CONTENTS

ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Chapter 1Introduction
Chapter 2Wind flow and its effects on low-rise buildings
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2

General
Atmospheric Flows
Turbulence
Turbulence Intensity
Integral Length Scale
Spectral Density Function
Wind load on Low-Rise Buildings
Wind-Induced Damages
Improvement of Wind-Induced Design

Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5

Literature Review

General
Initial Developments in the Analyses of Wind Loads
Flow Around Bluff-Bodies
Factors Influencing Roof Pressure
Free-Stream Turbulence
Terrain Roughness
Building Geometry and Architectural features
Angle of Wind Attack
Averaging Area

3.4.6
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2

Interference
Analytical study of wind load
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
3.5.2.1
Development of Turbulence Models
3.5.2.2
Application of CFD in Wind Engineering

Chapter 4
Modelling
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.5.1

4.5.2

4.5.3
4.6
4.6.1
4.6.2

Computational Fluid Dynamics and Turbulence

General
The Beginning of Computational Wind Engineering
Governing Equations of Fluid Flow
4.3.1 The Navier-Stokes Equations
The Reynolds Stresses
Turbulence Modelling
Turbulence Models for Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Equations
4.5.1.1 The Eddy Viscosity Concept
4.5.1.2 The Mixing Length Model
4.5.1.3 Spalart-Allmaras Model
k
4.5.1.4 The Standard
Model
k
4.5.1.5 The low Reynolds Number
Model
k
4.5.1.6 The
Equation Model
k
4.5.1.7 The RNG
Model
4.5.1.8 The Reynolds Stress Model
Large Eddy Simulation
4.5.2.1 Spatial Filtering of Unsteady Navier-Stokes Equation
4.5.2.2 Sub-grid Scale Model
4.5.2.3 The Smagorinsky-Lilly Model
4.5.2.4 The Dynamic Smagorinsky-Lilly Model
4.5.2.5 The Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-Viscosity (WALE) Model
4.5.2.6 The Dynamic Kinetic Energy Sub-grid Scale Model
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
Developments in Turbulence Modelling
MMK Turbulence Model
4.6.1.1 Outline of the Revised Model
Two Layer Turbulence Model

4.6.3
4.7

Non-linear
Discussion

Model

Chapter 5CFD Simulation

5.4.4
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.6

Experimental Program
Computational Solution Strategy
Computational Domain and Mesh Arrangement
Near Wall Boundary Conditions
Numerical Solvers and Interpolation Methods
Boundary Conditions
Determination of Time-Step and Turnover Time
Conclusions

Chapter 8
Work
8.1
8.2
8.3

Conclusions and Recommendations for Future

General
Objectives Achieved
Recommendations for Further Research

References
List of Figures for Appendix
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Appendix IV