UT Product Technology

TWI
UT Product Technology
Copyright 2004 WI Ltd
Name
Product Technology
Steel Production
Casting
Wrought Production
Extrusion
Forging
Rolling
Welding
Defects Inherent
Processing
Service
Heat Treatment
Name
Steel Production
2 Stage Process
Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted
by other materials.
Carbon content of Pig Iron is lowered by
reacting with oxygen
The molten metal is then cast into Ingots
or continuously cast
Ingots are rolled into Blooms, Billets or
Slabs
Name
Steel Production
1st Stage
Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted
by other materials.
Raw materials Hematite (Fe2O3)
or
Magnetite(Fe3O4)
+
Coke
Limestone
Air
Name
Steel Production
1st Stage
Blast furnace reactions
Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2
Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO
Lime from limestone combines with
impurities (mainly silica) in the ore to form
fluid slag
SiO2 + 2Cao = 2CaOSiO2
Name
Steel Production
Blast Furnace
Charge
Ore
4000
Limestone 800
Coke
1800
Air
8000
14600
Products
Pig Iron
2000
Slag
1600
Dust
200
Furnace gas 10800
14600
Name
Steel Production
Blast Furnace
Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3% carbon)

Name
Steel Production
Pig iron converted to steel by blowing
molten metal with oxygen or oxygen
rich gases
Oxygen reacts with excess carbon
C + 2 O CO2
C + O CO
CO + O CO2
Name
Steel Production
Bessemer
Open hearth process
Basic oxygen process
Name
Steel Production
Solid scrap
Name
Steel Production
Molten Pig Iron
Name
Steel Production
Oxygen lance
Name
Steel Production
Steel
Name
Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)

Ingots are used for further processing
Hot top
Name
Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
2 types of mould - Narrow end up, Wide end
up
Name
Steel Production
Metal solidifies from outside inwards
3 types of crystal formed
Chill or fine exui-axed
Columnar
Large equi-axed
Name
Smelting Defects
Primary pipe/sink
Pipes
Shrinkage
Secondary
pipe
Name
Smelting Defects
Non-metallic inclusions
Name
Smelting Defects
Segregation of metals
Name
Steel Production
Alternative to ingots is Continuous casting
Tundish
Mold forming slab
Water spray
chamber
Rollers
Name
Steel Production
Name
Steel Production
Advantages of Continuous casting
Faster : 300 tons of steel in 45 mins
compared to 12 hours
No piping problems
Cheaper : No ingot molds, handling
Name
Product Technology
Casting
Name
Casting Process
Liquid metal is caused to fill a cavity and
solidify into a useful shape
All materials used in metal manufacture
cast at some time
Name
Casting Process
Stage 1 : A pattern of the finished
item slightly over sized
Stage 2 : Mould constructed from
the pattern
Stage 3 : Liquid metal poured
through the channels to fill
the
mould
Name
Casting
Pouring
basin
Riser
Sprue
Core
Runner
Name
Casting
Chaplets
Chills
Name
Casting
Casting involves the solidification from
liquid to solid
Solidification proceeds from outside to
centre
Solidification involves shrinkage
Name
Grain Growth
Name
Casting Methods
Sand casting
Name
Sand Casting
Name
Sand Casting
Name
Sand Casting
Name
Sand Casting
Name
Sand Casting
Name
Sand Casting
Name
Casting Methods
Sand casting
Die casting / Injection moulding
Name
Die Casting
Casting
cavity
Injection
piston
Moving
platen
Die
Fixed platen
Name
Casting Methods
Sand casting
Die casting / Injection moulding
Investment casting / Lost wax process
Name
Investment Casting
Wax
Pattern
Name
Investment Casting
Coat with
refractory
slurry
Name
Investment Casting
Reinforce with plaster

backing (Investment)
Name
Investment Casting
Oven dry to liquify or

vaporise pattern and dry
mould
Name
Investment Casting
Pour metal
Name
Investment Casting
Remove investment material

Name
Choice of Casting Method

Dimensional Accuracy
Investment casting
Die casting
Sand casting
Cost
Sand casting
Die casting
Investment casting
Name
Casting Defects
Primary pipe/sink
Shrinkage cavities
Sinks
Secondary
pipe
Name
Casting Defects
Blowholes and porosity
Cross-sectional
changes /corners
Name
Casting Defects
Inclusions
Scabs
Fins
Name
Casting Defects
Shrinkage
Name
Casting Defects
Scabs
Name
Casting Defects
Scabs- part of mould stuck to the casting
Name
Casting Defects
Fins
Gaps
Name
Casting Defects
Fins- excess metal of casting
Fin
Name
Casting Defects
Hot tears
The larger section

cools slower than the
smaller section
The grain are

different
between the
sections
Hot Tears
Name
Hot Tears
Name
Chills are used for:

1. Directional grain growth
2. Uniform cooling rate
Name
Casting Defects
Segregation
Name
Product Technology
Wrought Production Methods
Name
Wrought Production
Forging
Extrusion
Rolling
Name
Wrought Production
Forging
Metal confined under
pressure to cause
plastic flow
Extrusion
Metal forced through
a die under a large
load
Rolling
Thickness reduction
through
compression
Name
Rolling
Ingots, slabs and billets rolled to produce long
length products with uniform cross section
PRIMARY ROLLING
PROCESS / COGGING
Two-High Reversing Mill

Name
Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS
Secondary
piping

Name
Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING PROCESS
Lamination
Three-High Reversing
Mill
Name
Rolling
Non-metallic
inclusion

Name
Rolling
Stringers
Mill
Name
Rolling
Segregation of
metals

Name
Rolling
Banding
Mill
Name
Cold Rolling
Initial rolling hot
Finishing by cold working
Cluster mill
4 High mill
Name
Rolling
Bloom - Square c/s 150x150mm minimum
Slab - Rectangular c/s area greater than 14400 mm 2
Billet - Square 50x50 up to 120 x 120mm
Primary rolling- ingot to blooms and slabs

Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs to plates ,
sheets etc
Name
Forging
Blacksmith
Hammer
Anvil
Name
Forging
6 basic actions
Upsetting
Swaging
Bending
Welding
Punching
Cutting out
Name
Forging
Blacksmith / Open die forging
Hammer
(Tup)
Anvil
Name
Forging
Pressure forging
Name
Forging
Closed die
Name
Extrusion
High loads used to shape ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys
Items produced are of uniform cross section
Direct
Indirect
Impact
Name
Direct Extrusion
Die
Billet
Ram
Name
Indirect Extrusion
Die
Billet
Extruded
item
Name
Impact Extrusion
Punch
Blank
Die
Name
Extrusion Defects
Oxide films (Extrusion defect)
Surface cracks
Grain structure variation
Name
Impact Extrusion
Name
Wrought Production Defects
Cracks
Laps
Seams
Stringers
Slugs
Bursts
Laminations
Name
Wrought Production Defects
Banding
Excessive flash
Lack of fill
Mismatch
Internal cracking
Mechanical marks
Name
Other Wrought Processes

Drawing
Material is reduced or changed in
profile by pulling through a die
Die
Wire or rod
Force
Name
Other Wrought Processes

Drawing
Material is reduced or changed in
profile by pulling through a die
Die
Tube
Mandrel
Force
Name
Product Technology
Welding
Name
A Weld : Definitions
A union between
pieces of metal at
faces rendered
plastic or liquid by
heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
A continuous defect
surrounded by
parent material
NASA
Name
Welds
An ideal weld must give a strong bond
between materials with the interfaces
disappearing
To achieve this
Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
Surfaces shall be free from contaminants
Metals shall be free from impurities
Metals shall have identical crystalline
structures
Name
Welding
A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources
Ultrasonics
Electron beam
Friction
Electric resistance
Electric arc
Name
Electric Arc Welding

Electrod
e
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp(Earth)
Name

Electric discharge produced between cathode and
anode by a potential difference (40 to 60 volts)
Discharge ionises air and produces -ve electrons and
+ve ions
Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon cathode
Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to heat
(7000o C) and light
Amperage controls number of ions and electrons,
Voltage controls their velocity
Name

Arc Welding Processes
Manual metal arc
Tungsten Inert Gas
Metal Inert Gas
Submerged Arc
Differences between them
Methods of shielding the arc
Consumable or Non-consumable electrode
Degree of automation
Name
Zones in Fusion Welds

Fusion Zone
Name

Fusion Zone
Heat Affected Zone
Name

Fusion Zone
Heat Affected Zone
Parent Material or Base Metal
Name
Joint Design
Butt Weld
Name
Joint Design
Butt Weld
Lap
Joint
Name
Joint Design
Butt Weld
Corner
Joint
Lap
Joint
Name
Joint Design
Butt Weld
Lap
Joint
Corner
Joint
Edge
Weld
Name
Joint Design
Butt Weld
Lap
Joint
Corner
Joint
Edge
T Joint
Weld
Name
Name
Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Consumable
electrode
Flux coating
Arc
Evolved gas
shield
Slag
Core wire
Weld metal
Parent metal
Name
Manual Metal Arc Welding

Shielding provided by
decomposition of flux
covering
Electrode consumable
Manual process
Welder controls
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
Amperage settings
Name
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Gas nozzle
Filler wire
Non-consumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas shield
Weld metal
Arc
Parent metal
Name
Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Reel feed
Gas nozzle
Consumable
electrode(filler wire)
Gas shield
Weld metal
Arc
Parent metal
Name
Submerged Arc
Reel feed
Flux
retrieval
Consumable
electrode
Flux feed
Slag
Weld metal
Parent metal
Name
Electroslag
Filler wire
Water cooled
copper shoes
Molten flux
Weld metal
Name
Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types
Solidification cracks
Hydrogen induced cracks
Lamellar tearing
Reheat cracks
Name
Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Shape
Longitudinal
Transverse
Branched
Chevron
Classified by Position
HAZ
Centreline
Crater
Fusion zone
Parent metal
Name
Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
eg Crater cracking
Name
Cracks
Welding Defects
Hydrogen Induced
Requires susceptible grain structure, stress
and hydrogen
Hydrogen enters via welding arc
Hydrogen source - atmosphere or
contamination of preparation or electrode
Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on
cooling
Most likely in HAZ
Name
Cracks
Welding Defects
Lamellar Tearing
Step like appearance
Occurs in parent material or HAZ
Only in rolled direction of the parent material
Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees
and fillets
Requires high sulphur or non-metallic
inclusions
Name
Cracks
Welding Defects
Re-Heat Cracking
Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels
during post weld heat treatment or service at
elevated temperatures
Occurs in areas of high stress and existing
defects
Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor
profile material selection and controlled post
weld heat treatment
Name
Welding Defects
Incomplete root penetration
Causes
Too large or small a root gap
Arc too long
Wrong polarity
Electrode too large for joint preparation
Incorrect electrode angle
Too fast a speed of travel for current
Name
Welding Defects
Root concavity
Causes
Root gap too large
Insufficient arc energy
Excessive back purge (TIG)
Name
Welding Defects
Lack of fusion
Causes
Contaminated weld preparation
Amperage too low
Amperage too high (welder increases speed of
travel)
Name
Welding Defects
Undercut
Causes
Excessive welding current
Welding speed too high
Incorrect electrode angle
Excessive weave
Electrode too large
Name
Welding Defects
Incompletely Filled Groove
Causes
Insufficient weld metal deposited
Improper welding technique
Name
Welding Defects
Gas pores / Porosity
Causes
Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
Contaminated preparation
Low welding current
Arc length too long
Damaged electrode flux
Removal of gas shield
Name
Welding Defects
Inclusions - Slag
Causes
Insufficient cleaning between passes
Contaminated weld preparation
Welding over irregular profile
Incorrect welding speed
Arc length too long
Name
Welding Defects
Inclusions - Tungsten
Causes
Contamination of weld during TIG welding
process
Name
Welding Defects
Burn Through
Causes
Excessive amperage during welding of root
Excessive root grinding
Improper welding technique
Name
Welding Defects
Arc Strikes
Spatter
Causes
Electrode straying onto
parent metal
Electrode holder with
poor insulation
Poor contact of earth
clamp
Causes
Excessive arc energy
Excessive arc length
Damp electrodes
Arc blow
Name
Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements
Carbon- Strength, hardness, toughness, ductility
Manganese- Strength, hardenability
Silicon - Toughness
Molybdenum- Creep resistance, temper
embrittlement
Chromium- Hardness, wear resistance,
corrosion
Nickel - Ductility, strength, toughness
Name
Steel Metallurgy
Steel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements
BCC
FCC
Name
Steel Metallurgy
Elastic
Deformation
Low Stress
Increased
Stress
Plastic
Deformation
Name
Heat Treatment
Post heat treatment performed to
improve specific metallurgical or
mechanical properties or stress relief
Softening
Hardening
Tempering
Stress Relief
Controlled by
Heating rate
Temperature attained
Time at the elevated
temperature
Cooling rate
Name
Heat Treatment
900
Ac3
850
Ar3
800
Ac2
Ar2
750
Ac1
700
Ar1
1
Minutes to raise temperature by 10 C
Name
Iron Carbide Diagram

1000
Ac3
900
800
Ac1
700
600
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Carbon %
Name
Iron Carbide Diagram

1000
Ac3
900
800
Austenite
Austenite and Ferrite
700
600
Ferrite and Pearlite
Austenite and Fe3 C

Ac1
Pearlite and Cementite
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Carbon %
Name
Heat Treatment
Hardening
Produce hard but
brittle material
Heat to above
transformation range
Cool very quickly
( quench ) in oil, water
or brine
Name
Heat Treatment
Stress Relief
Relax stresses without significant
changes in the metallurgical structure
Heat to 550-650 degrees C
Hold for 1 hour per 25mm thickness
Cool in air
Name
Heat Treatment
Full Annealing
Produces very soft
low hardness material
for machining or cold
work
Heat to above 910
degrees C
Hold
Cool very slowly in
furnace
Once reached 680 C ,
cool in air
Name
Heat Treatment
Sub Critical Annealing
Spheroidizing produces soft low
hardness material cheaper than full
anneal
Heat must not rise above 700 degrees C
Hold for recrystallisation to occur
Cool in air
Name
Heat Treatment
Normalising
Maintains and improves mechanical
properties and modifies grain structure
Heat to above 910 degrees C
Hold
Cool in air
Name
Nature and Origin of Defects

Inherent
Processing
In Service
Name
Heat Induced Defects

Heat treatment cracks
Grinding cracks
Friction induced cracks
Name
In Service Cracks
Fatigue cracks
Stress corrosion cracks
Hydrogen induced cracks
Cyclic stress
Fatique
crack
Hydrogen
Name

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TWI

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3% carbon)

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Reinforce with plaster

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Oven dry to liquify or

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Remove investment material

Choice of Casting Method

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

The larger section

The grain are

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Chills are used for:

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd

Copyright 2004 WI Ltd