pollute and do not pollute the environment are shown in the
chart on the following page.
(d) Heat is produced when zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
(e) Heat is produced when quicklime reacts with water to form slaked lime.
(c) The heat produced in a nuclear reactor is used to produce steam to drive turbines
and
generators for producing electricity.
8. From solar energy.
(a) Solar energy is converted to heat for use in some hot water systems in Malaysia.
(b) Solar cells are used to produced electrical energy, which is then converted to heat.
(c) In cold countries, houses are designed to make the best use of the sun's heat during
winter.
8. An object becomes hotter when heat is added to it (temperature rises), and cooler
when
heat is removed from it (temperature falls)
9. Heat flows through a solid, a liquid, a gas and vacuum.
10. Heat flows from a hot place to a cooler place.
11. The amount of heat in an object depends on:
(a) its temperature
(b) its mass (size)
(c) its capacity to hold heat (different substances have different capacities).
12. Two objects in a room have the same temperature (the room temperature) but may
contain different amounts of heat.
Eksperiment 1
5. The summary about the expansion and contraction of matter is shown in the chart
below:
6. All forms of matter expand when heated, and contract when cooled.
7. Gas expands the most while solids expand the least, for the same amount of heat.
3. The expansion of a solid can be shown by a metal ball ring apparatus as shown in the
experiment below.
Eksperiment 2
5. Different metals expand unequally when heated to the same temperature. This is
illustrated by heating a bimetallic strip as shown in the figure below.
6. The laboratory activity below shows the expansion of the different metals.
Heat can be transferred from a hot to a cold place by the process of:
(a) conduction
(b) convection
(c) radiation
1. When heat flows through solids, the process of heat transfer is called conduction.
8. The following laboratory activity shows the transfer of heat through conduction.
1. Convection is the transfer of heat in fluids (liquids and gases) carried out by moving
particles.
2. Hot fluids become less dense and move upwards.
3. Cold fluids that are denser move down to replace the hot fluids.
4. A convection current is produced in this way.
5. In the process of convection, heat is transferred upwards only.
8. The following laboratory activity can be carried out to show the process of convection
that takes place in gas.
1. Radiation is the transfer of heat from a source of heat to another area in its
surroundings
without involving a medium.
2. Radiation can take place through air space or a vacuum.
3. In radiation, particles do not carry heat energy from one place to another. In other
words,
particles are not needed for the process of radiation.
4. Radiation heat moves at the speed of light.
7. The following laboratory activities show the transfer of heat through radiation.
1. Convection is the process by which heat is carried from one place to another by
moving
fluid matter.
2. Heat that is carried from one place to another by moving hot liquid or gas can be
used to
explain the occurrence of certain natural phenomena such as:
(a) land breezes
(b) sea breezes
(c) the morning of the Earth by the Sun.
3. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of air over the surface of the Earth.
4. Uneven heating of the land and sea causes land sea breezes.
4. The cooler air over the sea which is denser (cooler) flows in to take the place of the
warm
air, causing what is known as a sea breeze.
1. The heat from the Sun reaches the earth by radiation through a vacuum in space (no
medium)
2. The radiation heat which is absorbed heats up the Earth.
1. Substances that conduct heat poorly are insulators or called bad conductors of heat.
2. Non-metals such as glass, wood, cork air, water and wool are insulators.
3. Fluids, i.e. liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat.
4. The following activities are carried out to study the flow of heat through fluids
(liquids and
gases).
Exampels of the uses of heat conductors in daily life are shown below.
Examples of the uses of heat insulators in daily life are shown below.
1.Melting takes place when a solid is heated and changes into a liquid.
2. Heat is absorbed during melting.
3. When ice is heated, its particles (molecules) receive more energy and viberate faster.
The energetic particles move away from their originally arranged positions. When
this happens the ice melts.
4. A solid melts at a definite temperature called its melting points.
(a) Ice melts at 0oC.
(b) Iron melts at 1540oC.
1. Boiling takes place when a liquid is heated until it changes to a gas at its boiling point.
2. Heat is absorbed during boiling.
3. When water is heated, its particles (molecules) receive more energy and move about
very
actively. When they get sufficient energy, they escape into the air as gas
particles and
boiling takes place.
4. A liquid boils at a fixed temperature called its boiling point.
(a) Water boils at 100oC.
(b) Ethanol (alcohol) boils at 78oC.
1. Evaporation is the process of changing a liquid into a gas at a temperature below the
boiling point of the liquid.
2. Heat is required for evaporation to occur.
3. When a little alcohol is exposed to the air, its particles receive more energy from the
heat
in the air. The particles escape into the air when they gain sufficient kinetic
energy. This
happens below the boiling point of the liquid.
4. Different liquids evaporate at different rates e.g. alcohol evaporates faster than water.
5. How fast a liquid evaporates depends on:
(a) wind movements
(b) amount of water vapour in the air.
(c) temperature of the air.
(d) Surface area of liquid exposed to the air.
1. Sublimation is the process of changing a solid to a vapour and then from the vapour
into a solid, without going through the liquid state.
2. Heat is absorbed when the solid changes to vapour, and is lost when the vapour
changes
to a solid.
3. Ammonium chloride sublimes when it is heated. When heated, the particles of
ammonium
chloride gain energy and overcome the attracting forces between them.
4. Eventually the particles have sufficient energy to escape directly into the air without
forming a liquid.
5. When the vapour particles are cooled, they lose energy and regroup themselves into a
solid.
6. Examples of other substances which sublime are:
(a) iodine
(b) solid carbon dioxide (dry ice)
1. The expansion and contraction of matter is made use of in some gadgets such as
thermometer, fire-alarms and thermostats.
2. Mercury thermometers.
(a) A mercury thermometer has a bulb and a capillary tube filled with some mercury.
(b) On a hot day, the mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube, showing a rise in
temperature.
(c) When it is cold, the mercury contracts and falls in the capillary tube, showing a fall
in the
capillary tube, showing a fall in temperature.
3. Fire-alarms
(a) An automatic fire alarm has an electric circuit as shown in the diagram below.
(b) In case of fire, the temperature in the room rises. The brass on the bimetallic strip
expands more than the iron, causing the strip to bend towards the metal
contact.
(c) The circuit of the fire-alarm is closed and the alarm bell rings, warning people of the
fire.
4. Thermostat in an electric iron.
(a) A thermostat is a device used to keep an appliance or a place at a required
temperature.
(b) Thermostats are used in electric irons, electric kettles, refrigerators, ovens and
air-conditioners.
(c) An electric iron has a bimetallic thermostat which serves as a switch.
(d) When the temperature of an electric iron in use gets too hot, the brass on the
bimetallic
strip expands more than the iron. This causes the bimetallic strip to
bend upwards and
break the circuit.
(e) When the electric iron cools, the bimetallic strip returns to its former position and
closes
the circuit.
(f) The required temperature is controlled by changing the gap between the bimetallic
strip
and the contact point.
5. Bimetallic thermometers
(a) Bimetallic thermometers are used in ovens and motor vehicles.
(b) A bimetallic thermometer has a bimetallic coil made of brass on the outer side and
invar
on the inner side.
(c) When the temperature rises, the brass expands more than the invar causing the coil
to
bend inwards. This action turns the pointer to show a rise in temperature on
the
temperature scale.
6. Rivets
(a) Rivets are used to join two metal plates.
(b) The rivets are heated until red hot and are then harmmed into holes drilled through
the
metal plates.
(c) The two metal plates become tightly joined when the rivets cool and contract.
(b) To solve this problem, concrete roads are built with gaps in them to allow for
expansion
on a hot day.
6. Steam pipes.
(a) Steam pipes made of metal become very hot and expand when they carry steam.
They
contract when they are not carrying steam. This expansion and
contraction can break the
pipes.
(b) So steam pipes have expansion joints. These joints allow the pipes to expand and
contract without breaking.
ABSORPTION AND RADIATION OF HEAT
1. All objects can absorb, radiate (release heat by radiation) and reflect heat.
2. A black, dull object absorb heat better than a white, shiny object.
3. A black, dull object radiates heat better than a white, shiny object.
4. A white, shiny object, reflects heat better than a black, dull object.
5. Heat radiated or given out by an object depends on the following factors:
(a) Temperature of object: the hotter the object compared to its surroundings, the faster
it
gives out heat.
(b) Surface area of object: the bigger the surface area, the faster is the heat given out.
(c) Type of surface of object: a dark, dull surfaces gives out heat faster than a white,
shiny
surface.
(d) Material of object: different materials give out heat at different rates e.g. metals give
out
heat faster than non-metals.
Eksperiment 6
Eksperimen 7
1. In everyday life, white shiny surfaces are used to reflect heat or absorb less heat.
(a) White clothes
People in tropical countries wear white or light-coloured clothes because they absorb
less heat than dark-coloured clothes.
(b) White walls.
The walls of houses are painted white so as to absorb less heat and keep the houses
cooler.
(c) Petrol storage tanks.
These tanks are painted with aluminium paint so that they are shiny and reflect
heat. This
prevents the petrol inside the tanks from becoming too hot.
^-^
Writing by
Andi nur aqilah 1rk4
Smk seri perling
1 nov-11 nov 2010