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Stability and and Construction Construction Standards Standards
Stability and and Construction Construction Standards Standards
APPENDIX C
STABILITY AND CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS
C-1 INTRODUCTION
Classification societies and regulatory bodies set standards for ship stability and strength criteria. A casualtys condition may be gaged against
such standards; in some instances the standards may be used to estimate a ships pre-casualty condition. Standards establishing requirements
for stability, minimum freeboard, and longitudinal strength are the most important to the salvor.
Standards for Navy ships are established by various codes of the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA), and promulgated in General
Specifications for Ships of the United States Navy (GENSPECs), S9AA0-AA-SPN-010, Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheets
(DDS), and NAVSEA (Code 55Z) Ship Design Standards (SDS). The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46 (46 CFR) establishes stability,
load line, and construction requirements for vessels operating in U.S. waters, with the U.S. Coast Guard designated as the enforcing agency.
Standards issued by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) are advisory unless adopted by national regulatory bodies; some U.S Coast
Guard stability standards are based on IMO standards. Similarly, construction and freeboard standards of the classification societies are advisory,
or conditions of society classification, unless adopted by regulatory bodies. 46 CFR requires general compliance with ABS construction
standards for ships of U.S. registry; ABS is also the load line assigning authority for the U.S. Coast Guard.
It is not always possible to restore a damaged vessels stability, reserve buoyancy, or strength to an established standard. Navy, Coast Guard,
IMO, and ABS standards are discussed in the following paragraphs to provide guidance for evaluating casualties. These standards were
developed to ensure adequate stability and strength throughout a vessels service life, and therefore anticipate severe conditions that may be
avoided by careful route planning and timing. Strength and stability standards should be used to estimate a casualtys suitability to steam or
be towed along a proposed route to a repair facility, or for continued service. An evaluation can lead to recommendations to restrict the tow
route or operating area to sheltered waters, limit offcenter weight, maximum turning speed, etc., or to estimates of the maximum wind or sea
state the casualty can be expected to survive. Strength and stability standards also provide guidance for the operation and employment of barges
or other craft converted for salvage useparticularly improvised lift craft, crane barges, and harbor craft used in exposed locations.
C-2 STABILITY STANDARDS
For safe operation, a vessel must have a certain minimum stability during normal service. Recommended or required minimum stability criteria
are established by various regulatory and advisory bodies. The adequacy of a vessels stability can be gaged by metacentric height and certain
characteristics of the stability curve. Stability criteria can be divided into the following groups:
GM or Initial Stability. GM is the most basic stability criterion and one of the first parameters used to quantify a ships stability.
Many national, military, and international stability standards specify a minimum GM as part of their requirements.
GZ or Quasi-dynamic Stability. GZ criteria generally specify minimum righting arms at specific angles of heel, a minimum
positive range of stability, or minimum righting energy (area under the curve).
Energy Balance. Energy balance criteria are based on the concept that the righting energy or area must be equal to or greater
than the upsetting energy.
Wave-adjusted Stability. Many ship forms experience a reduction of stability in following or quartering seas. Criteria to account
for these effects are in various stages of development, and usually involve calculation of the righting arm curve based on a
specified wave form, or corrections to the statical stability curve by use of a form factor.
Dynamic Motion Stability Methods. Research indicates that static or quasi-dynamic models may not predict the complex
dynamic behavior of ships in a seaway accurately enough to establish stability criteria to prevent capsize. Methods are being
developed to model ship behavior in a seaway.
The intent of these standards is to ensure that vessels have sufficient righting energy to resist overturning by disturbing forces that can be
reasonably expected in normal service, and that they will have residual stability after specified damage. Stability requirements vary with vessel
type and conditions of service. Most maritime nations and regulatory agencies have established wind heel or weather criteria to limit heel
resulting from the upsetting moment created by wind pressure on the side profile of a ship coupled with a drag force on the underwater hull.
Stability criteria also exist for vessels subject to topside icing or that engage in towing, lifting heavy weights, high-speed turns, and for residual
stability following specified damage. Different stability criteria may be used as the standard for similar ships and conditions by different
agencies. For example, the U. S. Coast Guard weather criteria require a minimum GM for a given wind pressure and vessel profile; the U. S.
Navy criteria specify minimum righting energy and upsetting-arm-to-righting-arm ratio.
C-1
S0300-A8-HBK-010
WIND HEEL
ARM, LW
ARM
A1
25
OR r
A2
RIGHTING
ARM, GZ
_ 0.6GZ
<
MAX
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Lw = 0.0035V2AHcos2/
where:
Lw
V
A
H
=
=
=
=
=
=
The heeling arm at the intersection of the righting arm and heeling arm curves (point C) is not greater than six-tenths of the maximum
righting arm, and
Area A1 is not less than 1.4 times area A2 where A2 extends 25 degrees (or the roll angle r, if known) to windward from point C.
A steady wind heeling arm greater than the ships righting arm would capsize the ship; the requirement that the heeling arm be no greater than
six-tenths the maximum righting arm is intended to provide a margin for gusts and for the inexact nature of the heeling arm calculation. The
ship is assumed to be rolling 25 degrees about the wind heel angle. Area A2 is a measure of the energy imparted to the ship by the wind and
the ships righting moment in returning to point C. The margin of 40 percent in area A1 is intended to account for gusts and calculation
inaccuracies.
For design purposes, beam winds of 50 to 100 knots are used to develop the heeling arm curve, depending on the classification and service
(ocean, coastwise, harbor). Damage Control Books for newer Navy ships include plots of standard wind heel arm and comparison to the wind
heel criteria for various conditions of loading. To evaluate casualty stability, the maximum anticipated winds should be used, or several trial
wind speeds should be used to determine the maximum acceptable wind.
C-2.1.2 Offcenter Weight Criteria. Stability standards are prescribed for lifting heavy weights over the side and for personnel crowding to
one side. The criteria are the same for both cases, although for slightly different reasons. Both are designed to ensure adequate resistance to
transient rolling forces when the ship is already heeled by an offcenter weight, and are equally applicable to any offcenter weight, such as shifted
cargo or flooding. To apply the criteria, the righting arm curve is corrected for the rise in KG and increased displacement caused by the weight
added at the lifting point. The heeling arm is calculated by:
Lh =
wd cos
where:
Lh
w
d
C-2
=
=
=
=
=
S0300-A8-HBK-010
_ 0.6GZ
<
MAX
ARM
RIGHTING ARM, GZ
A1
A3
HEEL ARM, Lh
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
The margin provided by limiting heeling arm and providing a minimum reserve of quasi-dynamic stability allows for inadvertent overloading
of the lifting system or unanticipated heeling disturbances. Heel angles greater than 15 degrees will interfere with shipboard operations.
C-2.1.3 Towline Pull for Tugs. The U. S. Coast Guard formula for calculating heeling arm caused by towline pull on tugs is used to develop
the heeling arm curve:
Lt =
where:
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Lt
N
SHP
D
s
h
Criteria for adequate stability are the same as for offcenter weight (Paragraph C-2.1.3, Figure C-2), except that the range of the righting arm
is terminated at the angle where unrestricted downflooding can occur. These criteria can be applied to a vessel subject to a lateral towline pull,
such as a stranded vessel being rotated, by replacing the term 2N(SHP D)2/3s by the athwartships towline pull, in long tons.
C-2.1.4 High-speed Turning. The heeling arm resulting from the centrifugal force acting on a ship in a turn is:
LR =
V 2 H cos
Rg
where:
LR
V
H
R
g
=
=
=
=
=
=
Criteria for adequate stability are the same as for offcenter weight (Paragraph C-2.1.3, Figure C-2).
C-2.1.5 Topside Icing. The criterion for topside icing is less definitive than the other criteria because an upper limit for ice accumulation
cannot be estimatedice will continue to form as long as conditions favor icing. Since high winds often accompany icing conditions, the best
approach is to plot the stability curve corrected for the increase in KG and offcenter weight caused by ice accumulation, and then determine
the maximum beam wind that meets the wind heel criterion.
C-3
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-2.1.6 Residual (Damage) Stability. Criteria for stability after damagei.e., floodingfall into two categories; ships with side protective
systems, such as aircraft carriers, and smaller ships without side protective systems. The term damage stability is adopted to denote standards,
calculations, and discussions of hypothetical conditions of damage as a function of design, as opposed to a salvage assessment of an actual
damaged condition.
Ships without side protective systems are
assumed to have suffered damage and
flooding to their standard of subdivision.
Limiting (before damage) drafts are
assigned and marked to ensure that the
margin line will not be immersed if the
ship suffers damage to her standard of
subdivision. The righting arm curve is
drawn to account for the flooding and with
an additional reduction of 0.05cos to
account for unknown asymmetrical flooding
or transverse shift of loose material. A
wind heeling arm curve is drawn as
described earlier. For design, standard
wind velocities are used for various
displacements. For salvage calculations,
anticipated winds should be used, regardless
of displacement.
Damage stability is
considered adequate, if after damage:
45 OR f
RIGHTING ARM, GZ
ARM
A1
20
10
30
50
40
A2
14
, ANGLE OF ROLL-DEGREES
12 OR r
12
10
8
6
4
2
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
The 20-degree heel criterion is based on the following reasoning. General Specifications for Ships of the U. S. Navy (GENSPECs) require
machinery and equipment to be designed and installed to operate satisfactorily and continuously without damage or excessive wear with the ship
listing to 15 degrees. It can be reasonably assumed that equipment will continue to function or can be made to function for some time with
a list of 20 to 25 degrees. Battle-damaged ships have been towed with lists of 20 degrees or greater; such lists did not prevent damage control
and salvage efforts.
Limiting drafts for ships with side protective systems are governed by freeboard requirements associated with the side protective system, rather
than reserve buoyancy. Ships with side protective systems are large ships with large reserve buoyancies, but are inherently subject to offcenter
flooding. These ships are designed to be able to rapidly counterballast and reduce list caused by offcenter flooding. Damage stability criteria
are principally concerned with limiting heel for operational considerations rather than with the likelihood of capsize. Damage stability of ships
with side protective systems is analyzed by assuming flooding due to either:
C-4
Widespread and separated damage on one side that reaches but does not penetrate the holding bulkhead (the innermost longitudinal
bulkhead of the side protective system), bulkhead, or
Damage that penetrates the holding bulkhead.
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Damage stability for ships with side protective systems is assessed by examining stability curves drawn for the ship with the two types of damage
described above to ensure that there is sufficient righting energy to withstand wind and wave heeling moments.
C-2.2 U.S. Coast Guard Stability Standards. U. S. Coast Guard stability standards for commercial ships are listed in the U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 46, Subchapter S, Parts 170 through 174 (46 CFR S 170-174). The following standards are taken from 1 October 1991 edition
of 46 CFR. A general Weather Criterion applies to all vessels, and various other criteria are applied to different classes of vessels.
C-2.2.1 Weather Criteria. With some exceptions, all vessels must have a metacentric height equal to or greater than that given by the
relationship below in all loading and operating conditions.
GM
PAH
tan T
where:
P
=
=
L
A
H
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.005 + (L/14,200)2 lton/ft2 = 0.055 + (L/1309)2 mton/m2 for ocean service, Great Lakes winter service, or service on exposed
waters
0.0033 + (L/14,200)2 lton/ft2 = 0.036 + (L/1309)2 mton/m2 for Great Lakes summer service, or service on partially protected
waters (waters within 20 NM of a harbor of safe refuge)
0.0025 + (L/14,200)2 lton/ft2 = 0.028 + (L/1309)2 mton/m2 for service on protected waters (rivers, harbors, lakes, etc)
length between perpendiculars, ft or m
projected lateral sail area of the vessel and deck cargo above the waterline, ft2 or m2
lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half draft) to center of sail area, ft or m
displacement, lton or mton
14 degrees or the angle of heel at which one-half the freeboard to the deck edge is immersed, whichever is less
Vessels under 328 feet (100 meters) may be required to meet one of the two following criteria.
Criterion A:
Initial GM not less than 0.49 feet (0.15 meters),
Righting arm of at least 0.66 (0.2 meters) feet at an angle of heel of 30 degrees or greater,
Maximum righting arm at an angle of heel of 25 degrees or greater,
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 30 degrees not less than 10.3 foot-degrees (3.15 meter-degrees),
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle (whichever is less) not less than 16.9 foot-degrees
(5.15 meter-degrees), and
Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and 40 degrees or the downflooding angle, not less than 5.6 foot-degrees (1.72 meterdegrees).
Criterion B:
Initial GM not less than 0.49 feet (0.15 meter-degrees),
Maximum righting arm at an angle of heel not less than 15 degrees,
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle, whichever is less, not less than 16.9 foot-degrees
(5.15 meter-degrees),
Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and 40 degrees or the downflooding angle not less than 5.6 foot-degrees (1.72 meterdegrees), and
Area in foot-degrees under the righting arm curve up to the angle of maximum righting arm not less than:
A =
=
No additional stability criteria are established for general cargo vessels. There are special requirements, (including damage stability criteria in
some cases) for passenger-carrying vessels, bulk cargo carriers, vessels engaged in lifting and towing, deck cargo barges, offshore drilling rigs,
and other specialized craft. The criteria applied to passenger vessels are primarily designed to limit heel to small values to ensure the safety
of passengers and allow lifeboats to be launched; these criteria have little application to salvage and will not be discussed here. Some of the
other pertinent criteria are discussed below.
C-5
S0300-A8-HBK-010
=
=
long tons
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10,000
0.0094
0.0184
0.0317
0.0504
0.0752
0.1070
0.1468
20,000
0.0047
0.0092
0.0159
0.0252
0.0376
0.0535
0.0739
30,000
0.0031
0.0061
0.0106
0.0168
0.0251
0.0357
0.0489
40,000
0.0023
0.0046
0.0079
0.0126
0.0188
0.0268
0.0367
50,000
0.0019
0.0038
0.0063
0.0101
0.0150
0.0214
0.0294
60,000
0.0016
0.0031
0.0053
0.0084
0.0125
0.0178
0.0245
70,000
0.0013
0.0026
0.0045
0.0072
0.0107
0.0153
0.0210
80,000
0.0012
0.0023
0.0040
0.0063
0.0094
0.0134
0.0184
90,000
0.0010
0.0020
0.0035
0.0056
0.0084
0.0119
0.0163
100,000
0.0009
0.0018
0.0032
0.0050
0.0075
0.0107
0.0147
Note: Table has been abbreviated by deleting columns for 45-, 55-, 65-, 75-, and 85-foot breadths
If the ratio of freeboard to beam is less than 0.268, the values for f from Table C-1 are adjusted by multiplying by 0.268 and dividing by the
ratio of freeboard to beam. If cargo spaces are divided by a centerline bulkhead, one-fourth the tabular values are used. The tabular values
are calculated for wheat, with a stowage factor of approximately 47 cubic feet per long ton. For other grains, the tabular values are reduced
by multiplying by the following factors:
Corn, rye, soybeans (stowage factor 50)
Barley (stowage factor 56)
Oats (stowage factor 70)
0.9
0.8
0.6
For damage stability requirements, bulk carriers are assumed to have suffered solid flooding to their standard of subdivision. Stability is adequate
if, after damage:
The range of positive stability extends 20 degrees beyond the angle of static heel, and
The maximum righting arm beyond the angle of static heel is at least 3.94 inches for tankers or 4 inches for Great Lakes dry bulk
carriers.
C-2.2.3 Tank Barges. Quasi-dynamic stability criteria are applied to tank barges where the vertical center of gravity of the cargo is above
the weather deck (cargo carried in large tanks on deck or in hoppers). The area under the righting arm curve from 0 to the angle of maximum
righting arm or the downflooding angle, whichever is less, must be at least:
C-6
10 foot-degrees for Great Lakes summer service, or service on lakes, bays, and sounds, or
S0300-A8-HBK-010
If the vertical center of gravity of the cargo is below the weather deck (conventional built-in tanks, or tanks in a deep hopper), a minimum GM
is specified:
GM
KB
Fe
where:
K
B
Fe
=
=
=
=
=
GZ1
0.02 (LOA)2
T
ARM
GZ2
where:
LOA
T
=
=
length overall, ft
draft, ft
L1
A1
L2
c
A2
HEEL ANGLE
C-2.2.5 Lifting. Criteria are applied to floating cranes and other craft designed to make heavy lifts over the side. Lifting craft not equipped
with counterballasting systems must meet the same criteria as those applied to deck cargo barges.
An energy balance criterion is used for lifting craft equipped with counterballasting systems, as shown in Figure C-5, to ensure that the vessel
can withstand the heeling moment imposed by the counterballast in the event of sudden loss of the hook load. Righting arm curves are drawn
corresponding to the vessel displacement without hook load (GZ1) and displacement with hook load (GZ2). Two heeling moment curves are
drawn as shown. L1 is the heeling arm due to the combined effect of hook load and counterballast:
L1 =
(wH dH
wB dB ) cos
H
where:
wH
dH
wB
dB
H
=
=
=
=
=
=
C-7
S0300-A8-HBK-010
wB dB cos
where:
=
=
=
=
righting energy opposing counterballast, up to the downflooding angle (f) on the counterballast side, ft-deg
righting energy opposing combined hook load and counterballast, up to the static heel angle (c) on the hook side, ft-deg
0 for operation on protected waters
7 ft-deg for operation on partially protected and exposed waters
C-2.2.6 Towing. Both minimum GM and quasi-dynamic criteria are applied to towing vessels. Tugs are required to have a minimum GM
equal to one-half the maximum towline heeling arm divided by the ratio of freeboard to beam:
GM
N (SHP D)2/3 s h
38 (F/B)
where:
GM
N
SHP
D
s
h
F
B
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
metacentric height, ft
number of propellers
shaft horsepower per shaft
propeller diameter, ft
fraction of propeller slip stream deflected by rudder, normally taken as 0.55
vertical distance from propeller shaft centerline at rudder to towing bitts, ft
displacement, lton
freeboard, ft
beam, ft
Tugs must also meet the additional requirements of weather criterion A described for ships under 328 feet (Paragraph C-2.2.1), and have a
positive range of stability to at least 60 degrees. In addition, the towline heeling arm curve is plotted against the righting arm curve as described
under the U.S. Navy towing criterion (Paragraph C-2.1.3). Stability is adequate if:
C-8
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-2.2.7 Mobile Offshore Drilling Units. Mobile offshore drilling units are required to have a GM of at least 2 inches (50 mm), and to meet
a wind heel energy balance criterion similar to the Navy criterion. The wind heel moment Hm is the sum of heeling moments Hi resulting from
wind pressure on individual exposed areas on the unit:
Hm =
Hi
pi Ai hi
Hi = pi Ai hi = k V 2 (Cs Ch A h)i
where:
Cs
Ch
h
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
wind heel moment for an exposed surface on the unit, ft-lb or kgf-m
0.00338 lb/ft2-kt2 (0.0623 kg-sec2/m4)
wind pressure acting on area A, lbs/ft2 or kgf/m2 (see Paragraph 3-5 for wind pressure calculations for unusual shapes)
projected area of an exposed surface on the unit, ft2 or m2
wind velocity
70 kts (36 m/sec) for normal operating conditions
100 kts (51.5 m/sec) for severe storm conditions
50 kts (25.8 m/sec) for damage conditions
shape coefficient from Table 3-1
height coefficient from Table 3-2
lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half-draft) to center of wind pressure on area A, ft or m
WIND HEEL
MOMENT CURVE
RIGHTING
MOMENT CURVE
FIRST
INTERCEPT
MOMENT
Hi
k
p
A
V
A1
SECOND
INTERCEPT
A2
HEEL ANGLE
SECOND
INTERCEPT
ANGLE
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 30 degrees is not less than 0.055 meter-radians (10.34 foot-degrees),
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle is not less than 0.09 meter-radians (16.92 footdegrees),
Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and the lesser of 40 degrees or the downflooding angle is not less than 0.03 meter
radians (5.64 foot-degrees),
Righting arm is at least 0.2 meters (0.66 feet) at an angle equal to or greater than 30 degrees,
Maximum righting arm occurs at an angle preferably exceeding 30 degrees but not less than 25 degrees, and
Initial metacentric height is not less than 0.15 meters (0.49 feet) for cargo vessels, or 0.35 meters (1.15 feet) for fishing vessels.
C-9
S0300-A8-HBK-010
LW1 =
0.0514 A H
GZ
ARM
A1
A2
Lw2
Lw1
2
0
HEEL ANGLE
=
=
=
=
=
where:
1
X1
X2
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
s
r
OG
Tm
Steady wind heel angle, 0, is less than 16 degrees or the angle where 80 percent of the freeboard to the deck edge is immersed,
whichever is less,
Area A1 is greater than area A2.
Both areas are bounded by the righting arm curve and the gust wind heeling arm curve. Area A1 terminates at 2, equal to the lesser of 50
degrees or the downflooding angle f; area A2 terminates at the expected roll angle, 1, to windward of the wind heel angle.
C-10
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table C-2. Values for Factors X1 and X2 for IMO Resolution A.562.
Values for X1
Values for X2
B/Tm
X1
CB
X2
2.4
1.00
0.45
0.75
2.5
0.98
0.50
0.82
2.6
0.96
0.55
0.89
2.7
0.95
0.60
0.95
2.8
0.93
0.65
0.97
2.9
0.91
0.70
1.00
3.0
0.90
3.1
0.88
3.2
0.86
3.3
0.84
3.4
0.82
3.5
0.80
B = molded beam, m
Tm = molded draft, m
CB = block coefficient
Table C-3. Values for Factors k, and s for IMO Resolution A.562.
Values for k
Ak 100
Values for s
TR
0.0
1.00
0.100
1.0
0.98
0.098
1.5
0.95
0.093
2.0
0.88
12
0.065
2.5
0.79
14
0.053
3.0
0.74
16
0.044
3.5
0.72
18
0.038
4.0
0.70
20
0.035
LWL (B)
TR =
B
Tm
Ak
TR
GM
=
=
=
=
=
molded beam, m
molded draft, m
total area of bilge keels and/or lateral area of bar keel, m2
rolling period, sec
metacentric height, corrected for free surface, m
2CB
GM
where:
C = 0.373
0.023
B
Tm
0.043
LWL
100
C-11
S0300-A8-HBK-010
The purpose of a load line or other limiting draft mark is to provide a simple visual check that a laden vessel has sufficient watertight volume
above the waterline for safe operation. A certain minimum watertight volume is required for three reasons:
1
The watertight volume provides reserve buoyancy so that the ship can rise as it passes through waves. This helps to reduce
the amount of water that comes on board.
The amount of freeboard influences the length of the righting arm and range of stability. With too little freeboard, stability
is reduced below acceptable levels.
Reserve buoyancy is required to prevent or delay foundering in the event of underwater damage and/or flooding.
Standards for load line determination for commercial vessels were established by the International Load Line Convention of 1966 and are
implemented by national agencies. In the United States, load line regulations are promulgated as Title 46 of the US Code of Federal
Regulations, Subchapter E. The basic U.S. load line regulations are summarized in the following paragraphs. The American Bureau of Shipping
(ABS) is the load line assigning authority for the U.S. Coast Guard. Limiting draft determinations for Navy ships, governed by Design Data
Sheet DDS 079-1, Stability and Buoyancy of U.S. Naval Surface Ships and Ship Design Standard SDS 079-2, Minimum Freeboard, are described
in Paragraph C-3.2.
DECK
LINE
DECK
LINE
21"
TF
F
T
S
W
WNA
B
12"
18"
12"
15"
12"
9"
1"
9"
FORWARD
SS
SW FW MS
B MS
S
S
I
15"
I
21"
W
W
MIDSHIPS
MIDSHIPS
DECK
LINE
DECK
LINE
26"
9"
1"
TF
FW
CS
CW
12"
18"
9"
1"
9"
1"
9"
21"
T
S
W
9"
21"
MS
S
I
W
15"
GL
SS
FW SW
FW
MS A
B
S
S
W
I
15"
9" 9"
W 21"
1"
9" 9"
1"
26"
21"
9"
MIDSHIPS
FORWARD
MIDSHIPS
FORWARD
FORWARD
(a) INTERNATIONAL
AND UNLIMITED
COASTWISE
LOAD LINE MARK
C-3.1 Load Lines. Minimum freeboard is measured from the freeboard deck amidships and marked with a load line, like those shown in Figure
C-8. The freeboard deck is normally the highest continuous watertight deck, but may be a lower deck so long as it is continuous and watertight.
On ships where the weather deck is obscured by a bulwark or a lower deck is the freeboard deck, the freeboard deck line is indicated by a short
horizontal line on the side plating directly above the load line.
Because maximum deadweight, and consequently the earning capacity, of a ship is directly related to the minimum allowable freeboard
(maximum draft), authorities are anxious to be fair and exact in assigning load lines. The rules for load line assignment are therefore somewhat
complicated and will not be described in detail here. Required freeboard depends on the form of the ship, and the calculation of minimum
freeboard involves water density, length, breadth, depth, sheer, size of watertight superstructures, and other geometric features of the ship. This
calculation determines the minimum summer freeboard in salt water or basic load line. This freeboard is marked amidships on both sides of
the ship by an eighteen inch long horizontal line passing through the center of a twelve inch disk. Letters to either side of the disk indicate
the assigning authority (AB for the American Bureau of Shipping, LR for Lloyds Register, NV for det Norske Veritas, etc). Load line
assignment rules include minimum standards for watertight closures, hatch covers, freeing ports, ventilators, scuttles, light ports, and other fittings
to ensure that the freeboard volume is truly watertight and effective in providing reserve buoyancy and stability. Figure C-8(a) shows a load
line mark for a vessel certified for ocean and unlimited coastwise service.
C-12
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-3.1.1 Seasonal and Regional Load Lines. More severe sea and weather conditions will require higher freeboard to provide the same margin
of safety, while lower freeboard will provide sufficient safety in less severe conditions. Since sea and weather conditions can be broadly
predicted for season and region, marks forward of the load line disk show minimum required freeboard for tropical (T), winter (W), and winter
North Atlantic (WNA). The summer (S) line marks the same freeboard as the basic load line through the center of the disk. The lines are one
inch high and nine inches wide; required freeboard is marked at the top of the line. A load line map divides the worlds oceans into zones and
shows at what times of year each zone can be considered to be summer, winter, winter north atlantic, or tropical. The same information is
available in narrative form in 46 CFR, Subchapter E, Subpart 42.30.
Freshwater (F) and tropical fresh water (TF) marks are included for use when the ship loads in fresh water for an ocean voyage. A ship loaded
to the freshwater mark in fresh water will rise to her summer load line as she transits into seawater. There is also an allowance for freeboard
to be gained as fuel and other stores are consumed during the transit from port of loading to the open sea. The fresh water load marks are
intended for use in transits from a fresh water port to the open sea, where reductions in reserve buoyancy, stability, and damage resistance are
considered acceptable for a short transit through relatively protected waters. Vessels conducting extended operations on large bodies of fresh
water should not be loaded to their fresh water load lines. Since fresh water is less dense than salt water, reserve buoyancy is already decreased
with the vessel loaded to her basic load line in fresh water. Vessels operating solely on the Great Lakes are assigned special Great Lakes load
lines as described in Paragraph C-3.1.4.
Fresh water load lines are calculated for an assumed specific gravity of 1.000 (seawater is normally taken as 1.025). If a ship is loaded in
brackish water or fresh water with specific gravity higher than 1.000 to the fresh water (or tropical fresh water) mark, the summer (or tropical)
load line will be immersed when the ship reaches seawater.
C-3.1.2 Subdivision Load Lines. During a vessels design, water tight bulkheads are located so that a specified number of compartments
(standard of subdivision) can be flooded without submerging the margin line, located just below the freeboard deck. Standard of subdivision
calculations are made assuming the ship is floating at a specific waterline called the subdivision load line. The validity of a ships standard
of subdivision depends on the ships waterline being at or below the subdivision load line and on the integrity of the compartment boundaries.
A subdivision load line has no meaning and is not affixed to a vessel if it lies above other load line marks. If the subdivision load line lies
below other load line marks, the minimum freeboard is based on the subdivision load line mark, and other marks are not affixed.
C-3.1.3 Scantling Drafts. The maximum draft amidships to which a vessel can be loaded without overstressing the hull is called the scantling
draft. If the scantling draft mark lies below any other load line marks, these marks are meaningless and are not affixed. Minimum freeboard
is then based on the scantling draft.
C-3.1.4 Great Lakes Load Lines. Vessels assigned international or unlimited coastwise load lines may operate freely on the Great Lakes
without additional load line assignment or certification. Vessels operating solely on the Great Lakes and certain portions of the St. Lawrence
River are assigned Great Lakes load lines. Load lines for Great Lakes vessels are based on the same considerations as international load lines,
i.e. reserve buoyancy, vessel form, water density, anticipated weather and sea conditions, standards of subdivision, and hull strength. The basic
Great Lakes load line is marked by a twenty one inch line passing through the center of a fifteen inch wide diamond as shown in Figure C-8(b).
The Great Lakes load line mark is affixed amidships, port and starboard like the international load line mark. Letters to either side of the
diamond indicate the assigning authority. Marks forward of the diamond show summer (S), midsummer (MS), intermediate (I), and winter (W)
load lines. If a vessel operates in the saltwater portion of the St. Lawrence River (downstream of the Victoria Bridge, Montreal), she must also
have corresponding salt water (SW) load lines as shown.
C-3.1.5 Special Service Coastwise Load Lines. Reduced freeboards are permitted for certain types of coastwise and inter-island voyages.
In general, "special service, coastwise" means voyages where the vessel remains within 20 miles of shore. Special service load lines are marked
port and starboard amidships by a load line disk identical to the international load line disk. Marks forward of the disk indicate summer, winter,
and freshwater load lines.
C-3.1.6 Combination Load Lines. Vessels certified both for limited coastwise and international voyages are marked as shown in Figure C-8(c).
Marks forward of the load line disk apply to international and unlimited coastwise voyages. Marks aft of the disk apply to limited coastwise
voyages. The marks aft of the disk are to be eliminated when engaged in international voyages.
Vessels operating both on the Great Lakes and on limited (special service) coastwise voyages are marked with a combined disk and diamond
as shown in Figure C-8(d). Marks forward of the basic mark apply to limited coastwise voyages; marks aft of the basic mark apply to Great
Lakes voyages. The summer line on the ocean corresponds to the summer line on the Lakes and the winter line on the ocean corresponds to
the intermediate line on the Lakes.
C-13
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-3.1.7 Load Line Requirements and Inspections. Load line certification and inspection is required for all inspected and certain uninspected
vessels. Mandatory load line assignment establishes statutory minimum freeboard that is documented by a Load Line Certificate. This document
certifies the correctness of the load line marks and that the vessel is in compliance with all applicable requirements. The certificate also contains
a diagram of the assigned load line marks and freeboard deck line and states any conditions, exemptions, or restriction the vessel is required
to observe. Load line certificates are reviewed during annual inspections by the assigned authority and in more thorough load line surveys every
5 years. Load line regulations are U.S. Federal law. An assigned load line is an extension of that law and to load a vessel during normal
operation so that the applicable load line mark is submerged is an unlawful act.
C-3.2 Navy Limiting Draft Marks. The basic requirement governing limiting draft assignment, as set forth in Ship Design Standard 079-2
of 25 February 1987, is that ships "shall have freeboard sufficient to satisfy the intact and damaged stability requirements of Design Data Sheet
079-1 [outlined in Paragraph C-2.1 above] and to maintain dry decks over the expected range of operating conditions." Limiting drafts define
a pre-damage condition such that following shell to shell flooding to the ships standard of subdivision, the final trimmed waterline does not
immerse the margin line at the side (3 inches below the bulkhead deck). If governing, off-center flooding is assumed. The basic calculation
is described in DDS 079-1 of 1 August 1975:
DAMAGE FORWARD
OF BULKHEAD A
INCLINED
WATERLINE
4
A
FLOODING
ROLL
ANGLE
15
A
DAMAGE AFT OF
BULKHEAD A
FLOODING
BULKHEAD A
POINT A CORRESPONDS TO THE
INTERSECTION OF THE DEEPER
TRIMMED WATERLINE OF PART (a)
WITH BULKHEAD A
INCLINED
WATERLINE
WITH 4FT
WAVE
RECIPROCAL
WATER LINE
(b) V-LINES
All penetrations below the V-lines thus defined must be watertight for the ship to survive flooding to her standard of subdivision when laden
to her limiting drafts. V-lines are used by designers as a guide to locating necessary non-watertight fittings.
Groups of compartments near the third- or quarter-length points of the hull establish limiting drafts for most ships. For ships without side
protective systems, limiting drafts are assigned on the basis of reserve buoyancy, unless strength or speed dictate a shallower draft. In rare cases,
damage stability may govern the assignment of limiting draft. Limiting drafts for ships with side protective systems are governed by the
freeboard requirements of the side protective systems, rather than reserve buoyancy.
Limiting forward, after, and midships drafts are indicated by asterisk-like marks on both sides of the ship, illustrated in Figure C-8(e). The
limiting draft is marked at the top of the horizontal line. The three limiting drafts do not necessarily define a single waterline; if any one of
the marks is submerged in any condition of trim, the vessel has exceeded its limiting draft. Limiting drafts, the basis for their assignment, and
any related operating restrictions are given in section II of the ships Damage Control Book (see Appendix H for limiting draft guidelines for
an FFG-7 class ship).
C-14
S0300-A8-HBK-010
In the absence of better information, construction standards or rules may be used to estimate moment of inertia or section modulus of as-built
hull sections. The as-built section properties can then be used as a guide to estimating the properties of intact or damaged sections of a casualty.
If the ship structure has not been maintained in class, the degree and extent of deterioration and its effect on section strength must be estimated.
The NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) includes a section modulus editor that can apply corrosion or wastage allowances
to hull scantlings. The section modulus editor can also generate an approximate cross section area distribution for a given section modulus.
Damaged portions of the approximated section can then be deleted to estimate post-damage properties for the section.
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires general compliance with ABS construction standards for ships of U.S. registry. Similar
section modulus requirements are published by other classification societies and government agencies of maritime nations (see Bibliography).
Hull girder strength requirements for Navy ships are given in Design Data Sheet DDS 100-6, Longitudinal Strength Calculations and Ship Design
Standards SDS 100-1, Hull Girder Primary Strength and SDS 100-2, Material Application Strength Limits of Steel.
Classification society rules and government regulations change from time to time; a ship may have been built to standards either more or less
demanding than the current standards.
C-4.1 Section Modulus Requirements for Navy Ships. Required section properties for Navy ships are based on calculated primary hull
loadings resulting from shear force and bending moment calculations for the ship in still water and when statically balanced on a standard
trochoidal wave (height = 1.1
L, length = L). Various loading conditions are examined to determine the most severe loading. See Design Data
Sheet 100-6 or Paragraph 1-11 for a discussion of longitudinal strength calculations.
With hull girder bending moment and shear force determined along the length of the ship, section scantlings are selected so that calculated
primary stress (fIC) is less than the sum of the design primary stress (fID) and a stress factor for primary strength (Ms):
fIC fID - Ms
where:
fIC
fID
Ms
=
=
=
=
=
The design primary stress limits range from slightly more than half the yield stress for mild and ordinary steels to less than one quarter of the
yield stress for HY-100. The stress factor for primary strength allows for increases in hull girder stresses resulting from weight growth or
redistribution, unaccounted for openings, stress raisers, fabrication defects, and corrosion. As-built section scantlings may be heavier than called
for a primary stress analysis because of local stiffening to limit vibration or deflection, or strengthening to carry secondary and tertiary loads:
Concentrated and distributed loads resulting from the stowage of provisions or cargo.
Static pressures the shell, weatherdeck, lower parts of the superstructure or deckhouse, resulting from the effects of wave slap,
passage of waves, heel, pitching with bow submergence, and green seas on the weather deck.
Weather loads.
Dynamic loads resulting from ship motions in moderate and storm seas.
Docking loads.
Static and live loads in way of gun mounts, cargo gear, and other structures.
C-15
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-4.2 ABS Section Modulus Standards. The 1990 and 1980 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) section modulus standards are summarized
in the following paragraphs. In the 1990 Rules, required section modulus is based on total bending moment, the sum of still water and wave
bending moments. The still water bending moment is either calculated or taken as a parametrically determined standard moments; wave bending
moment is determined parametrically. In the 1980 Rules, required section modulus is based on calculated still water bending moment with
parametric adjustments to account for wave bending moment and other factors.
The 1980 rules require that structural members included in the section modulus calculation be continuous or effectively developed within a length
equal to four tenths the length between perpendiculars centered about midships and gradually tapered outside this region. Sectional areas used
in the modulus calculation for the strength deck and effective lower decks are to be continued throughout the midships 0.4L, and may be
gradually reduced to one-half their midships value at 0.15L from the ends. In other words, section modulus is constant over the middle 40 percent of the ships length, and decreases gradually towards the ends of the ship. The 1990 rules include a similar requirement if a bending
moment curve is not developed. If a bending moment curve is developed, section scantlings may be sized to keep bending stresses below a
level depending on ship length (see Paragraph C-4.3).
Both the 1990 and 1980 rules require that a loading manual showing the effects of various loaded and ballasted conditions be furnished to each
vessel for guidance. An approved load calculator or computer can be installed to comply with this requirement.
C-4.3 1990 ABS Rules. The longitudinal strength requirements from the 1990 ABS Rules for Building and Classing Steel Ships are summarized
in the following paragraphs. The requirements apply to vessels 200 feet (61 meters) or more in length intended for unrestricted ocean service.
The equations are valid for vessels with depths equal to or greater than one-fifteenth of their length.
C-4.3.1 Required Section Modulus. The required midships section modulus is given by:
Mt
SM =
fp
where:
SM =
Mt =
=
fp =
required midships section modulus, cm2-m or in2-ft, but not less than the minimum section modulus given in Paragraph C-4.3.3
total bending moment, mton-m or ft-lton
Msw + Mw (see Paragraph C-4.3.2)
nominal permissible bending stress in mton/cm2 or lton/in2
240 L
1620
mton/ cm 2
= 10.56
mton/ cm 2
= 10.56
240
4000
790 L
845
lton/ in 2
200 ft L 790 ft
lton/ in 2
790
2045
where:
L = classification length, ft or m LBP
For general cargo ships, bulk carriers with uniform loading, and specialized carriers such as container ships or barge carriers where cargo is
stowed in specific cells or locations, fp may be increased 10 percent if the strength deck and bottom structure are longitudinally framed.
C-4.3.2 Bending Moment. Total bending moment is the sum of the still water bending moment, Msw, and the wave bending moment, Mw.
The rules require calculation of shear force and bending moment and preparation of a loading manual based on still water conditions for ore
and bulk carriers, oil carriers, container ships, barge carriers and similar vessels over 400 feet (122 meters) in length, and for liquefied gas
carriers and chemical carriers over 213 feet (65 meters) in length. For other vessels, a standard still water bending moment, Ms, can be
calculated:
Ms = Cs t L 2.5B (CB 0.5 )
where:
Cst
L
B
CB
C-16
=
=
=
=
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table C-4. Factor Cst for Standard Still Water Bending Moment, 1990 ABS Rules.
Cst
Length Range
L in meters
200 ft L 360 ft
(61 m L 110 m)
L in feet
0.618
110 L
0.01
462
0.312
360 L
0.001
2990
0.564
160 L
0.01
925
0.285
525 L
0.001
6100
0.544
210 L
0.01
2500
0.275
690 L
0.001
16,400
0.00544
0.000275
L - 250
0.01
0.544 1786
L 820
0.001
0.283 11,600
Wave induced bending moment amidships may be calculated by means of statistical analysis based on ship motion in realistic sea states or taken
from the following:
Mw = C2 CB + 0.088 L 2B H Kb
where:
C2
L
B
CB
Kb
H
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Table C-5. Wave Parameter H for Wave Induced Bending Moment Amidships, 1990 ABS Rules.
Length Range
Cst
L in meters
L in feet
200 ft L 490 ft
(61 m L 150 m)
0.0172L + 3.653
0.0172L + 11.98
0.0181L + 3.516
0.0181L + 11.535
8.151
26.750
C-17
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Mi = Mw k
Station
where:
AP
Mi =
k
=
C-4.3.3 Minimum Section Modulus. For vessels with lengths of 295 to 1400 feet (90 to
427 meters), midships section modulus shall not be less than:
SM = 0.001 C1 L 2 B (CB
MS
0.70)
where:
C1
L
B
CB
=
=
=
=
FP
0.10
0.35
0.68
0.95
1.00
10
1.00
11
0.99
12
0.94
14
0.74
16
0.43
18
0.13
20
Table C-7. Factor C1 for Minimum Section Modulus, 1990 ABS Rules.
C1
Length Range
L in meters
295 ft L 984 ft
(90 m L 300 m)
984 ft L 1148 ft
(300 m L 350 m)
1148 ft < L 1400 ft
(350 m < L 427 m)
300 L 1.5
100
10.75
10.75
10.75
L 350 1.5
150
L in feet
0.01441 10.75
984 L 1.5
328
0.01441(10.75)
0.01441 10.75
L 1148 1.5
492
C-4.3.4 Required Moment of Inertia. The required midships section moment of inertia is based on required section modulus:
I =
L (SM )
34.1
C-18
S0300-A8-HBK-010
For vessels without continuous longitudinal bulkheads, nominal total shear stress in the side shell plating is calculated from:
fs =
(Fs w
Fw )m
2tI
where:
fy
I
m
=
=
=
t
=
Fsw =
Fw =
For vessels with continuous longitudinal bulkheads, nominal maximum shear stress in the bulkheads and side shell plating is calculated from
shear flow or other method approved by ABS. Discussions of shear flow calculations can be found in the Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers Principals of Naval Architecture or similar texts.
C-4.3.6 Hull Girder Shear Force. Still
water hull girder shear forces are calculated
by direct integration for the ship types
listed in Paragraph C-4.3.2. For other
vessels, maximum shear force for uniform
loading conditions is taken as 5Ms/L, where
Ms is the standard still water bending
moment (ft-lton or mton-m), and L is the
classification length (ft or m).
0.8L
0.65L 0.55L
K = 2.5
K = 1.6
K Mw
L
0.4L
0.3L
0.15L
FP
K = 2.6
L
Figure C-10. Wave Induced Shear Force Distribution, 1990 ABS Rules.
where:
Mw =
K =
maximum wave induced bending moment (see Paragraph C-4.3.2), ft-lton or mton-m
shear distribution coefficient, from Figure C-10
When cargo is carried in alternate holds, Fsw may be reduced to Fs by deducting a factor FB:
Fs = Fsw
FB
where:
FS =
Fsw =
portion of still water shear force distributed to the side shell, lton or mton
total still water shear force as obtained by conventional direct integration, lton or mton
The factor FB accounts for the distribution of part of the total shear force to transverse bulkheads by the double bottom structure and is taken
as the lesser of:
l W b
FB E = 0.45 0.2 E E E
bE B
FB L = 0.45
0.2
lL WL bL
bL B
where:
WE, WL =
lE, lL
bE, bL
=
=
total load (net weight or net buoyancy) in the adjacent holds with the lesser (or empty) weight designated by E and the greater
weight designated by L, lton or mton
length of the adjacent holds containing the weights WE and WL, ft or m
breadth of the double bottom structure in holds E and L, ft or m
For vessels with lower wing tanks with tops sloping at an angle of about 45 degrees, b is measured between midpoints of the
sloping plating. For vessels with double skins and flat inner bottoms, b is measured between inner skins.
classification breadth, ft or m molded breadth
C-19
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-4.3.7 Effective Structure. The uppermost deck to which the side shell plating extends is considered the strength deck, except in way of
comparatively short superstructures or in way of superstructures with reduced side shell scantlings. In general, hatchways and other openings
through the deck are excluded from the section modulus.
When the standard still water bending
moment is used, deck sectional areas to
meet the required midships section modulus
are maintained throughout the midships
0.4L. Deck sectional areas may be reduced
to one-half the midships deck area at points
0.15L from the ends of the ship. In way of
a superstructure outside the midships 0.4L,
the strength deck area may be reduced to
70 percent of the area that would be
required were there no superstructure.
When calculated still water bending
moment curves are used to determine Mt,
deck sectional areas are to be adequate to
keep bending stress below the nominal
permissible bending stress specified in
Paragraph C-4.3.1.
l
s
CL
CL
TRANSVERSE
BULKHEAD
OR DEEP BEAM
TRANSVERSE
BULKHEAD
OR DEEP BEAM
TRIPLE-HATCH ARRANGEMENT
TWIN-HATCH ARRANGEMENT
When strength deck longitudinal coamings of length greater than 0.14L are supported by longitudinal bulkheads or deep girders, the extreme
fiber of the hull girder is taken to be at the top of the hatch coaming rather than the deck.
When decks are constructed with two or more large openings abreast, as shown in Figure C-11, the plating and longitudinal stiffeners between
the openings may be considered effective if the slenderness ratio l/r is not more than 60 and if supported by longitudinal bulkheads. Structure
not supported by longitudinal bulkheads, but of substantial construction and with slenderness ratio of 60 or less may be considered partially
effective. The area included in the section modulus calculation is the cross sectional area multiplied by a factor as specified in Table C-8.
s/b
l/B = 1.2
l/B = 0.8
l/B 0.6
0.15 (minimum)
0.32
0.34
0.35
0.30
0.38
0.43
0.47
0.50
0.48
0.56
0.62
0.80
0.60
0.70
0.76
1.20
0.72
0.81
0.86
0.82
0.89
0.92
Dimensions s, b, l, and B are shown in Figure C-11. Intermediate values can be interpolated. If the length of the longest cargo hold
exceed 0.8B, effectiveness factors should be multiplied by 0.9
C-20
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-4.3.8 Higher Strength Materials. When the top or bottom flange of the hull girder is constructed of materials with strength greater than
ordinary shipbuilding steel, section modulus may be reduced by the factor Q:
SMh t s = Q (SM )
Q is given by:
Q =
70,900
2U
Y
3
49.92
2U
Y
3
(English units)
(metric units)
where:
Y
the specified yield point or yield strength of the higher strength material or 72 percent of the specified minimum tensile strength,
whichever is less, lb/in2 or kg/mm2
the specified minimum tensile strength of the higher strength material, lb/in2 or kg/mm2
C-4.4 1980 ABS Rules. The section modulus standards from the 1980 ABS Rules for Steel Ships are summarized in Tables C-9 through C-12
(Tables C-11 and C-12 are on Page C-22). The standards for mild-steel ships are given in Table C-9. If the effective longitudinal structure
of either the upper or lower flanges of the main hull girder is constructed of materials with strength higher than ordinary shipbuilding steel, the
required top or bottom section modulus is reduced as detailed in Table C-11 (Page C-22).
Table C-9. ABS Section Modulus for Ships of Ordinary Steel
Construction, 1980 Rules.
SM
cfB(CB + 0.5)
SM
c
=
=
=
where:
f
B
CB
=
=
=
=
SM T =
=
=
where:
SMB = 1.03SMT
= 1.10SMT
= 1.07SMT
700 ft L 1,000 ft
1,000 - L
________
SMT
General Cargo,
Liquefied Gas
Carriers
+1
SMT
+1
SMT
Oil Carriers
3,000
1,000 - L
________
Ship Type
+1
10,000
1,000 - L
________
L 1,000 ft
4,286
where:
Length on
summer
load
waterline, ft
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
820
830
840
850
860
870
880
890
900
910
920
930
940
950
960
970
980
990
1000
24
50
83
124
174
234
306
387
482
594
718
857
1008
1175
1245
1280
1316
1352
1388
1425
1462
1499
1536
1574
1612
1650
1688
1726
1765
1804
1843
1882
1921
s
General
Cargo, Ore,
Bulk Carriers,
Liquefied Gas
Carriers
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.26
4.27
4.27
4.27
4.28
4.29
4.30
4.31
4.32
4.32
4.33
4.34
4.34
4.35
4.36
4.36
4.37
4.38
4.38
Oil Carriers
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.78
3.79
3.80
3.80
3.81
3.82
3.82
3.83
3.83
3.84
3.84
3.85
3.86
3.86
3.87
3.88
3.88
3.89
3.90
3.90
C-21
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table C-11. Section Modulus Standards for Ships of Higher Strength Material Construction, 1980 ABS Rules.
Ihst =
KL SMT
16.67
where:
Ihts
SMT
L
K
= required midships hull girder moment of inertia when effective longitudinal material of upper or lower flanges of main
hull girder are of materials with strength higher than ordinary shipbuilding steel, in2-ft
= required deck section modulus for a mild steel vessel of the same dimensions, in2-ft2
= length on the estimated summer load line
= ship type and length factor, from Table C-12
SMhts = Q SMT or B
where:
SMhts
Q
Y
U
SMT or B
=
=
=
=
=
Table C-12. Ship Type and Length Factor, K, 1980 ABS Rules.
K
Ship Type
General Cargo, Liquified Gas Carriers
Ore, Bulk Carriers
Oil Carriers
L 700 ft
L 1,000 ft
0.5074
0.5238
0.5169
0.500
0.500
0.500
C-22