Pure C4

Revision Notes

March 2013

ContentsCore4
1

Algebra ................................................................................................................. 3
Partial fractions ........................................................................................................................................................ 3

Coordinate Geometry .......................................................................................... 5

Parametric equations ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Conversion from parametric to Cartesian form ...................................................................................................................... 6
Area under curve given parametrically................................................................................................................................... 7

Sequences and series ......................................................................................... 8

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n .......................................................................................................................... 8

Differentiation .................................................................................................... 10
Relationship between

and

......................................................................................................................... 10

Implicit differentiation ........................................................................................................................................... 10

Parametric differentiation ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Exponential functions, a x ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Related rates of change .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Forming differential equations ............................................................................................................................... 12

Integration .......................................................................................................... 13
Integrals of ex and ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Standard integrals ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Integration using trigonometric identities.............................................................................................................. 13
Integration by reverse chain rule ......................................................................................................................... 14
Integrals of tan x and cot x .................................................................................................................................................... 15
Integrals of sec x and cosec x ................................................................................................................................................ 15

Integration using partial fractions .......................................................................................................................... 16

Integration by substitution, indefinite .................................................................................................................... 16
Integration by substitution, definite ....................................................................................................................... 18
Choosing the substitution ...................................................................................................................................................... 18

Integration by parts................................................................................................................................................. 19
Area under curve .................................................................................................................................................... 20
Volume of revolution ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Volume of revolution about the xaxis ................................................................................................................................. 21
Volume of revolution about the yaxis ................................................................................................................................. 21

Parametric integration ............................................................................................................................................ 21

Differential equations ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Separating the variables ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

Exponential growth and decay ............................................................................................................................... 23

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Vectors ................................................................................................................ 24
Notation .................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Definitions, adding and subtracting, etcetera ........................................................................................................ 24
Parallel and non - parallel vectors......................................................................................................................................... 25
Modulus of a vector and unit vectors ................................................................................................................................... 26
Position vectors ..................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Ratios ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Proving geometrical theorems .............................................................................................................................................. 28

Three dimensional vectors ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Length, modulus or magnitude of a vector ........................................................................................................................... 29
Distance between two points ................................................................................................................................................ 29

Scalar product ........................................................................................................................................................ 29

Perpendicular vectors ............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Angle between vectors .......................................................................................................................................................... 31

Vector equation of a straight line .......................................................................................................................... 31

Intersection of two lines......................................................................................................................................... 32
2 Dimensions ......................................................................................................................................................................... 32
3 Dimensions ......................................................................................................................................................................... 33

Appendix ............................................................................................................. 34
Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n proof ........................................................................................................... 34
Derivative of xq for q rational ............................................................................................................................ 34

for negative limits ..................................................................................................................................... 35

Integration by substitution why it works ............................................................................................................ 36
Parametric integration ............................................................................................................................................ 36
Separating the variables why it works ................................................................................................................ 37

Index ............................................................................................................................. 38

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Algebra

Partial fractions
1) You must start with a proper fraction: i.e. the degree of the numerator must be less than
the degree of the denominator.
If this is not the case you must first do long division to find quotient and remainder.
2) (a)

Linear factors (not repeated)

......
A

+ ........
(ax b)(. . . . . . )
(ax b)
(b)

Linear repeated factors (squared)

......
A
B

+
+ ........
2
2
(ax b)
(ax b) (. . . . . . )
(ax b)
(c)

Quadratic factors)
......
Ax + B

+ ........
(ax + b)(. . . . . . )
(ax 2 + b)
2

or

......
Ax + B

+ ........
( ax 2 + bx + c )(. . . . . . )
( ax 2 + bx + c )

5 x + 2x 2
(1 x)(1 + x 2 )

Example:

Express

Solution:

The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the denominator, 3, so

in partial fractions.

we do not need long division and can write

5 x + 2x 2
(1 x)(1 + x 2 )

A
Bx + C
+
1 x
1+ x2

multiply both sides by (1x)(1+x2)

5 x + 2x2 A(1 + x2) + (Bx + C)(1 x)

5 1 + 2 = 2A

A=3

clever value!, put x = 1

5=A+C

C=2

easy value, put x = 0

2=AB

B=1

equate coefficients of x2

5 x + 2x 2
(1 x)(1 + x 2 )

3
x+2
+
.
1 x
1+ x2

N.B. You can put in any value for x, so you can always find as many equations as you
need to solve for A, B, C, D . . . .

C4 14/04/13

Example:

x 2 7 x + 22
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2

Express

in partial fractions.

Solution:
The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the denominator,
3, so we do not need long division and can write

x 2 7 x + 22
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2

A
B
+
2x 1
( x 3) 2

C
x3

multiply by denominator

x2 7x + 22 A(x 3)2 + B(2x 1) + C(2x 1)(x 3)

9 21 + 22 = 5B

B=2

clever value, put x = 3

7/2 + 22 = 2.52A

A=3

clever value, put x =

22 = 9A B + 3C

x 2 7 x + 22
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2

Example:

C = 1

3
2
+
2x 1
( x 3) 2

x3 + x 2 9x 3
x2 9

Express

easy value, put x = 0

1
x3

in partial fractions.

Solution:
Firstly the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the
denominator so we must divide top by bottom.
x2 9 ) x3
x3

+ x2
x2
x2

9x
9x

x 3 + x 2 9x 3
x2 9

3
9
6

= x+1 +

( x+1

6
x 9
2

Factorise to give x2 9 = (x 3)(x + 3) and write

6
x 9
2

6
A
B

+
( x 3)( x + 3)
x3
x+3

multiplying by denominator

6 A(x + 3) + B(x 3)

6 = 6A

A=1

clever value, put x = 3

6 = 6B

B = 1

clever value, put x = 3

x 3 + x 2 9x 3
= x+1 +
x2 9

1
1

x3
x+3

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Coordinate Geometry

Parametric equations
If we define x and y in terms of a single variable (the letters t or are often used) then this
variable is called a parameter: we then have the parametric equation of a curve.
Example: y = t 2 3, x = 2 + t is the parametric equation of a curve. Find
(i)

the points where the curve meets the x-axis,

(ii)

the points of intersection of the curve with the line y = 2x + 1.

Solution:
(i)

The curve meets the x-axis when y = 0 t 2 = 3 t = 3

curve meets the x-axis at (2 3, 0) and (2 + 3, 0).

(ii)

Substitute for x and y in the equation of the line

t 2 3 = 2(2 + t) + 1

t2 2t 8 = 0

t = 2 or 4

the points of intersection are (0, 1) and (6, 13).

(t 4)(t + 2) = 0

Example: Find whether the curves y = t2 2, x = 2t + 3 and y = t + 3, x = 3t 4 intersect.

If they do give the point of intersection, otherwise give reasons why they do not
intersect.
Solution:

If they intersect there must be a value of t which makes their x-coordinates

equal, so find this value of t
2t + 3 = 3t 4 t = 7

But for this value of t the y-coordinates are 47 and 10.

So we cannot find a value of t to give equal x- and equal y-coordinates and therefore
the curves do not intersect.

C4 14/04/13

Conversion from parametric to Cartesian form

Eliminate the parameter (t or or ) to form an equation between x and y only.

Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by y = t 2 3, x = t + 2.
Solution:

x=t+2

t = x 2, and y = t 2 3

y = (x 2)2 3,

which is the Cartesian equation of a parabola with vertex at (2, 3)

With trigonometric parametric equations the formulae

sin2 t + cos2 t = 1

sec2t tan2 t = 1

and

will often be useful.

Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by
y = 3sin t + 2, x = 3cos t 1.
Solution:

Re-arranging we have

sin t =

y2
, and
3
2

cos t =
2

y 2

(x + 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 9

x + 1
+

x +1
, which together with sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
3
= 1

which is the Cartesian equation of a circle with centre (1, 2) and radius 3.
Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by y = 3tan t, x = 4sec t.
Hence sketch the curve.

Re-arranging we have tan t =

Solution:

y
, and
3

sec t =

x
,
4

which together with sec2 t tan2 t = 1

x2
42

y2
32

= 1

4 y
2

which is the standard equation of a hyperbola

with centre (0, 0)
and x-intercepts (4, 0), (4, 0).

x
6

2
4

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Area under curve given parametrically

We know that the area between a curve and the x-axis is given by A = y dx

dA
= y.
dx
dA dA dx
=

dt dx dt

But, from the chain rule

dA
dx
=y
dt
dt

Integrating with respect to t

dx

y dt dt .

A =

Example: Find the area between the curve y = t 2 1, x = t 3 + t, the x-axis and the lines
x = 0 and x = 2.
Solution:

The area is A =

A =

we should write limits for t, not x

Firstly we need to find y and

y = t2 1 and

dx
in terms of t.
dt

dx
= 3t2 + 1.
dt

Secondly we are integrating with respect to t and so the limits of integration must be for
values of t.

x = 0 t = 0, and
x = 2 t3 + t = 2 t3 + t 2 = 0

(t 1)(t2 + t + 2) = 0

t = 1.

so the limits for t are from 0 to 1

A =
1

1
0

dx
dt =
dt

1
0

(t2 1) (3t2 + 1) dt

3t 5

2t 3

t = 1 151

3
5
0

3t4 2t2 1 dt
1

Note that in simple problems you may be able to eliminate t and find y dx in the usual
manner. However there will be some problems where this is difficult and the above technique
will be better.

C4 14/04/13

Sequences and series

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n

n(n 1)
n(n 1)(n 2)
x2 +
x 3 + ....
2!
3!

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +

This converges provided that |x| < 1.

Example: Expand (1 + 3x) 2, giving the first four terms, and state the values of x for
which the series is convergent.
Solution:
(1 + 3x) 2
= 1 + (2) 3x +
(2) (3)
(2) (3) (4)
(3x)2 +
(3x)3 + ...
2!
3!
= 1 6x + 27x2 108x3 + ...
This series is convergent when |3x| < 1 |x| < 1/3.
Example: Use the previous example to find an approximation for
Solution:

Notice that

1
.
0 9997 2

1
= 09997 2 = (1 + 3x)2 when x = 00001.
0 9997 2

So writing x = 00001 in the expansion 1 6x + 27x2 108x3

09997 2 1 + 00006 + 000000027 + 0000000000108 = 1000600270108
The correct answer to 13 decimal places is 10006002701080

not bad eh?

Example: Expand ( 4 x ) 2 , giving all terms up to and including the term in x3, and state
for what values of x the series is convergent.

Solution:

As the formula holds for (1 + x)n we first re-write

(4 x)

1
2

1 x
= 2 1 + +

2 4

1
2

x2
x2

= 4 1 = 2 1
4

4
1
2

12
2!

x

4

1
2

12 32
3!

and now we can use the formula

x

4

+ .....

x
x2
x3

.
= 2
4
64 512
This expansion converges for
8

x
4

<1

|x| < 4.
C4 14/04/13 SDB

Example: Find the expansion of

Solution:

First write in partial fractions

3 x 1
2
1
, which must now be written as
=
+
x
+
3
x

2
x x6
2

2
1

x
3(1 + 3 )
2(1 2x )

3 x 1
in ascending powers of x up to x2.
x x6
2

2
3

2
3

(1 + 3x ) 1

1
2

(1 2x ) 1

2
2

1 + (1) x + (1)(2) x 1 1+ (1) x + (1)(2) x

2! 3
2
2! 2
3
2

1
17 x
11x 2

.
6
36
216

C4 14/04/13

Differentiation

Relationship between

y = 3x2

So

and

dy
= 6x
dx

dx
1
=
.
dy
6x

Implicit differentiation
This is just the chain rule when we do not know explicitly what y is as a function of x.
Examples: The following examples use the chain rule (or implicit differentiation)

sin
5

sin

10

cos
usingtheproductrule

3
2
2
dy
d 2
d 2

(
(
x + 3 y ) = 3 (x 2 + 3 y )
x + 3 y ) = 3 (x 2 + 3 y ) 2 x + 3
dx
dx
dx

Example: Find the gradient of, and the equation of, the tangent to the curve
x2 + y2 3xy = 1 at the point (1, 2).
Solution:

Differentiating x2 + y2 3xy = 1 with respect to x gives

2x + 2y

dy
dy
3 y + 3x = 0
dx
dx

dy
3y 2x
=
dx
2 y 3x

dy
= 4
dx

when x = 1 and y = 2.

Equation of the tangent is y 2 = 4(x 1)

10

y = 4x 2.

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Parametric differentiation

Example: A curve has parametric equations x = t 2 + t, y = t 3 3t.

(i)

Find the equation of the normal at the point where t = 2.

(ii)

Find the points with zero gradient.

Solution:

(i)

When t = 2, x = 6 and y = 2.

dx
dy
= 3t 2 3 and
= 2t + 1
dt
dt

3
2

3
1

9
5

when t = 2

Thus the gradient of the normal at the point (6, 2) is

and its equation is y 2 =

/9 (x 6)

/9

5x + 9y = 48.

dy
3t 2 3
=
= 0
dx
2t + 1

(ii)

gradient = 0 when

3t2 3 = 0

t = 1

points with zero gradient are (0, 2) and (2, 2).

Exponential functions, ax
y = ax

ln y = ln ax = x ln a

1 dy
= ln a
y dx

d x
a
dx

C4 14/04/13

( )

dy
= y ln a
dx

= a x ln a

11

Related rates of change

We can use the chain rule to relate one rate of change to another.
Example:

A spherical snowball is melting at a rate of 96 cm3 s 1 when its radius is 12 cm.

Find the rate at which its surface area is decreasing at that moment.

Solution:

We know that V = 4/3 r3 and that A = 4 r2.

Using the chain rule we have

dr
dV
dV dr
=

= 4 r 2
,
dt
dr
dt
dt

dV
dt

96 = 4 122

dr
1
=
dt
6

since

dV
= 4 r 2
dr

since

dA
= 8 r
dr

dr
dt

= 4 r2

dr
dt

Using the chain rule again

dA
dA dr
dr
=

= 8 r
,
dt
dr dt
dt

dA
1
= 8 12
= 16 cm 2 s 1
dt
6

Forming differential equations

Example: The mass of a radio-active substance at time t is decaying at a rate which is
proportional to the mass present at time t. Find a differential equation connecting the
mass m and the time t.

dm
means the rate at which the mass is increasing so in this
dt
case we must consider the rate of decay as a negative increase

Solution:

Remember that

dm
m
dt

dm
= km, where k is the (positive) constant of proportionality.
dt
1

ln m =

kt 2 + ln A

12

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Integration

Integrals of ex and

dx = e x + c

1 dx = ln | x | + c

for a further treatment of this result, see the appendix

3
x + 3x
dx
Example: Find
x2
3
3
x + 3x
dx =
dx = x2 + 3 ln x + c.
x+

x
x

Solution:

Standard integrals
x must be in RADIANS when integrating trigonometric functions.

f ( x)

f (x)

f (x)

dx

f ( x)

dx

x n +1
n +1

sin x

cos x

1
x

ln x

cos x

sin x

ex

ex

sec x tan x

sec x

sec x

tan x

cosec x cot x

cosec x

cosec2 x

cot x

Integration using trigonometric identities

Example: Find

cot

x dx .

cot2 x = cosec2 x 1

Solution:

cot x x + c.

C4 14/04/13

cot 2 x dx =

cosec 2 x 1 dx

13

Example: Find

sin

x dx.

sin2 x = (1 cos 2x)

Solution:

sin

x sin 2x + c.

x dx =

(1 cos 2 x) dx

You cannot change x to 3x in the above result to find

Example: Find

3x dx .

see next example

3x dx .

sin2 3x = (1 cos 2 3x) = (1 cos 6x)

Solution:

sin

sin

sin

=
=

(1 cos 6 x) dx

x 1/12 sin 6x + c.

Example: Find
Solution:

3x dx =

sin 3x cos 5x

dx.

Using the formula 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A B)

sin 3x cos 5x dx
1
/2 sin 8x + sin (2x)

dx =
1
/16 cos 8x + cos 2x + c.

/2 sin 8x sin 2x dx

Integration by reverse chain rule

Some integrals which are not standard functions can be integrated by thinking of the chain
rule for differentiation.

Example: Find
Solution:

sin

sin
4

3x cos 3x dx .

3x cos 3x dx

If we think of u = sin 3x, then the integrand looks like u 4

constants, which would integrate to give 1/5 u5

du
if we ignore the
dx

so we differentiate u5 = sin5 3x
to give

d
sin 5 3x
dx

= 5 sin 4 3x 3 cos 3x = 15 sin 4 3x cos 3x

which is 15 times what we want and so

14

C4 14/04/13 SDB

 sin

3x cos 3x dx =

Example: Find

Solution:

( 2 x 3)
2

x
( 2 x 3)
2

sin 5 3x + c

1
15

dx

dx

If we think of u = (2x2 3), then the integrand looks like

constants, which would integrate to ln u

1 du
if we ignore the
u dx

so we differentiate ln u = ln 2x2 3

d
ln 2 x 2 3
dx

to give

1
4x
4x =
2x 3
(2 x 2 3)
2

which is 4 times what we want and so

x
( 2 x 3)

In general

dx = ln 2x2 3 + c.

f ' ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c
f ( x)

Integrals of tan x and cot x

tan x dx =

sin x

cos x dx

and we now have

sin x
dx ,
cos x

f ' ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c
f ( x)

tan x dx = ln cos x + c

tan x dx = ln sec x + c

cot x can be integrated by a similar method to give

cot x dx = ln sin x + c

Integrals of sec x and cosec x

sec x dx =

sec x (sec x + tan x)

sec x + tan x dx =

sec2 x + sec x tan x

sec x + tan x dx

The top is now the derivative of the bottom

and we have

C4 14/04/13

f ' ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c
f ( x)

sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c

15

and similarly
cosec x dx = ln cosec x + cot x + c

Integration using partial fractions

For use with algebraic fractions where the denominator factorises.
6x
dx
x + x2
6x
in partial fractions.
Solution: First express
2
x +x2
6x
A
B
6x

+
2
( x 1)( x + 2)
x 1
x+2
x +x2

Example: Find

6x A(x + 2) + B(x 1).

put x = 1

A = 2,

put x = 2

B=4

6x
dx =
x +x2

2 ln |x 1| + 4 ln |x + 2| + c.

2
4
+
dx
x 1
x+2

Integration by substitution, indefinite

(i)
(ii)

Use the given substitution involving x and u, (or find a suitable substitution).

du
dx
or
, whichever is easier and re-arrange to find dx in terms
dx
du
of du, i.e dx = ... du
Find either

(iii)

Use the substitution in (i) to make the integrand a function of u, and use your
answer to (ii) to replace dx by ...... du.

(iv)

Simplify and integrate the function of u.

(v)

Use the substitution in (i) to write your answer in terms of x.

x 3 x 2 5 dx using the substitution u = 3x2 5.

Example:

Find

Solution:

(i)
u = 3x2 5
du
= 6x

dx

(ii)
(iii)

du
6x

dx =

We can see that there an x will cancel, and 3

x 3 x 2 5 dx =

x u

du
6x

u
6

du

3
1

(iv)

16

1
u 2 du
6

1 u2
3
6
2

+ c

C4 14/04/13 SDB

(3x 2 5) 2
(v) =
9
Example:

Find

Solution:

(i)

+ c

1
dx using the substitution x = tan u.
1+ x2

x = tan u.

(ii)

dx
= sec 2 u
du

(iii)

(iv)

sec 2 u
du
sec 2 u

du

tan 1 x + c.

(v)

1
dx =
1+ x2

Example: Find

Solution:
(ii)

(iii)

x 4
2

sec 2 u du

since 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u

u + c

dx using the substitution u2 = x2 4.

u2 = x2 4.

(i)

We know that

2u

1 + tan

3x

dx = sec2 u du.

( )

d 2
du
u = 2u
so differentiating gives
dx
dx

du
= 2x
dx

dx =

u
du .
x

We can see that an x will cancel and

3x
x 4
2

dx =

du

x 2 4 = u so

3x
u

du
u
x

(iv)

(v)

3 x2 4 + c

3u + c

A justification of this technique is given in the appendix.

C4 14/04/13

17

Integration by substitution, definite

If the integral has limits then proceed as before but remember to change the limits from
values of x to the corresponding values of u.
Add

(ii) (a) Change limits from x to u, and

new

(v)

Put in limits for u.

Example: Find
Solution:

(i)

6
2

x 3x 2 dx using the substitution u = 3x 2.

u = 3x 2.

du
= 3
dx

(ii)

du
3

dx =

(ii) (a) Change limits from x to u

x = 2 u = 3 2 2 = 4, and x = 6 u = 3 6 2 = 16
6

(iv)

1
9

3
52
u2
1 u
+ 2 3
9 5
2
2

(v)

x 3x 2 dx =

1
9

16
4

2
5

3
2

+ 2u

1024 +

u+2
u2
3

16

(iii)

4
3

1
2

du
3

du
16

64 ]

1
9

2
5

32 + 43 8] = 524 to 3 S.F.

Choosing the substitution

In general put u equal to the awkward bit but there are some special cases where this will
not help.
1

2
4

put u = x2 + 1
put u = x 2

put u = 2x + 5

u2 = 2x + 5

put u or u2 = 4 x2

only if n is ODD

put x = 2 sin u

only if n is EVEN (or zero)

this makes 4

18

or

= 4 cos

= 2 cos u

C4 14/04/13 SDB

There are many more possibilities use your imagination!!

Integration by parts
The product rule for differentiation is

To integrate by parts
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

dv
dx
du
find v and
dx
substitute in formula and integrate.

choose u and

Example: Find
Solution:

x sin x dx

(i)

Choose u = x, because it disappears when differentiated

dv
= sin x
and choose
dx
du
= 1 and
(ii)
u=x
dx
dv
= sin x v = sin x dx = cos x
dx
dv
du
(iii)
u dx dx = uv v dx dx

x cos x + sin x + c.

x sin x dx = x cos x

1 ( cos x)

Example: Find

ln x

Solution:

It does not look like a product, u

(i)

dx

dx

dv
, but if we take u = ln x and
dx

dv
dv
= 1 then u
= ln x 1 = ln x
dx
dx
(ii)

C4 14/04/13

u = ln x

du
1
=
and
dx
x

dv
= 1 v =x
dx
19

(iii)

ln x 1 dx = x ln x
=

1
dx
x

x ln x x + c.

Area under curve

We found in Core 2 that the area under the curve is written
.
as the integral
We can consider the area as approximately the sum of the
rectangles shown.
If each rectangle has width x and if the heights of the
rectangles are y1, y2, ..., yn

then the area of the rectangles is approximately the area

under the curve
b

y x
a

y dx

and as x 0 we have

y x

y dx

This last result is true for any function y.

Volume of revolution

y = f (x)

y
b

x
x+

If the curve of y = f (x) is rotated about the xaxis then the volume of the shape formed can
be found by considering many slices each of width x: one slice is shown.
The volume of this slice (a disc) is approximately y2x
Sum of volumes of all slices from a to b

20

C4 14/04/13 SDB

and as x 0 we have (using the result above

y x

y dx )

dx .

Volume of revolution about the xaxis

Volume when y = f (x), between x = a and x = b, is rotated about the xaxis

is V =

y 2 dx .

Volume of revolution about the yaxis

Volume when y = f (x) , between y = c and y = d, is rotated about the yaxis

is V =

x 2 dy .

Volume of rotation about the y-axis is not in the syllabus but is included for completeness.

Parametric integration
When x and y are given in parametric form we can find integrals using the techniques in
integration by substitution.

think of cancelling the dts

See the appendix for a justification of this result.

Example: If x = tan t and y = sin t, find the area under the curve from t = 0 to t = /4.
Solution:

The area =

dx for some limits on x =

dx
dt .
dt

We know that y = sin t, and also that

dx
= sec 2 t
dt

x = tan t

area =

4
0

dx =

sin t sec t dt =
2

4
0

dx
dt
dt

tan t sec t dt

[sec t ] 04

2 1

To find a volume of revolution we need

C4 14/04/13

dx and we proceed as above writing

21

Example:

The curve shown has parametric equations

y

x = t2 1, y = t3.
The section between x = 0 and x = 8 above the x-axis
is rotated about the x-axis through 2 radians. Find
the volume generated.
Solution:

V =

8
0

20
10

y 2 dx .

10

x = 0 t = 1 and x = 8 t = 3,
but the curve is above the x-axis y = t3 > 0 t > 0, t = +1, or 3

dx
= 2t
dt

also y = t3, x = t2 1

V =

t8
2
8 1

dx
dt =
dt

(3

3
1

t 6 2t dt

3
1

t 7 dt

Differential equations
Separating the variables

Example: Solve the differential equation

Solution:

dy
= 3 y + xy .
dx

dy
= 3 y + xy = y(3 + x)
dx

We first cheat by separating the x s and y s onto different sides of the equation.

1
dy = (3 + x ) dx and then put in the integral signs
y

1
dy =
y

3 + x dx

ln y = 3x + 1/2 x2 + c.

See the appendix for a justification of this technique.

22

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Exponential growth and decay

Example:
A radio-active substance decays at a rate which is proportional to the mass of the
substance present. Initially 25 grams are present and after 8 hours the mass has
decreased to 20 grams. Find the mass after 1 day.
Solution:

Let m grams be the mass of the substance at time t.

dm
is the rate of increase of m so, since the mass is decreasing,
dt
dm
= km
dt

1 dm
=
m dt

1
dm =
m

ln m = kt + ln A

ln

m = Ae kt .

k dt

= kt

When t = 0, m = 25 A = 25

m = 25ekt.

When t = 8, m = 20

20 = 25e8k

e8k = 08

8k = ln 08

k = 0027892943

So when t = 24,

m = 25e24 0027892943 = 128.

Answer 128 grams after 1 day.

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23

Vectors

Notation
The book and exam papers like writing vectors in the form
a = 3i 4j + 7k.

It is allowed, and sensible, to re-write vectors in column form

3
i.e. a = 3i 4j + 7k = 4 .
7

Definitions, adding and subtracting, etcetera

A vector has both magnitude (length) and direction. If you always think of a vector as a
translation you will not go far wrong.
Directed line segments

The vector

is the vector from A to B,

(or the translation which takes A to B).

This is sometimes called the
displacement vector from A to B.

Vectors in co-ordinate form

Vectors can also be thought of as column vectors,

7
thus in the diagram AB = .
3

3
A

Negative vectors

is the 'opposite' of

7
= .
3

and so

Adding and subtracting vectors

(i) Using a diagram

Geometrically this can be done using a triangle (or a parallelogram):
Adding:
a
b

a+b

24

a+b
b

C4 14/04/13 SDB

The sum of two vectors is called the resultant of those vectors.

Subtracting:
b

ab
a

(ii) Using coordinates

a c
a + c
b + d = b + d

and

a c
a c
b d = b d .

Parallel and non - parallel vectors

Parallel vectors

Two vectors are parallel if they have the same direction

one is a multiple of the other.
Example: Which two of the following vectors are parallel?

6 4 2
3, 2 , 1.

Solution:

6
6
4
3 4
and so is parallel to
Notice that =
2 2
3
3
2

2
4
but is not a multiple of and so cannot be parallel to the other two vectors.
1
2
4
Example: Find a vector of length 15 in the direction of .
3
4
Solution: a = has length
3

a = a =

42 + 32 = 5

4
12
and so the required vector of length 15 = 3 5 is 3a = 3 = .
3
9
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25

Non-parallel vectors

If a and b are not parallel and if a + b = a + b, then

a a = b b ( ) a = ( ) b
but a and b are not parallel and one cannot be a multiple of the other
( ) = 0 = ( )
= and = .
Example: If a and b are not parallel and if
b + 2a + b = a + 3b 5a, find the values of and .

Solution:

Since a and b are not parallel, the coefficients of a and b must balance out

2= 5

= 7 and 1 + = 3

= 2.

Modulus of a vector and unit vectors

Modulus

The modulus of a vector is its magnitude or length.

7
then the modulus of

7
3
3
then the modulus of c = c = c =
Or, if c =
3
5

If

58

34

Unit vectors

A unit vector is one with length 1.

12
Example: Find a unit vector in the direction of
.
5
12
2
2
a =
has length a= a = 12 + 5 = 13 ,

5
1312
12
=
and so the required unit vector is 131 a = 131
5 .

5
13

Solution:

26

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Position vectors

If A is the point (1, 4) then the position vector of A is the vector from the origin to A,
1
= a = .
usually written as
4
y

For two points A and B the position vectors are

= a and

ba

= b

go from A O B

To find the vector

= a + b = b a

giving

Ratios
Example: A, B are the points (2, 1) and (4, 7). M lies on AB in the ratio 1 : 3. Find the
coordinates of M.

Solution :
=

2
6

2
05

6
15
2
05

1
15
25

25

M
1

M is (25, 25)
O

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27

Proving geometrical theorems

Example:

In a triangle OBC let M and N be the midpoints of OB and OC.

Prove that BC = 2 MN and that BC is parallel to MN.

Solution:

as b, and

Write the vectors

=
=

Then
and

as c.
O

= b
= c.

, go from M to O using b and

To find
then from O to N using c

= b + c

= c b

M
N

b
c
B

, go from B to O using b and

Also, to find
then from O to C using c

= b + c = c b .

But

= b + c = (c b) = BC

BC is parallel to MN
and BC is twice as long as MN.

Example:

P lies on OA in the ratio 2 : 1, and Q lies on OB in the ratio 2 : 1. Prove that PQ

is parallel to AB and that PQ = 2/3 AB.
A

Let a =

Solution:

, and b =

a,

ba

b
O

and

= /3 b /3 a

= 2/3 (b a)
= 2/3

28

PQ is parallel to AB and

PQ = 2/3 AB.
C4 14/04/13 SDB

Three dimensional vectors

Length, modulus or magnitude of a vector

The length, modulus or magnitude of the vector

= a = a =

a1
= a2 is
a3

a12 + a2 2 + a32` ,

a sort of three dimensional Pythagoras.

Distance between two points

To find the distance between A, (a1, a2, a3) and B, (b1, b2, b3) we need to find the length of
the vector
.

= b a

b1
a1
b1 a1

= b2 a2 = b2 a2
b3
a3
b3 a3

= AB =

(b

a1 ) + ( b2 a2 ) + ( b3 a3 )
2

Scalar product
a . b = ab cos

where a and b are the lengths of a and b

and is the angle measured from a to b.

Note that

(i)

a . a = aa cos 0o = a2

(ii)

a (b + c) = a b + a c .

(iii)

a.b = b.a

since cos = cos ()

In co-ordinate form

a1 b1
a . b = . = a1b1 + a 2 b2 = ab cos
a 2 b2
or

C4 14/04/13

a1 b1
a . b = a 2 . b2 = a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3 = ab cos .
a 3 b3

29

Perpendicular vectors
If a and b are perpendicular then = 90o and cos = 0

thus a perpendicular to b a . b = 0
and a . b = 0 either a is perpendicular to b

or

a or b = 0.

Example: Find the values of so that a = 3i 2j + 2k and

b = 2i + j + 6k are perpendicular.

Since a and b are perpendicular a . b = 0

Solution:

3 2
2 . = 0
2 6

6 2 2 + 12 = 0

2 = 9 = 3.

1
3

Example: Find a vector which is perpendicular to a, 1 , and b, 1 .

2
1
Solution:

p
Let the vector c, q , be perpendicular to both a and b.
r

p
q
r

1
1 = 0 and

2

p
q

r

3
1 = 0

1

p q + 2r = 0 and 3p + q + r = 0.
Adding these equations gives 4p + 3r = 0.
Notice that there will never be a unique solution to these problems, so having
eliminated one variable, q, we find p in terms of r, and then find q in terms of r.

30

3r
4

q=

5r
4

p=

43r

c is any vector of the form 54r ,
r

C4 14/04/13 SDB

and we choose a sensible value of r = 4 to give

3
5 .

4

Angle between vectors

Example: Find the angle between the vectors

= 4i 5j + 2k
Solution:

and

= i + 2j 3k,

to the nearest degree.

First re-write as column vectors (if you want)

1
2

3

4
a = 5 and b =
2
a = a =

4 2 + 5 2 + 2 2 = 45 = 3 5 ,

a . b = ab cos

14

20 = 3 5 14 cos

cos =

= 143o to the nearest degree.

3 70

12 + 2 2 + 32 =

1
2 = 4 10 6 = 20

3

4
and a . b = 5
2

20

b = b =

= 0.796819

Vector equation of a straight line

x
r = y is usually used as the position vector of a
z

general point, R.

In the diagram the line l passes through the point A

and is parallel to the vector b.

To go from O to R first go to A, using a, and then

from A to R using some multiple of b.

C4 14/04/13

31

 The equation of a straight line through the point A and parallel to the vector b is
r = a + b.
Example: Find the vector equation of the line through the points M, (2, 1, 4),
and N, (5, 3, 7).
Solution:

We are looking for the line through M (or N) which is parallel to the vector

5
2
7

= n m = 3 1 = 4
7
4
3
2
7

equation is r = 1 + 4 .
4
3

Example:

Show that the point P, (1, 7, 10), lies on the line

1
1

r = 3 + 2 .
4
3
Solution:

The x co-ord of P is 1 and of the line is 1

1 = 1 = 2.

In the equation of the line this gives y = 7 and z = 10

P, (1, 7, 10) does lie on the line.

Intersection of two lines

2 Dimensions
Example: Find the intersection of the lines

2
3

1
,
2

l1 , r = +

and

1
1
l2, r = + .
3
1

Solution: We are looking for values of and which give the same x and y
co-ordinates on each line.

32

Equating x co-ords

2 =1+

equating y co-ords

3 + 2 = 3
C4 14/04/13 SDB

Adding

5+=4

= 1

= 2

lines intersect at (3, 1).

3 Dimensions

This is similar to the method for 2 dimensions with one important difference you can not be
certain whether the lines intersect without checking.
You will always (or nearly always) be able to find values of and by equating
x coordinates and y coordinates but the z coordinates might or might not be equal and
must be checked.
Example: Investigate whether the lines

l 1,

2
1

r = 1 + 2
3
1

and

3
l 2, r = 1 +
5

1
3

1

intersect

and if they do find their point of intersection.

Solution: If the lines intersect we can find values of and to give the same x, y and z
coordinates in each equation.

Equating x coords

2 = 3 + ,

equating y coords

1 + 2 = 1 + 3,

II

equating z coords

3 + = 5 + .

III

2 I + II 5 = 5 + 5 = 2, in I = 3.
We must now check to see if we get the same point for the values of and

In l 1, = 3 gives the point (1, 7, 6);

in l 2, = 2 gives the point (1, 7, 7).
The x and y co-ords are equal (as expected!), but the z co-ordinates are different and so
the lines do not intersect.

C4 14/04/13

33

Appendix

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n proof

Suppose that
f (x) = (1 + x)n = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 + ex4 +

put x = 0, 1 = a
f (x) = n(1 + x)n 1 = b + 2cx + 3dx2 + 4ex3 +
put x = 0, n = b
f (x) = n(n 1)(1 + x)n 2 = 2c + 3 2dx + 4 3ex2 +
put x = 0, n(n 1) = 2c
f (x) = n(n 1)(n 2)(1 + x)

n3

= 3 2d + 4 3 2ex +

put x = 0, n(n 1)(n 2) = 3 2d

Continuing this process, we have

and

, etc.

giving f (x) = (1 + x)n

= 1 + nx +
+

Showing that this is convergent for x < 1, is more difficult!

Derivative of xq for q rational

Suppose that q is any rational number,
Then

y = xq =

, where r and s are integers, s

ys = xr
= r xr 1

Differentiating with respect to x s

34

0.

= qx q 1

since q =
since ys = xr and y = xq
C4 14/04/13 SDB

which follows the rule found for xn, where n is an integer.

for negative limits

We know that the area under any curve, from

x = a to x = b is approximately
y

0
x

If the curve is above the x-axis, all the y values are positive, and if a < b then all values of x
are positive, and so the integral is positive.
1

ln|x|

Example: Find

3
1

ln

ln

1
dx .
x

Solution: The integral wanted is shown as A

in the diagram.

y=1/x
1

By symmetry A = A (A positive)

and we need to decide whether the integral

is +A or A.

2 A'

From x = 1 to x = 3, we are going in

the direction of x decreasing
all x are negative.
And the graph is below the x-axis,
the y values are negative,

y x is positive

the integral is positive and equal to A.

The integral, A = A =
A =

3
1

3
1

1
dx = [ ln x ] 13 = ln 3 ln 1 = ln 3
x

1
dx = ln 3
x

Notice that this is what we get if we write ln x in place of ln x

3
1

1
dx = [ ln | x |] 31 = ln 3 ln 1 = ln 3
x

As it will always be possible to use symmetry in this way, since we can never have one
positive and one negative limit (because there is a discontinuity at x = 0), it is correct to write
ln x for the integral of 1/x .
C4 14/04/13

35

Integration by substitution why it works

We show the general method with an example.

integrand =

Choose u = 1 + x3

But

1
3

rearrange togive

leave the x2 because it appears in dx

this is the same as writing the integrand in

terms of u, and then replacing dx by

The essential part of this method, writing the integrand in terms of u, and then replacing dx
by
, will be the same for all integrations by substitution.

Parametric integration
This is similar to integration by substitution.

36

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Separating the variables why it works

We show this with an example.
If y = 6y3then
and so

18

= 18y2

18

Notice that we cancel the dx.

= x2 sec y

Example: Solve

Solution:

= x2 sec y
cos y

= x2

cos

cos

sin y =

C4 14/04/13

cancelling the dx

+ c

37

Index
Binomial expansion
convergence, 8
for any n, 8
proof - for any n, 34
Differential equations
exponential growth and decay, 23
forming, 12
separating the variables, 22
Differentiation
derivative of xq for q rational, 34
exponential functions, ax, 11
related rates of change, 12
Implicit differentiation, 10
Integration
1
/x for negative limits, 35
by parts, 19
by substitution why it works, 36
choosing the substitution, 18
ex, 13
ln x, 13
parametric, 21
parametric why it works, 36
reverse chain rule, 14
sec x and cosec x, 15
separating variables why it works, 37
standard integrals, 13
substitution, definite, 18
substitution, indefinite, 16
tan x and cot x, 15
using partial fractions, 16
using trigonometric identities, 13
volume of revolution, 20
Parameters
area under curve, 7
equation of circle, 6
equation of hyperbola, 6
intersection of two curves, 5
parametric equations of curves, 5
parametric to Cartesian form, 6
trig functions, 6

38

Parametric differentiation, 11
Parametric integration, 36
areas, 21
volumes, 21
Partial fractions, 3
integration, 16
linear repeated factors, 4
linear unrepeated factors, 3
quadratic factors, 3
top heavy fractions, 4
Scalar product, 29
perpendicular vectors, 30
properties, 29
Vectors, 24
adding and subtracting, 24
angle between vectors, 31
displacement vector, 24
distance between 2 points, 29
equation of a line, 31
intersection of two lines, 32
length of 3-D vector, 29
modulus, 26
non-parallel vectors, 26
parallel vectors, 25
position vector, 27
proving geometrical theorems, 28
ratios, 27
unit vector, 26

C4 14/04/13 SDB