Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.

IMPACT OF BUS STOP ON URBAN TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

A REVIEW OF RECENT FINDINGS
Sai CHAND
Postgraduate Student
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee 247667
Uttarakhand, India
Phone: 918266802262
E-mail: chandu.dvd@gmail.com

Satish CHANDRA
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee 247667
Uttarakhand, India
Phone: 918266802262
E-mail: satisfce@iitr.ac.in

ABSTRACT:
Traffic characteristics of a roadway are influenced by various factors like surface type, shoulder and
roadway width, terrain, driver skills, side friction or side activities, road maintenance, etc. However for
urban roads, the impact of side frictions i.e. bus stops, encroachments, on-street parking, etc. is much
significant than any other factor. The extent of on-street parking and encroachment is generally high in
developing countries where many activities often take place at the edge of urban roads. Their impact on
traffic characteristics can be minimized by imposing few restrictions. Conversely bus stops are to be
constructed by the authorities at different locations near or at the edge of urban roads. Bus stops are the
designated places where passengers board and alight public transport buses. Different types of bus stops
like curbside stops, bus bays, queue jumpers and nubs have significant effect on traffic flow. This paper
reviews the literature on the effect of curbside and bus bay stop on urban traffic characteristics. It has
been observed that presence of a bus stop ominously reduces the stream speed and capacity of an urban
road. The present paper also suggests few areas where further work can be taken up by the researchers.
KEYWORDS: Bus Stop, Side Frictions, Traffic, Urban Road.

capacity losses have significant impact on delay,

reduced mobility, and reduced reliability of the
roadway network. They may also cause the
drivers to change their routes or reschedule their
trips. The traffic characteristics of a road section
can be influenced by various factors such as
surface type, shoulder and roadway width,
terrain, driver skills, side friction or side
activities, road maintenance, etc. However
among all the factors, side frictions like bus
stops, on-street parking, encroachments and

1. INTRODUCTION
Traffic
congestion
significantly
affects
economic performance of the nation and living
standards of the people. In majority of urban
areas, travel demand exceeds highway capacity
occasionally during peak periods. In addition,
events such as crashes, vehicle breakdowns,
work zones, adverse weather, suboptimal signal
timing, etc. cause temporary losses in capacity,
often deteriorating the situations on already
congested road networks. These temporary
57

Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

frontage access significantly reduce the

performance of an urban road. Table 1
summarizes the various elements affecting the
traffic characteristics such as speed of the
vehicle and roadway capacity. The Highway
Capacity Manual (HCM 2010) of USA provides
a methodology for urban streets analysis, which
may be used to evaluate mobility in terms of
travel speed for through traffic stream. The
methodology however does not directly account
for capacity constraints such as on-street
parking, narrow bridge, bus stop, bottlenecks,
etc.

interrupted to partially interrupted conditions.

This effect is illustrated in Figure 1 by a
reduction in capacity from CO to C, and a
corresponding drop of the speed at capacity from
Vo cap to Vcap.
Speed-flow-density regressions using a single
regime model were applied by Indonesian
Highway Capacity Manual (IHCM 1996) for
analysis of the impact of side friction on capacity
and the resulting side friction adjustment factors
for different side friction classes are found. For
urban roads the capacity reduction factor was
generally found to be 0.87.

This article presents comprehensive review of

literature regarding effect of side friction factors
on urban roads with due attention to effect of bus
stop. The gaps identified in the literature and
guidelines for future research are also elaborately
discussed.

2.SIDE
FRICTIONS
CHARACTERISTICS

AND

For urban and suburban arterials, the HCM 2000

recognizes that roadside development may be
intense and can produce frictions which limit
choice of speed of the drivers. Parking,
pedestrian movement and city population are
specifically identified as affecting performance.
Chiguma (2007) adopted an empirical method to
determine the effect of side friction factors such
as pedestrians walking along or crossing the
roadway, bicycles, non-motorized vehicles,
parked and stopped vehicles on traffic
performance on urban roads in Dar-es-salaam,
Tanzania. He then combined the individual
friction factors into a single unit of measure
called FRIC. The results showed that side
frictions can have considerable effect on speed
and capacity. Hidayati et al. (2012) quantified the
effects of roadside activities and the School
Safety Zone (ZoSS) facility on speed behaviour
in Indonesia. ZoSS is a time-dependent speed
control zone consisting of traffic signs, road
markings, optional traffic signals and rumble
strips. The roadside activities like vehicles in and
outside the side area, vehicles parking on the
street, vendors, pedestrians, and buses stopped in
and around the area are considered in the study.

TRAFFIC

n densely populated developing countries, there

is often a great deal of activity at the edge of the
road, both on the carriageway and on shoulders
and sidewalks, which interacts with the ongoing
traffic flow. It results in more turbulence to
traffic flow and adversely effects the
performance of roadway as well as capacity. This
effect occurs on both urban and rural roads,
although the extent of activity and its severity is
much noteworthy on urban roads. These
activities which usually include bus stops, onstreet parking, encroachments etc. are often
treated as detrimental to the capacity of roads.
Bang (1995) stated that the side friction like onstreet parking reduces the capacity of the road
due to temporary reduction of carriageway width.
It further changes the traffic flow from un-

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Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.2

Table 1: Factors Influencing Traffic Characteristics

S.No.

Factors

Elements
Good Weather
Good pavement conditions
Familiarity of users with facility
No impendent to traffic flow

Baseway Conditions

Appropriate Lane widths

Proper Clearances
Level Terrain
No curb parking on approaches( for intersection
approaches)
Number of Lanes
Type of facility and its development environment
Lane widths

Roadway Conditions
Shoulder widths and lateral clearances
Design speed
Horizontal and vertical clearances
Vehicle Type or Traffic composition

Traffic Conditions

Lane or directional distribution

Pedestrian activity
Parking characteristics
Bus stop operations

Operating conditions
Traffic Signals
Stop signs and yield signs

Technology

Intelligent Transportation Systems

59

Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

Figure 1: Impact of Side Friction on Capacity (Bang, 1995)

Table 2: Effect of Parked Vehicles on Capacity (Ministry of Transport, U.S.A., 1965)

Parked vehicles per km (both 3
sides together), Vehicles

31

63

125

312

Effective loss of carriageway 0.9

width, m

1.2

2.1

2.55

3.0

3.6

Loss of Capacity at 25 kmph, 200

(pcu/hr)

275

475

575

675

800

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Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.2

The effect that parked vehicles have on capacity

is demonstrated in Table 2 (U.S. Ministry of
Transport, 1965). It can be seen that small
numbers of parked vehicles have relatively large
effects in reducing capacity, and that the effect of
a given increase in parking diminishes as the
intensity increases. This suggests that waiting
restrictions have a limited effect on the capacity
of a road.

interrupted U-turns from the opposing direction

and interrupted crossover right turns from an
access road on urban street bottleneck capacity.
The average capacity reduction due to the
parking blockage was estimated as 460 veh/hr.
Although it was stated that presence of a law
enforcement personnel would substantially
increase the street bottleneck capacity, it was not
quantified in the study. Guo et al. (2012)
developed a cellular automata model to evaluate
the interaction between the on-street parking
maneuvers and traffic flow. On a single lane
unidirectional urban street with on-street parking
spaces, they estimated the capacity reduction to
be about 35 percent.

Various studies conducted by Weant and

Levinson (1990) indicated that the prohibition of
parking on a four-lane road doubles street
capacity. Similarly, prohibiting parking on a sixlane road achieves a 67 percent capacity
increase. The American Association of State
Highway
and
Transportation
Officials
(AASHTO, 1994) also confirmed that on-street
parking reduces street capacity and also the free
flow of adjacent traffic. AASHTO further stated
that eliminating curb parking can increase the
capacity of urban arterials by 50 to 80 percent
depending on number of lanes.

Dhamaniya and Chandra (2014) studied the

influence of undesignated pedestrian crossings
on midblock capacity of urban roads in India.
They estimated the capacity by plotting
fundamental diagrams at the sections and then
comparing it with the capacity of a section
without any side friction. They developed a
mathematical relation between pedestrian crossflow and reduction in capacity which is shown in
Equation 1. They found no influence on capacity
when pedestrian cross-flow is less than 200
peds/hr. The capacity however reduces by 30
percent when pedestrian cross-flow is increased
to 1360 peds/hr. The variation of capacity
reduction with pedestrian cross-flow is shown in
Figure 2.

Reddy et al. (2008) studied the effect of on-street

parked vehicle on traffic mobility in urban area
and found that parking facility with a width of
2.5 m and a length of 30 to 40 m, would reduce
speed by 10 to 12 percent in case of motor
cycles, autos and cars, and 12 to 15 percent in
case of heavy vehicles. Rudjanakanoknad (2009)
used oblique cumulative plots to study the effect
of various factors such as illegal parking,

Percent Reduction in Capacity = 11.09 + 0.025*Qped 8x10-6 * Q2ped

where
Qped = Pedestrian cross-flow (peds/hr).

61

(1)

Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

Figure 2: Variation of capacity reduction with pedestrian cross flow

(Dhamaniya and Chandra, 2014)

Figure 3: Effect of bus dwell time at

a curbside stop on 7.5 m wide road

Figure 4: Effect of bus dwell time

at a bus bay on 7.5 m wide road

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Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.2

Chin et al. (2002) studied the effect of various

factors such as work zones, crashes, breakdowns,
weather and traffic controls on capacity and
delay of principal arterials in USA. Haijun et al.
(2011) considered temporary bottleneck created
by accident and proposed a new two-lane traffic
model based on the KKW (Kerner-Klenov-Wolf)
model. They presented asymmetric lanechanging rules and the model of grabbing the
entrance of a bottleneck based on the differences
in driver behaviour and vehicle type. They
observed that with the proposed lane-changing
rules, although travel time of few drivers
increases, the outflow of the road increases and
thus resulting fluctuations to the traffic flow. The
result of this study may be extended for the
analysis of a bus stop and on-street parking, as
they create temporary bottleneck on the roadway.

Influence of bus bays on other vehicular traffic is

observed to be less when compared to curbside
stops. The authors opined that curbside stops be
replaced by bus bays when traffic speed reduces
by 25 percent. However, they did not come up
with a formula for calculating capacity of roads
on which bus stops have influence on the traffic
flow.
Yuan et al. (2007) studied traffic characteristics
on a two-lane road consisting of a mixture of
buses and cars. They developed a model in which
buses can only drive on the right lane and
investigated dynamic behavior of the traffic at
different densities. They also presented the
fundamental diagrams and showed that the
capacity of a road depends on the number of bus
stops. They further stated that due to the presence
of bus stops, the right lane reaches maximum
flow rate early, and then at large densities the
flow rates and average velocities of the vehicles
on the two lanes become unequal to each other.

3. EFFECT OF BUS STOP ON TRAFFIC

CHARACTERISTICS
Fitzpatrick and Nowlin (1997) analyzed the
influence of bus stop design on the operation of
suburban arterial roads using simulation. The
results indicated that the bus bay design provide
the greatest benefit when compared to curbside
stops at traffic volumes of approximately 350
vehicles per hour per lane (vphpl) and above.
Silva (2000) developed a simulation software to
represent buses and their interactions with other
traffic flow on urban roads.

Reddy et al. (2008) opined that under moderate

to heavy traffic conditions, on-street bus stops
can cause substantial delay to vehicular traffic on
urban roads. They observed that free flow speed
of various vehicles on a stretch with bus stops is
about 30 percent less than that on stretch without
bus stops on all working days. Arasan and
Vedagiri (2008) used a simulation model to study
the influence of exclusive bus lanes introduced
on urban arterial roads. At all volume levels, they
observed increase in the speed of bus because of
providing an exclusive bus lane. However they
collected video data of the study location for
only one hour which may not replicate the real
scenario. Moreover as they provided bus lane in
the middle of a road, passenger access to bus
stops is a serious problem which they did not
address.

Koshy and Arasan (2005) developed a

microscopic simulation model to analyze the
influence of bus stops on heterogeneous traffic
flow with great attention to reduction in traffic
stream speed. They validated the model using
traffic data collected at curbside bus stops and
bus bays. The results of the simulation model at
curbside stop and bus bay on a 7.5 m wide road
are shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. The
figures show reduction of average speed with
increasing flow at various bus dwell times.

Kwami et al. (2009) developed a statistical

relationship between average bus impact times
and average bus arrival frequencies. They
63

Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

calibrated a model and concluded that with the

increase in bus arrival frequency, the actual curb
lane traffic capacity decreases. The authors did
not consider the situation when there is a queue
of buses waiting to take berth at bus bay stop.
Zhao et al. (2009) analyzed traffic interactions
between motorized and non-motorized vehicles
near curbside bus stop in China. They presented
a simulation model for mixed traffic flow by
using Burgers Cellular Automation (BCA) model
for non-motorized vehicles. They found that flow
rates of both motorized and non-motorized flows
undergo phase transition from free flow to
congested flow at the critical point. It is observed
that the increase in stopped time of bus causes
congestion in non-motorized vehicles flow. Yang
et al. (2009) presented a road capacity model
based on gap acceptance theory and queuing
theory for mixed traffic flow at the curbside stop
in China.

deceleration and acceleration times of the buses

are not considered.
Xia and Xue (2010) used a modified 1-D pipeflow model to stimulate the effect of bus bay stop
on city traffic of Beijing. They proposed a source
function to describe the path changing by
vehicles. They proposed the stochastic bus-into
stop probability to obtain the optimum length of
a bus bay stop. Although they claimed to have
solved the traffic problems of Beijing, the results
are not discussed in the paper. Shi et al. (2011)
proposed an extended optimal velocity traffic
flow model on two lanes including a bus stop and
a bus deceleration area. They classified
fundamental diagram into seven different traffic
states by varying traffic density. They observed
two new traffic states in which one of them
shows frequent occurrence of lane changing in
front of and behind the stopped bus. The other
traffic state showed the simultaneous appearance
of stop-and-go wave on both lanes. They
concluded that with increasing traffic density, the
lane changing region alters around the bus. The
major drawback of the study is they assumed bus
to always stop in the exterior lane which may not
be possible always.

Tang et al. (2009) observed that bus density and

the arrival rate of passengers are important
factors contributing to the traffic interruption
probability resulted by bus stop. They also
showed that with higher bus density, the
boarding/alighting activity is more frequent and
thus leads to a greater traffic interruption. Xu et
al. (2009) analyzed the effect of bus bay on
capacity of adjacent lane using traffic flow
theory and queuing theory. They derived separate
capacity reduction models using simulation for
two conditions i.e. during bus overflow and bus
non-overflow. Then they tested the model and
found that capacity of adjacent lane depends on
both bus arrivals and vehicles on adjacent traffic
lane.

Arasan and Vedagiri (2010) used simulation

model for heterogeneous traffic to study the
impact of provision of an exclusive bus lane on
the performance of the urban arterial. They
observed average dwell time for buses as 17 s,
and the average distance between bus stops as
1.02 km in Chennai, India. Then they calculated
time and distance required for acceleration and
deceleration using the basic equations of motion
and the same is depicted in Figure 5. They
estimated that mean running speed of buses can
be up to 65 km/h, when an exclusive bus lane is
provided. After due consideration to the dwell
time and acceleration and deceleration of buses
at each bus stop, the journey speed of buses
while using the exclusive bus lane was estimated
to be about 39.5 km/h.

The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM, 2010)

includes some discussion on the influence of bus
bay stops on capacity when buses pull in and out
of the stops. The parameters needed are the
number of bus arrivals per hour at each bus stop
and the average bus stopping time. The
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Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.2

Yong-Sheng et al. (2010) studied the interaction

of buses with other vehicles on urban traffic
using cellular automata theory. They found that
bus parking time is an important factor that
affects the traffic flow near a bus stop. Ibeas et
al. (2010) developed a bi-level optimization
model to represent bus congestion, effect of bus
stop location on modal split, road congestion,
total social cost and required fleet size. BenEdigbe and Mashros (2011) observed significant
differences in roadway capacities for the on and
off street bus stops. They estimated a roadway
capacity loss of 23.4 per cent and -25km/h
propagation velocity of shock wave for curbside
bus stops on a single lane highway. However,
they did not conduct the traffic study during peak
hour. Sun (2011) proposed a simulation model to

evaluate the traffic flow characteristics on the

road section and presented a discrete-time
simulation method to determine the impact of
bus stopping.
Yang et al. (2011) extended additive-conflictflows (ACF) procedure from homogeneous
traffic flow to mixed traffic flow to determine car
capacity at bus stops with mixed traffic. They
opined that car capacity near a bus stop is
influenced by conflicting streams and dwell time
of buses. They also analyzed that pedestrian
effects and bicyclists limited priority have
negative effects on car capacity near bus stops
with mixed traffic flow. Figures 6 and 7 show the
capacity drop of car stream with increase in the
bus arrivals and bicycle flow rate.

Figure 5: Acceleration and deceleration of buses at bus stops on exclusive bus lanes
(Arasan and Vedagiri, 2010)

65

Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

Figure 6: Variation of car capacity with bus flow at different bicycle flow rate
(Yang et. al. 2011)

Figure 7: Variation of car capacity with bicycle flow at different bus flow rate
(Yang et. al. 2011)

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Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.2

Yang et al. (2012) further developed a theoretical

method using additive conflict flows (ACF)
procedure to determine the influence of bus stop
design on mixed traffic flow at Chinese bus
stops. They proposed car capacity and speed
models for three types of bus stops including
curbside, bus bay and bicycle detour. Traffic
volume, bus dwell time and berth number are
found to have negative effects on traffic
operations at any type of bus stops. For different
types of bus stops, at car volumes above 200
vehicles per hour, the bus bay and bicycle detour
designs are more beneficial than the curbside
design. Yang et al. (2013) used probability
theory and queuing theory to estimate car delays
at bus stops in mixed traffic conditions of
Beijing. They observed that both bicycle stream
and bus stream have considerable effects on car
delay. Finally they suggested to replace curbside
bus stops with bus bays if bus frequency is
greater than 200 veh/hr. They calibrated and

validated the developed model by collecting

traffic data from only one site in Beijing.
Lee et al. (2014) conducted a study on undivided
three-lane roadways in Virginia and found that
the probability of lane-changing violation at
curbside bus stops is higher where a bicycle lane
is present or where opposing traffic is lower.
Yang and Huan (2013) proposed car capacity
model at a bus stop with mixed traffic flow based
on queuing theory. They found that the conflict
between different streams at the bus stop is
similar to the conflict between two movements at
First-In-First-Out
(FIFO)
un-signalized
intersections, which can be represented by an
M/G/1 queue. They obtained car capacity by
iteratively computing the service time of each
approach and showed that both bus stream and
bicycle stream have significant effects on car
capacity. Figure 8 shows the mixed traffic
streams at a typical curbside stop in many
Chinese cities.

Figure 8: Conflict among cars, buses and bicycles at the curbside stop
(Yang and Huan, 2013)

67

Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

traffic volume, irregular stopping of buses and

frequency of buses are not yet studied
extensively.

4. DISCUSSION
Research studies reviewed above indicate the
following areas where further work can be taken
up by the researchers, particularly in countries
with poor lane discipline and with loose traffic
regulatory system.

4) When buses stop suddenly at the bus stop, few

vehicles pass the stopped bus from left side of
the bus. Passengers boarding and alighting the
transport bus may face conflict with these
vehicles. The severity of conflict depends on the
number and speed of the approaching vehicles.
Boarding passengers may at least have a glimpse
of vehicles that pass the bus from left side, but
for alighting passengers it is not the case as they
do not happen to see the vehicles unless stepping
down from the bus or standing at edge of the bus
door. Thus passenger safety is severely
compromised at bus stops. A passenger safety
index can be developed for all the bus stops in a
city and rankings can be given to each bus stop
according to the index. Figures 9 and 10 show
the overtaking by the vehicles through the gap
between the stopped bus and the bus stop.

1) Buses do not many times stop at their intended

stops because of numerous side activities like
passengers waiting for the bus on the
carriageway instead of waiting inside the bus
shelter, presence of auto rickshaws, vendors, etc.
These fringe conditions force the bus drivers to
not stop the buses at their designated stops. The
current research considers lateral bus stopping
position of a bus stop as same in all cases
irrespective of other constraints. Future work can
be done on the effect of improper stopping of
buses at the bus stops on capacity of the road.
2) Curbside bus stops create a temporary
bottleneck to the traffic flow and when buses
stop at these type of bus stops, they force the
vehicles following the bus to change their lanes.
Due to this, the speeds of the vehicles following
the bus and also of those travelling in the
adjacent lanes decrease. This aspect needs to be
investigated in detail.

5) Passengers need to wait for few seconds

observing potential conflicting vehicles and then
need to walk on the road to reach bus in case of
boarding and bus stop while alighting. This
waiting and walking times of the passengers
increase bus dwell time significantly. Although it
happens only when improper stopping of buses is
significant, this aspect needs to be explored and
impact on dwell time should be quantified.

3) In most of the studies, researchers have used

dwell time as one of the key parameters to
evaluate the effect of bus stop. The effect of

Figure 9: Accident at a bus stop

Figure 10: Car moving through the

gap between bus and the bus stop
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Journal of Society for Transportation and Traffic Studies (JSTS) Vol.5 No.2

have a significant impact on reduction in traffic

stream speed and also capacity of the roadway.
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM 2010) of U.S.
does not explicitly emphasize on the reduction of
midblock capacity due to the presence of bus at a
bus stop. It is rather more inclined to determine
the performance of the roadway. Dwell time and
frequency of buses are used in the manual as
parameters to quantify the delay on a roadway
segment. Indian Roads Congress (IRC 70:1977)
provides guidelines for control of mixed traffic in
urban areas but it only suggests that a bus stop
should be located 75 m away from the
intersection on either side with no mention of
their influence on midblock capacity. Indonesian
Highway Capacity Manual (IHCM 1996) also
does not include the effect of bus stop on urban
road capacity. However, the manual considers
the number of stopping vehicles as one of the
side friction factors and suggests a capacity
correction factor based on the number of
stopping vehicles.

5. Conclusions
Mixed nature of traffic is the major problem on
the roads of developing countries, where same
road is used by number of vehicles ranging from
high speed modern cars to animal driven carts
and even animals. The presence of such
heterogeneity in the traffic mix increases travel
time, congestion and pollution and also road
accidents.
Bus stops are the selected places where
passengers alight and board a public transport
bus. These are the weakest links in a public
transport network because passengers have direct
contact with ongoing traffic at these stops.
Although many types of bus stops like curbside
stops, bus bays, queue jumper bus bays, open bus
bays, nubs, etc. are present in the cities across the
world, only two types of bus stops namely
curbside bus stops and bus bays are predominant.
Bus bays normally create problems to bus drivers
during re-entering into traffic stream. Moreover
they are expensive to install and difficult to
relocate. On the other hand, curbside bus stops
are generally provided on urban roads when
sufficient land for construction of bus bays is not
available. They cause traffic to queue behind
stopped bus and may also cause drivers to make
unsafe maneuvers when changing lanes in order
to avoid a stopped bus. Many studies reported in
literature describing side friction factors and their
impact on road capacity reveal that bus stops

The literature review indicates that stopping of

buses at curbside bus stop has more effect on
traffic stream parameters than any other kind of
bus stop. However, most of the studies are
related to the homogeneous traffic flow with
exclusive bus lanes or very little heterogeneity in
the traffic mix. A high quality study relating the
implications of bus stops on urban roads
reflecting heterogeneous traffic conditions needs
to be carried out.

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Impact of Bus Stop on Urban Traffic Characteristics A Review of Recent Findings

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