Chemistry Department

University of Malaya

Organic Chemistry
Laboratory Manual
Level 3

Organic Chemistry Level 3____________________________

Organic Chemistry
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction

1. Conversion of Cholesterol to Cholestenone

2. Formation of carbon-carbon bonds The Wittig Reaction

3. Lactone Synthesis

10

4. Analysis of a Binary Mixture

12

5. Appendices

15

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Organic Chemistry Level 3____________________________

SCES/P3120
INTRODUCTION
Laboratory Notebook:
One laboratory notebook or jotter (e.g. inexpensive exercise book ) is required for recording
all primary experimental data. All reaction products must be submitted.

Course Content
The Course is designed so that on completion you should know of the following:
(a) How to separate and identify organic compounds by classical and spectrophotometric
techniques and chromatographic techniques including LC and TLC
(b) How to do routine operations e.g. crystallization, distillation, sublimation, vacuum
distillation, and extractions.
(c) How to synthesize compounds and study reaction mechanisms
The following is an approximate guide as to how you should spend your time in the lab.
1. Two organic synthesis experiments

50% Credit

2. Spectral and Qualitative analyses of a binary mixture

50% Credit

This is a final Year Organic chemistry course and you are expected to do most of the
laboratory operations on your own. As a matter of routine you may have to perform
recrystallizations, distillations, extractions, steam distillation, vacuum distillation and other
things learnt during the earlier years. You have no excuse if you do not know them. If you are
unsure or have forgotten refer back to your manuals or texts. You are also reminded not to
neglect safety precautions (e.g. in anticipation of fire hazards, in handling corrosive
chemicals,

recovery/disposal

of

solvents,

in

handling

toxic/carcinogenic/explosive

chemicals). As a matter of good personal habits expected of a potential UM graduate you are
to be tidy, save on chemicals and handle equipment or glassware with intelligence and care.

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Organic Chemistry Level 3____________________________

Experiment 1
CONVERSION OF CHOLESTEROL TO CHOLESTENONE
Preparation of 5-cholesten-3-one and 4-cholesten-3-one from cholesterol use of a
protecting group in organic synthesis
In an attempt to oxidize cholesterol (I) to the corresponding ketone 5-cholesten-3one (II), it was found (L. F. Fieser, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1953, 75, 4377, 4386) that it was not
possible to obtain pure 5-cholesten-3-one. Due to the presence of a double bond , - to the
alcohol group, an array of products were obtained:

HO

O
(I)

HO

(II)

HOOC
HOOC

HO

O
O

To avoid this difficulty it is necessary to temporarily remove the double bond and to
regenerate it after oxidation. This is carried out by adding bromine across the double bond,
and later debrominating using zinc (Note: modern reagents for carrying out the oxidation
directly without affecting the double bond include PCC, TPAP/NMO, and (COCl)2/DMSO;
Et3N or the Swern oxidation).
Br2
HO

Na2Cr2O7
HO

Br

O
Br

(III)

Zn

Br

Br

(IV)

(CO2H)2
O

O
(II)

(V)

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Under the mild condition to be used here for debromination, it is possible to isolate
the unconjugated ketone 5-cholesten-3-one (II). Subsequent treatment of this with acid,
however, will cause migration of the double bond, resulting in formation of the ,unsaturated ketone 4-cholesten-3-one (V).

Procedure

Preparation of Cholesterol Dibromide (III)

Add a mixture of 2.5 g bromine (caution), 0.2g anhydrous sodium acetate and 25 mL
glacial acetic acid to 5 g cholesterol in 50 mL ether. After a few minutes, the mixture
will precipitate as crystals.

Collect these cholesterol dibromide (III) crystals by

suction filtration and wash with a small amount of glacial acetic acid.

Oxidation 5,6-Dibromcholesten-3-one (IV)

Transfer the cholesterol dibromide (III) into a flask containing 70 mL glacial acetic
acid. Prepare a solution of 2.7g sodium dichromate in 70 mL glacial acetic acid
which has been warmed to 90 oC and pour this mixture, with stirring, into the flask
containing the cholesterol dibromide (III) suspension. The temperature of the mixture
must be kept between 55-58 oC and the solid must dissolve within 5 minutes (if not,
warm the mixture to 65 oC and most of the solids should dissolve within 10 minutes.
Discard any impurities that did not dissolve). Leave the mixture to cool to room
temperature (about 30 minutes). Cool the mixture in an ice-bath and add (dropwise)
25 mL water: EtOH (2:1; v/v) mixture while stirring with a magnetic stirrer for 30
minutes at 0 10 oC. 5,6-Dibromcholesten-3-one (IV) is obtained as fine white
crystals, m.p. 72-76 oC. Proceed to the next step, or, if time does not permit, store
these crystals in the fridge.
(Note:

Cholesterol could be oxidised directly using the chromium complex,

CrO3.2(C5H5N))

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Debromination to 5-cholesten-3-one (II)
Transfer 2 g (IV) prepared earlier to a 50 mL conical flask and add 20 mL ether and 5
mL glacial acetic acid. Add 1.2 g zinc dust (freshly grounded) in 3-4 portions over 15
min while stirring with a magnetic stirrer. Heat will be generated and zinc acetate
will precipitate out. Stir for 15 minutes, and monitor the reaction progress by TLC.
After reaction has completed, add 1 mL water to dissolve the zinc salts. Add some
ether to the mixture and wash with water followed by 10% NaOH solution. Filter the
solution through cotton and Na2SO4 (1-2 g) and wash the residue with 5 mL ether.
Add 10 mL MeOH to the filtrate and evaporate the ether on a steam bath until crystals
appear. Collect the 5-cholesten-3-one (II) crystals (~60 %, m.p. 122-125 oC, vmax
1720 cm-1).
Isomerisation 4-cholesten-3-one (V)
Heat a mixture of 1 g 5-cholesten-3-one (II), 0.1 g anhydrous oxalic acid and 8 mL
95% ethanol on a steam bath or a hot plate till all the crystals dissolve (about 15
minutes) and continue heating for another 10 minutes. Leave to cool until product
crystallises and collect (m.p 81-82 oC, vmax 1620, 1670 cm-1).

Question:
1.

Calculate the max for the compounds I V. Compare the IR and NMR
spectra for both ketones (II) and (V).

2.

Write mechanisms for the transformations that you have carried out.

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Experiment 2
WITTIG REACTION
THE SYNTHESIS OF 3-PHENYLPROPENOIC ACID

Background
The Wittig reaction is used to convert the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones
into an alkene group. This reaction is named after Georg Wittig who won the Nobel
Prize for the reaction in 1979. In a typical Wittig reaction, triphenylphosphine (1)
reacts with an alkyl halide (2) to first form a phosphonium halide (3). Subsequently,
addition of a strong base eliminates the hydrogen halide to form an ylide,
alkylidenephosphorane (4) (Scheme 1).

Scheme 1

Base
Ph3P:
(1)

R'H2C
(2)

Ph3P
X

CH2R'

Ph3P

CHR'

Ph3P

CHR'

(3)

(4)

The carbon of the ylide acts as a nucleophile and adds to the carbonyl group (5) to
form a betaine intermediate which undergo an in situ 1,2-elimination to give the
triphenylphosphine oxide (6) and an alkene (7) as the product (Scheme 2).

Scheme 2
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R
Ph 3 P

CHR'

Ph 3 P

R'HC

O
R''

(4)

R''

(5)

R
CHR'

Ph 3 P

R''
(7)

(8)

This experiment illustrates the general procedure with the preparation of (E)-3phenylprop-2-enoate (10) from the reaction of the ylide, methyltriphenylphosphoranylethanoate (9) and benzaldehyde. The ester which is formed (10) is then
hydrolyzed with base and 3-phenylpropenoic acid (11) is then isolated as crystalline
solids (Scheme 3).

Scheme 3
Br
Br

CO2Me

Ph3P

CO2Me

Ph3P

CO2Me
(9)

(8)
Ph3P

(9)
Ph

CO2Me

Ph
(10)

CO2Me

CO2H

Ph
(11)

Procedure

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(I)

Preparation of triphenylphosphoranyl ethanoate (4) from methoxycarbonyl

- methylenyltriphenylphosphonium bromide.
Dissolve triphenylphosphine (5 g, 0.02 mol) in dry toluene (50 mL) in a clean
and dry 250-mL round-bottomed flask. Add methyl bromoethanoate (3 g, 0.02
mol) [Note 1] to the mixture and warm the mixture to 60 oC. Shake the
mixture once in a while, keeping the temperature constant at 60 oC for 10
minutes. Cool the reaction mixture to room temperature and leave for 1 hour
at this temperature. Collect the phosphonium salt (3) (~4 g) by filtration [Note
2]. Weigh the product and record its melting point.
Dissolve the phosphonium salt (3) (4.2 g, 0.01 mol) in toluene (100 mL) and
add to an aqueous solution of 0.38 M sodium hydroxide (100 mL). Stir the
mixture vigorously for 1 hour (or until the liquid phase becomes clear).
Separate and dry the toluene layer using anhydrous Na2SO4. Remove the
solvent using the rotary evaporator to obtain the crude product (4). Record the
weight and melting point of the product. If necessary, the crude product could
be recrystallised using ethyl acetate/petroleum ether (40-60 0C) mixture as the
solvent.

(II)

Preparation of (E)-3-phenylpropenoic acid

Method 1
Dissolve the crude product (4) (3 g, 0.0089 mol) in dichloromethane (10 mL)
and add to it a solution of benzaldehye (1.0 g, 0.0094 mol) in dichloromethane
(10 mL). Reflux the mixture in a water bath for 1 hour. Remove the solvent
to obtain a yellowish white solid containing methyl 3-phenylpropenoate. Add
saturated sodium carbonate solution (20 mL) and water (100 mL) to the solid
and stir the mixture vigorously for 30 min to hydrolyze the ester to an acid
salt.

At this stage, it is suitable to leave the mixture overnight before

proceeding to the next step.

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Reflux the mixture and distill off the excess benzaldehye [Note 3]. Cool the
mixture and add water to replace the amount that was distilled off. Filter the
mixture to remove the crude triphenylphosphine oxide. Acidify the filtrate
with concentrated hydrochloric acid to precipitate out the 3-phenylpropenoic
acid. Recrystallize the 3-phenylpropenoic acid from a mixture of waterethanol solution (3:1, v/v). Weigh and take the melting point of the acid.
Record its UV and IR spectra.

Method 2:
Add dichloromethane (10 mL) to benzaldehyde (1g, 0.0094 mol) in a roundbottomed flask. Loosely stopper the flask, place it in an ice bath, and stir for at
least ten minutes. After this time, slowly stir the crude product (4) (3 g, 0.0089
mol) and continue to stir in the ice bath for an additional ten minutes. Then
allow the solution to warm up to room temperature while continuing to stir.
Retrieve the stir bar from the flask and remove the solvent from the reaction
mixture using a rotary evaporator. Add hexane (20 mL) to the residue in the
flask and gently stir with a glass rod. The product ester is soluble in hexane
but the triphenylphosphine oxide is not. Vacuum filter the solution using
another 20 mL hexane to rinse the flask. Transfer the filtrate to another dry
and clean round-bottomed flask. Remove hexane using a rotary evaporator.
Weigh and record the melting point of the product. Characterize the product
using UV and IR.
Notes:
1. Methyl bromoethanoate is a lachrymator. Please use the fume-cupboard to weigh.
2. More precipitate could be obtained if the filtrate is kept overnight.
3. Distilling of about 50 mL solution is sufficient to remove any volatile compound
from the reaction mixture.

QUESTIONS
1. What is the structure of the triphenylphosphoranyl ethanoate (4)?
2. Write a mechanism for formation of (E)-3-phenylpropenoic acid.
3. What is the limiting reagent in the above Wittig reaction above?
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Experiment 3
LACTONE SYNTHESIS VIA A REFORMATSKY REACTION- CORRECTING THE
LITERATURE
As part of a conformational study, it was desirable to obtain a -lactone with a bulky
substituent at the -position. According to the literature, the synthesis of -t-butyl-butyrolactone was an easy matter, consisting of two simple steps. However when this was
carried out, the product had an anomalous NMR spectrum. In this experiment, the lactone is
prepared, the NMR spectrum obtained, the product structure deduced, and the reaction
mechanism reinterpreted.

Me3CCOCH3

OH

Zn/C6H6
BrCH2CO2Me

Reformatsky

Me3C C CH2CO2Me
CH3

O
50% H2SO4

O
Me3C

Procedure
Preparation of Methyl-3-hydroxy-3,4,4-trimethylpentanoate
Weigh 8g of granulated zinc into a 250 mL 3-necked flask with two necks closed by
stoppers. Add 25 mL of bench dilute sulphuric acid to the zinc, and allow the steady reaction
to proceed for 5 min by which time the metal surface should appear bright. Then, decant off
the acid and wash the metal successively with water (2 x 10 mL) followed by a good grade of
acetone (1 x 10 mL). After decanting off as much solvent as possible, add 30 mL of benzene,
fit the flask for downward distillation and distil to a final volume of approximately 5 mL.
While the flask remains warm, fit it with a mechanical stirrer, a reflux condenser and
dropping funnel (Note 1), and place in the dropping funnel a mixture of pinacolone (10g),
methyl bromoacetate (15.4g) in dry (Note 2) benzene (50 mL). Run in 10 mL of this solution,
and observe carefully for the reaction to begin (Note 3). After the reaction has started, the
remainder of the solution should be added at a rate to maintain gentle reflux ( cf. Grignard
Reaction, Level II Practical ). When addition is complete, reflux the reaction until almost all
the zinc has disappeared (2 3 hr). Then, cool the flask in an ice bath, and with stirring, add
enough 10% H2SO4 to dissolve the Zn(OH)2.

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Wash the organic layer with 5% H2 SO4 , (2 x 50 mL), 10% Na2 CO3 (25 mL) and finally
with water (2 x 25 mL) and dry over anhydrous magnesium sulphate.
Remove as much as possible of the solvent by distillation at atmospheric pressure,
and subsequently distil under reduced pressure. The hydroxyester has a b.p of 82 -84 0C
@ 10 11 mmHg. If the water pressure is good you could distil at ~ 90 120 0C depending
on the pressure. Yield : 7 9 g ( 39 50% ). Record the IR and 1H NMR spectra.
Cyclisation to -lactone
Carefully add the -hydroxyester to 100 mL of 50% H2SO4 at room temperature, and
reflux the mixture for 30 min. After cooling, extract the product into chloroform (2 x 20 mL).
Wash the chloroform layer successively with sodium bicarbonate (1 x 10 mL), water (1 x 10
mL), dry (magnesium sulphate) and evaporate to dryness (rotary evaporator). Recrystallise
the product from petroleum spirit, and record the m.p , IR and NMR spectra. Yield : 4 4. 5
g ( 76 86% ).

Notes
1. All apparatus used in this step must be thoroughly oven dried before use, and
assembled while warm. Wet apparatus will result in poor yields.
2. Dried with molecular sieves or sodium
3. Gentle warming may be required. Do not add any further reagent until the reaction
has begun.

Questions
1. Based on the spectra obtained, assign a reasonable structure to the product, and
propose a mechanism for its formation ( Hint : acid catalysed rearrangement ).
2. What is the purpose of distilling benzene from the zinc before starting the
Reformatsky reaction ?

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Experiment 4
ANALYSIS OF A BINARY MIXTURE
You are provided with a mixture comprising about equal quantities of two components. You
are required to separate the mixture into the individual pure components and then identify the
two compounds using a combination of classical qualitative analysis and spectroscopy. You
are also required to submit any derivatives prepared as well as to return any unused samples.

Guide to Qualitative Analysis of Mixtures

It is necessary to separate a mixture before the individual components can be
identified. Observe the physical state of unknown mixture. Do simple tests on very small
amounts, e.g. solubilities in polar and non- polar solvents, acidic or basic aqueous salutions.
Observe carefully if the mixture is partially soluble and if reaction occurs. These properties
could form a basis for separation as well as an idea of the nature of the compound.
The following are brief descriptions of possible methods of separation:(a)

Solubility Differences
This involves extraction and is probably the easiest way but it is unlikely that one
encounters such a simple mixture. One component can be extracted into a solvent, the
other component being insoluble. This component can then be isolated by distillation
or evaporation of solvent. Normally solvent with wide differences in polarity are tried
first, e.g. water and petroleum ether. Some examples where this method will work are
sucrose/naphthalene, acetamide/ diphenyl and glycine hydrochloride/benzophenone,
where contrasting differences in polarity of the components exist.

(b)

Chemical Differences
A derivative is made and this is separated from the other components by precipitation
or extraction.* The usual type of derivative is formation of a salt, e.g. if given an
acidic/neutral mixture insoluble in water, the acidic component can be extracted into
aqueous basic solution. Similary, a phenol/neutral mixture can be treated in the same
way as most phenols are sufficiently acidic to be extracted into aqueous sodium
hydroxide. For a basic/neutral mixture, extraction into aqueous acid will effect a

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separation. For example , a mixture of benzoic acid benzophenone can be separated
by aqueous NaOH/ether; a mixture of aniline and chlorobenzene can be separated by
aqueous HCl/ether. The separated components are then recovered and purified.
Elaborate schemes can be read from your text.

* Caution:

It is wise to try out on a small scale first. Water soluble organic

compounds may be troublesome, so it is best to avoid too much of aqueous reagents.

A mixture of a phenol and a ketone with - hydrogens would both dissolve in NaOH.
Solution of the phenol may be effected with very dilute NaOH and done rapidly to
avoid decomposition of the carbonyl compound. Some amines form salts which may
not dissolve readily in H2O, a different acid may be used.
(c)

Boiling Points Differences

Two liquids which do not form a constant boiling point mixture and have widely
separated boiling points can be separated by fractional distillation using a simple
fractionating column. The boiling points must be at least 25 0C apart. For high boiling
mixtures this can be done under reduced pressure, preferably under nitrogen if the
compound decomposes.

( d)

Recrystallization
Often one component can easily be obtained from a mixture by a suitable choice of
solvents for recrystallization

(e)

Chromatography Methods.
Generally TLC, LC, GLC and other chromatographic methods are extremely effective
separation methods but they can be long and tedious and furthermore are limited to
small scale work involving less than 1g. unless appropriate facilities are available.
The above methods should only serve as a guide as there can be no hard and fast
rules. Usually, methods (b) and (c) would be suitable. Note also that many problems
could arise in the process of recovering the separated components (refer text). In
principle, all the given amounts should be recoverable unless they are accidently
thrown away or are extremely volatile. It may be wise to try a small scale separation

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first to check on your separation method before scaling up. In small scale work avoid
filtration but use the centrifuge.
The compounds after separation and purification should have good physical
constants, e.g., m.p , b.p , etc. , before it is sent for spectra. Use your text and proceed
to determine the elements present, run the IR spectra and do some wet tests to
determine the functional type. Run or ask for the NMR spectra. Make at least one
good derivative. If no derivative is possible do a chemical transformation to give a
product that can be easily characterized by NMR. Comparison of Rf values or
retention times with standards under different conditions is also acceptable.

References:
1. Shriner, Hermann, Morrill, Curtin, and Fuson, The Systematic Identification of
Organic Compounds (Wiley).
2. Furniss, Hannaford, Smith, and Tatchell, Vogels Textbook of Practical Organic
Chemsitry (Longman).
3. Williams and Fleming, Spectroscopic Methods in Organic Chemistry (McGraw-Hill).
4. Silverstein and Webster, Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds (Wiley).

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Appendix 1-8

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Appendix 1
CHROMATOGRAPHY
The various types of chromatography is summarized in the Diagram below.
Chromatography

Liquid
Chromatography

Gas

chromatography

Gas Liquid
Chromatography
GLC

Gas Solid
chromatography

Ion
exchange

Exclusion

Gel permeation
Gel filtration

Liquid/ solid
Liquid/ liquid
chromatography chromatography
LSC
LLC
Thin layer
TLC
Paper PC

Liquid liquid chromatography LLC is partition chromatography. The sample is

retained by partitioning between the mobile liquid and the stationary liquid, e.g in paper
chromatography the stationary phase is water held on the fibres of cellulose.
Liquid solid chromatography LSC is adsorption chromatography. In column or
thin layer TLC the sample is adsorbed on the adsorbent silica gel or alumina. In practice
silica gel or alumina has varied amounts of moisture so that the chromatography is a
combination of LLC and LSC.
Exclusion chromatography uses a highly porous material or gel which separates
compounds (usually polymers) according to the molecular size.
Ion exchange uses ionic groups bonded into a polymeric resin. Ionic coumpounds
( e.g. amino acids ) have different affinities to the resin and can be separated.
Bonded phase chromatography BPC is similar LSC or LLC except that the
absorbent material is chemically modified silica gel or similar substance. The OH groups
of silica gel can be silated and various organic groups can be attached as shown below

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Bonded phases are advantageous as different polarity types may be synthesized

and both organic or aqueous solvents can be used. When using aqueous organic solvent
mixture it may be noted that the less polar material absorb on the stationary phase while
the more polar compounds are eluted by the polar aqueous eluant . This is referred to as
reverse phase chromatography. A summary of the LC types and adsorbents is given in
the tables below.

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MODES OF LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Modes
Liquid solid

Abbreviation
LSC

Predominant Mechanism
Adsorption of Surface

Liquid liquid

LLC

Partition in Liquid Phase

Bonded Phase

BPC

Reverse Phase

RPC

Ion Exchange

None

Steric
Exclusion

None

Partition and / or
adsorption
Paritition and / or
adsorption
Adsorption on Fixed Ionic
Site
Diffusion into Pores

Common Names
Adsortion chromatography, liquid solid
chromatography,
linear elution
adsorption
chromatography
Partition chromato
graphy, Sorption
chromatography
Gel chromatography
Sorption
chromatography
Cation or Anion
Exchange
Gel permeation (GPC)
,molecular exclusion,
gel filtration ( GFC )

LIQUID SOLID ADSORBENTS

Adsorbent

Chemical
Structure
( SiO2 )x
( Al2 O3 )x

Estimated
Usage %
70
20
1

Magnesia
Silica
Coprecipitate

Slightly acidic
Silightly basic *
Graphitized
nonpolar , Oxidized
Polar (silightly basic)
Strongly acidic

Polyamides

Basic

Others ( clay,
Kieselguhr,
diatomaceous
earth, Celite )

Relatively nonpolar

Silica
Alumina
Charcoal

Florisil

Surface Properties

Application
General purpose
General purpose
Sample cleanup

General purpose
adsorbent
Phenols and
aromatic nitro
compounds
Very polar
compounds

* depends on method of preparation

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A guide to a selection of the type of LC is given below

High Pressure Liquid Chromatography ( HPLC )

The obvious drawback of column chromatography is the tedium of eluting the
sample out of the column . To speed up the process high pressure may be used to
force in the eluant through the column. By using high pressure up % to 4000 psi. it is
necessary to use stainless steel columns.
A high pressure liquid chromatography system consists of a solvent pump, plumbing
connections, injection port for a sample introduction, a detector to detect the eluted
samples and a recorder to give a graphic output representation. For compounds
absorbing UV radiation a UV detector is convenient. Read up on the instrument, and
the operating instructions.

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Caution:
Read & understand the instrument first. Consult lecturer & lab. Assistant in charge.
Handle microsyringe with loving care.

Column Chromatography ( CC ) or Liquid Chromatography ( LC ).

CC or LC is an example of adsorption chromatography. It consists of a stationary
solid phase, known as the adsorbent, supported in a column and of mobile liquid
phase which is allowed to flow down the column. This is referred to as the eluant.

The mixture to be separated is introduced onto the adsorbent at the top of the column
in solution form. The two components will be adsorbed to different extents depending
upon the polarity of the molecules. The eluant is introduced and allowed to flow
down the column. The components of the mixture will undergo many adsorption
desorption processes as they pass down, the least polar molecule moving more
quickly.
Compound Elution Sequences*
Hydrocarbons
Olefins
Ethers
Halogen Compounds
Aromatics

General order of elution

Ketones
Aldehydes
EstersAlcohol, amines, mercaptans
Acid and strong bases.

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Increasing the polarity of the eluant well increase the speed at which the components
move down the column. It is usual to begin with a solvent of low polarity and
gradually change to more polar solvents

Eluotropic Series*
Petroleum ether
Cyclohexane
Carbon tetrachloride
Benzene
Methylene chloride
Chloroform (alcohol free)
Diethyl ether
Ethyl acetate
Pyridine
Methanol
Acetone
n- Propanol
Ethanol
Acetic Acid

Increasing Polarity

The type of adsorbent chosen also effects the speed at which the compounds are
eluted. The more active the adsorbent the more slowly the compounds will move
down the column.

Adsorbents for Adsorption Chromatography*

Cellulose
Starch
Sugars
Magnesium silicate
Calcium sulphate
Silicic acid
Florisil
Magnesium oxide (magnesia)
Aluminium oxide (alumina)
Activated Chareoal

general order of increasing activity

By suitable choice of adsorbent and eluant it is possible to separate compounds of

similar chemical constitution. If two molecules are very similar it is necessary to
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Organic Chemistry Level 3______________________________

choose conditions whereby they move slowly down the column. This ensures they
reach equilibrium in more adsorption desorption processes which facilitates
separation.

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a modification of column chromatography. In

this case the adsorbent is supported on a flat surface. To develop the chromatogram
the plate is placed vertically in a tank containing the eluant which flows upwards by
capillary action. Unlike column chromatography it is not possible to alter the polarity
of the solvent during development of the chromatograph but by using suitable
proportions of mixed solvents a separation is usually achieved.

Silica-gel and alumina are the most common adsorbents. For T.L.C. those are
usually combined with Plaster of Paris which acts as a binding agent.

As in paper chromatography, a Rf value can be calculated where

R : distance moved by compound
distance moved by solvent front.

If the components are colourless they can be detected by various means, eg using
U.V. light, iodine vapour or charring with sulphuric acid.

The great advantage of T.L.C. is its short development time, usually of the order
of 30 mins.

From Pasto and Johnson, Organic Structure Determination

Gas-liquid Chromatography (GLC) proceeds mainly by partition chromatography

i.e. separation depends upon the different solubilities of the components at
equilibrium between the gas and liguid phase. The stationary phase is a liquid
supported on a solid contained in a tube. The mobile phase is an inert gas which also
acts as a carrier of the mixture. This mixture can be solid, liquid or gaseous.
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The mixture in solution is injected by means of a syringe and at a temperature
high enough to ensure vapourisation of the components. It is carried by means of the
inert gas through a heated long tube containing the liquid phase and is subject to
many solubility equilibria.

After separation the components & carrier gas pass through a detector which
indicates when a compound is being eluted by drawing a curve on chart paper. The
area under the curve can be considered to be proportional to the number of moles
eluted.

The compounds can be characterized by their Retention Times i.e. the time taken
from being injected to being eluted under set conditions.

s - moment of injection of sample

b Retention time of compound
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Appendix-2
CRYSTALLIZATION
The solute is dissolved in a solvent to give a hot saturated solution. This is filtered
to remove insoluble contaminants. On allowing to cool slowly to R.T. the solution
becomes supersaturated and deposits crystals.

The solution is filtered through a fluted filter paper under gravity. While filtering
this crystals may be deposited. This can be avoided by (a) Warning the funnel and
receiving conical flask. (b) Having prepared a hot saturated solution, adding more
solvent, filtering and evaporating until the original volume is obtained.

After cooling to R.T. crystallization can be encouraged by (a) cooling in ice

(b) scratching and (c) seeding addition of the crystal of solute.

The crystallized compound is collected by suction filtration and washed to

remove mother liquor.

From Mixed Solvents The two solvents must be miscible and are chosen such that
the compound is soluble in solvent I and insoluble or appreciably less soluble in
solvent II. A hot solution is prepared in solvent I. After filtering solvent II is added
dropwise until the solution just turns cloudy. On cooling crystals are formed.

Choosing a solvent A suitable solvent is found by trial and error, and this should be
conducted on a small scale. The aim is to find a solvent or combination of solvents in
which the solute is soluble at high temperatures and much less soluble at room
temperature.

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Generally polar solvent will dissolve polar compounds. It is better if the boiling
point of the solvent is lower than the melting-point of the solute, otherwise an oil may
be formed. The solvent should be sufficiently volatile so that the crystals scan be
easily dried.

Recrystallisation is used for purifying a compound which is contaminated with one

more other compounds. These may have similar solubilities to the major component
but as they are present in smaller amounts they can be separated by one or more
recrystallisations

Fractional crystallization is the separation of two components of similar solubility

and present in comparable amounts by successive crystallizations and recombination
of fractions. During this process the first component becomes more and more
concentrated in the crystals and the mother liquor becomes more enriched with the
second component. This is a tedious way of separating two components.

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Appendix-3
Distillation
Fractional Distillation is used to separate liquid mixtures which cannot be separated
by ordinary distillation because their boiling points are too close.
It consists of a continual process of repeated vapourisation and condensation and
is based on the principle that when a liquid mixture boils, the vapour will be richer in
the more volatile component and when this vapour condenses, the less volatile
component will condense first. Liquids which do not form an azeotropic mixture and
whose boiling points are separated by at least 30C can be separated this way.

See Renfrow Hawkins, Organic Chemistry Laboratory Operations p 13, 147 Louis
F. Fieser, Organic Experiment p.30

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Small scale fractional distillation at low pressure

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Distillation

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Flash Distillation

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Vacuum Distillation A liquid begins to boil when is vapour pressure equals
atmospheric pressure. By reducing the external pressure the boiling point is reduced.
This technique is employed with liquids having very high boiling points or liquids
which decompose before their boiling point is reached at atmospheric pressure. The
vacuum is applied to the apparatus before the flask is heated and on completing the
distillation the source of heat is removed first. Do not apply a vacuum to a hot
solution.
Because liquids bump when boiled under reduced pressure a claisen head is used
and an air-leak. The air leak allows a stream of small bubbles to be sucked through
the solution. The air-leak must reach as close to the bottom of the flask as possible
and be flexible.

See: Renfow Hawkins, Organic Chemistry Laboratory Operation, m.s. 13, 147
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Louis F. Fieser Organic Experiments, m.s. 30.
Louis F. Fieser Organic Experiments p. 250
Renfrow Hawkins Organic Chemistry Laboratory Operations p.143

The pressure at which the liquid boils is measured by a manometer. The most
common type is a closed-end monometer.

The pressure in the closed arm is zero. This manometer is kept closed off from the
system as solvent vapour can dissolve in the mercury. Then the pressure in the closed
arm will no longer be zero, resulting in an uncorrect reading. This type of manometer
is accurate up to a few millimeters of mercury.

For lower pressure, 1-10 mm, an Adwards Vacustat is used.

J.A. Elvidge and P.G. Sammes. A course in Modern Techniques of Organic

Chemistry p. 115.

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Appendix- 4
SUBLIMATION
Sublimation occurs when a compound passes directly from the solid phase to
vapour phase when heated. This process is usually performed under reduced pressure
and is used as a method of purification.

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Appendix -5
N.M.R
Nmr samples Clean nmr tubes are available from the lab.asistant. To clean tubes use
organic solvent e.g. acetone , ethanol , water etc. Rinse with acetone and finally dry in
an oven (60C)
Your compound should be soluble in CDCl3. If not consult the lecturer.
For mixtures or impure samples instruct the spectroscopist of your requirements.

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Appendix 6
I.R
IR samples All samples must be DRY. Test first to ensure that your sample is NOT
water or in an aqueous solution. Water will dissolve away the NaCl cells which are
rather expensive (RM 600) . Solids can be dried in a vacuum dessicator.
Liquids can be used neat between NaCl plates. Solids can be micro-pelleted with
KBR.
Liquids and solids if soluble in CCl4 or CS2 can be used in solution cells. Spectral
grade CHCl3 may be used for less soluble compounds. Note the bands cut off when
solvents are used.
Solids can be mulled in Nujol but note the bands cut off by Nujol ( hydrocarbon
oil )
If you get poor spectra go to the instrument room and instruct the lab. assistant as
to your requirements.

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