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2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School
HSC Study Help Group
http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=108521819173450

The following are a list of syllabus dot-points and summaries for

each dot-point, which will most likely be asked in the HSC 2010
Chemistry Exam. This is based on calculations from previous
exams. Please note that this is NOT the actual exam, and other
dot-points may be asked. This should be used only as a final
focus, not something to rely upon completely.
This document is open to HSC students and everyone can
contribute to it.

DOCUMENT 1 Production of Materials and The Acidic Environment 10

Pages.
Monitoring and Management and Industrial Chemistry to Be Released By
Wednesday Night

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

Describe the uses of poly(vinyl chloride) and polystyrene in terms of their

properties.

PVC:
water resistant raincoats
hard, weathering and water resistant water pipes

Polystyrene:
thermal insulator beverage cups
hard & sound insulator housing of computers

Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

A type of addition reaction where a small molecule is released per bond

formed between each 2 monomers. Eg. Condensation polymerisation of

cellulose from glucose releases a water molecule per 2 monomer units.

Analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer,

name specific enzyme / bacteria used for its synthesis, evaluate the use or
potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties. [5-7 Mark
Essay Likely]

Biopol (polyhydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate [P(HB-HV)] ) is a biopolymer

which was produced in the 1920s but recent developments have had impacts
on the society and the environment.
The bacterium Alkaligenes eutrophus contains the gene for its production,

and this gene, due to recent developments in genetic engineering techniques,

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points
By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

has been located and transferred to the more familiar bacterium E coli. E
coli is easier to work with and reproduces at a faster rate, making the
production of biopol more economically viable.
Currently, biopol has had a limited impact on society. It has been used to

make shampoo bottles and disposable razor handles but is no longer used
due to high production costs. It is currently only used in the medical
industry to make non-toxic dissolvable sutures, which have made a large
impact on internal surgery as they dissolve over time and patient does not
need do to have them removed.
The impact on the environment has been limited due to its low usage but has

potential to have a large impact in the future if it gains wider usage.

Due to its biodegradable nature, biopol can replace plastic products reducing

pressure on landfills. Greenpeace uses biopol instead of PVC for its credit
cards. Research is being made to use genetic engineering to improve yields
and lower costs, which may allow wide use of biopol in society in the near
future.

Describe the addition of water to ethene resulting in the production of

ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst
used.

Water is added across the reactive carbon carbon double bond in the

ethene molecule, with dilute sulphuric acid catalysing the reaction. Other
conditions required are 300 degrees C heat and 70 atm pressure.

Summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol

from sugar cane.

Carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes.

[A question to compare the industrial and lab production is likely.]

Sugar cane feedstock contains an appreciable amount of sugar and can be

fermented to produce ethanol.

Feedstock is crushed.
Sugar is dissolved out of the sugar cane material.
Sugar is fed to yeast cells in vats, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Ethanol is purified to a desirable concentration via fractional distillation.

Ethanol can be fermented in the school lab:

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points
By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

Mix 3 grams of yeast with 100 mL of glucose solution in an air tight,

stoppered conical flask. Add a few crystals of citric acid to the solution
and mix.
Weigh the flask and its contents.
Connect the flask with glass tubing into a test tube containing saturated

limewater solution. Weigh the test tube and the glass tubing.
Maintain the temperature at 30 degrees C in an incubator. After 4 days,

reweigh all previously weighed items and record results.

Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted.

Anaerobic conditions, 35 degrees C, low pH (5-6), yeast/zymase, addition

of mineral salts such as citrates.

Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value
for ethanol from first hand data. [calculation asked every year, definition
highly likely]

The amount of heat released when 1 mole of a substance undergoes

complete combustion (in excess oxygen) to produce carbon dioxide and water
only in their standard states at 25 degrees C and 100 kPa.

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions.

Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron
flow.

Reactions occur spontaneously in separate containers connected by an

external circuit (wire) which electrons flow through, and electricity and a
small amount of heat are produced.
Anode: Oxidation, negative polarity.
Cathode: Reduction, positive polarity.
Electrons flow from anode to cathode.
Salt bridge completes circuit and maintains electrical neutrality by allowing

ions to flow. Anions anode, cations cathode.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

Perform a firsthand investigation to identify conditions under which a

galvanic cell is produced.

Use the standard reduction table the greater the difference between the

reduction potentials, the greater the voltage produced.

To calculate total cell potential, reverse the sign of the potential for the

equation higher in the table (oxidation occurs), then add both potentials.

Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of the dry
cell and evaluate it in comparison to the button cell [or other elected cell] in
terms of chemistry, cost and practicality, impact on society, and
environmental impact. [Essay likely]

Chemistry

Dry Cell
Zinc anode, Zn is a reactive
metal and an effective
electron donor.
Zn (s) Zn2+ + 2eElectrolyte is a paste of
NH4Cl/ZnCl2/water/starch,
and is wet enough to allow ion
movement.
Cathode is a graphite rod
surrounded by a mixture of
MnO2 and powdered carbon.
MnO2 (s) + NH4+(aq) + H2O (l) +
e- Mn(OH)3 (s) + NH3 (aq)
1.5 V current produced.

Cost & Practicality Cheaper, robust, easy to use,

used in low energy drain
devices such as
torches/radios.
Impact on Society Allowed for widespread use of
portable devices.
Can be used infrequently as
cathode is polarised over time.
Suitable for devices which do
2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points
By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

Silver Button Cell

Powdered zinc anode, large
surface area = higher current
density over longer period of
time.
Zn (s) + 2OH-(aq) ZnO(s)+
H2O(l) + 2eElectrolyte paste = KOH (aq)
Cathode is silver oxide paste.
Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2Ag(s)
+ 2OH- (aq)
Rapid ion movement and
reactions on powdered anode
allow a greater current of 1.6 V.
[OH-] remains constant thus
constant voltage over long
periods of time.
More expensive, extremely small
and portable, reliable current
over long period of time for
sensitive devices.
Used in miniature devices,
proving a reliable, constant
voltage for sensitive devices
such as watches. Used in hearing
aid to allow impaired people to

not need constant voltage.

Environmental
Impact

Non-hazardous.
Oxidised zinc (Zn2+) is toxic to
plants but not a problem in
small amounts.

go about day to day activities

unhindered.
Non-hazardous, however, KOH
electrolyte is caustic.

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes.

Radioactive isotopes are substances that actively emit radiation in order to

increase the stability of their nuclei.

Stable isotopes are substances which do not emit radiation as their nuclei

are already stable.

Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries

of elements.

Ununtrium (

286

Uut) is most recently produced element:

August 10, 2003, atoms of americium-243 were bombarded with ions of

calcium-48 using a device called a cyclotron. This produced one atom of

ununpentium-287 and three atoms of ununpentium-288. All four atoms of
ununpentium quickly decayed into ununtrium through alpha decay. http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele113.html

Use evidence to analyse the benefits and problems associated with the use
of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine.

Industry: Americium-241 is used in smoke detectors. It emits alpha

particles and low energy gamma radiation which ionises oxygen and nitrogen
molecules in the air in the detectors ionisation chamber. A low level electric
voltage supplied across the chamber is used to collect these ions, causing a
small steady electric current to flow between the 2 electrodes. When smoke
enters, the alpha radiation is absorbed by the smoke particles and the
electric current falls, causing the alarm to go off.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

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Benefits: Long half life (432 years) Am never needs replacing. It has no

health hazard during usage as the alpha radiation is absorbed by a few cm

of air or the detector itself.
Problems: Am is dangerous if swallowed in soluble form as it would

concentrate in the skeleton and continue to emit radiation which causes

cellular damage and may lead to cancer. Production is dangerous due to high
energy gamma radiation emitting reactants. Safety precautions are
necessary.

Medicine: Technetiu-99m is the most widely used medical radioisotope. It is

used as a biological tracer for diagnostic imaging. m signifies that it is

99m

produced in its excited state. Once inside the body,

Tc emits low energy

gamma radiation which easily penetrates the body to accurately trace

various parts of the body with a gamma camera.
Benefits: Short half time of 6 hours which is long enough to examine

metabolic processes inside the body and yet short enough to minimise
exposure of too much unwanted gamma radiation.

99m

Tc is attached to a

biologically active molecule which will concentrate in a targeted organ. A

wide variety of molecules are possible due to many oxidation states thus
many uses. For example,

99m

Tc phosphonates are used in bone scanning to

assess the spread of cancer.

Problems: Any radiation can be potentially damaging to tissue. Safety

procedures must be followed in storage and handling.

Perform a 1st hand investigation to prepare and test a natural indicator.

Dice red cabbage leaves into small 1cm by 1cm piece and place in a large

beaker. Poor distilled water into beaker until leaves are just covered. Heat,
and allow boiling to occur for 5 minutes. Remove heat and allow cooling.
Decant out the blue liquid into another beaker. This is the cabbage
indicator.
Test: Poor half into each of 2 beakers. Add drops of ammonia to 1 beaker

and observe changes. Compare with other beaker. Breathe into the 1st

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

beaker until colour changes. Observe. Poor a small volume of vinegar into
the 1st beaker and observe colour change.

Identify and describe some every day uses of indicators including the
testing of soil acidity.

Swimming pool water acidity must be monitored using indicators and kept

neutral. Increase in acidity causes eye irritations and infection risk.

Fish tank must be tested an increase in acidity causes illness/death of

fish.
Soil acidity must be tested with indicator frequently. The ability of plant to

absorb certain minerals from soil depends on acidity. Various essential trace
metal cations solubilities depend on acidity when insoluble cannot be
absorbed by plants.
To test soil acidity, collect 10 g of representative soil sample, place on a

watch glass and moisten with 1 g of distilled water. Add 2 g of talcum

powder for a white backdrop. Add 5 drops of universal indicator and
observe.

Analyse the position of non-metals in the periodic table and outline the
relationship between position of the elements in the periodic table and
acidity/basicity of their oxides.

Going from left to right across the P. T., elements metallic character

decreases, thus the oxides become less and less basic, then amphoteric,
then more and more acidic. The oxides of the non-metals on towards the
right of the P.T. are most acidic due to lowest metallic character, such as
HCl (aq).
Going down the P.T., metallic character increases, thus the acidity of the

oxides decreases. The most basic oxides are located at the bottom left of
the P.T. as their elements have the most metallic character.
All transition metals are basic (as they are metals) except the oxide of zinc

which is amphoteric.

Define Le Chateliers principle.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

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If a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the position of the

equilibrium will shift in a way (direction) that tends to minimise that change.

Describe the solubility of CO2 in water under various conditions as an

equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le Chateliers principle.

CO2(g) CO2(aq) + heat

If the temperature is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the left to

absorb some of the excess heat, using up CO2 (aq) to produce more CO2 (g),
decreasing the solubility of CO2 in water.
If the temperature is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the right to

produce heat, minimising the temperature loss. Therefore the concentration

of CO2 (aq) increases and thus CO2 solubility increases.

Evaluate reasons for concern about the release of oxides of sulphur,

identifying natural/industrial sources. (NOx asked last year, lower chance.)

Natural sources of SO2:

Volcanic eruptions.
Bacterial activity which produces H2S which is oxidised in the atmosphere to

SO2.
Industrial sources of SO2:
Combustion of iron pyrite in coal. 4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2

(g).
Smelting/refining processes of oars containing sulfur. Cu2S (l) + O2(g)

2Cu(l)+ SO2(g).
2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points
By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

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Reasons for concern:
SO2 is a toxic, irritating gas contributes to diseases such as chronic

bronchitis. It is especially dangerous to asthmatics.

It can be oxidised to SO3 in the atmosphere. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g).

SO3 is an irritating gas and causes choking sensations in small concentrations

as low as 1 ppm. Also causes eye irritations.
Both SO2 and SO3 can react with water in the atmosphere to produce acid

rain.
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq)

STRONG!
Acid rain damages the tissue of fauna and flora, drops pH of soil reducing

availability of certain ions in the soil, harming plants. Changes the pH of

freshwater, affecting the balance of minerals and harming the reproduction
and survival of fish and other marine organisms. Accelerates corrosion of
steel structures: H2SO4(aq)+Fe(s) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g). Deteriorates
buildings/statues made of marble/limestone. Acid reacts to form salts that
are eroded and weathered away. H2SO4 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaSO4 (s) +
H2O (l) + CO2 (g).

1st hand investigation to decarbonate soft drink and gather data to measure
the mass changes involved calculate gas released.

Measure mass of a sealed soft drink can. Measure mass of a beaker.

Open can, empty all contents into the beaker. Weigh empty can.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

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Gently heat soft drink while stirring with a stirring rod (using a Bunsen

burner, tripod stand and a gauze mat).

After 10 minutes, allow solution to cool. Then weigh volume of beaker and

contents.

Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water.

The acid HX donates a proton to water to produce hydronium ions and X- .

Eg. HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+(aq) + Cl (aq)

Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic, and

hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of their
molecules.

Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, and virtually all acid molecules will ionise,

producing a greater amount of H+ ions than the weak citric and acetic acids,
thus having the lowest pH amongst equal concentrations of the 3.
Acetic acid is weak and very few molecules ionise, thus has a higher pH

than the strong acid HCl. Citric acid ionises more extensively than acetic
acid but is still a weak acid, thus relatively lower ionisation than HCl occurs,
and therefore the pH is lower than acetic acid but higher than HCl.

Plan and perform a 1st hand investigation to measure the pH of identical

concentrations of strong and weak acids.

Poor equal amounts of the same concentrations of acetic and hydrochloric

acids into 2 beakers.

Place a pH probe in a beaker containing distilled water to check calibration

(validity).
2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points
By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

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Place a pH probe in each solution and record results.

Explain the use of acids as food additives.

Acids impart zest and sharpness of flavour to food and drinks.

Acids have the ability to prevent or slow the growth of microbes

preservative qualities.
Acids such as citric acid are used to lower pH of foods to beneath 4.5

(increase H+ conc.) to prevent the growth of harmful (even deadly) bacteria

such as C. botulinum. Citric acid also has anti-oxidant properties and is
commonly used to reduce pH in canned foods.
Acetic acid is used for pickling vegetables due to its sour taste and

preservative qualities.

Outline the historical development of ideas about acids. (Lavoisier never

asked!)

Lavoisier: Oxygen acidifying principle in all acids.

Davy: Hydrogen containing compounds are acids, hydrogen can be replaced

by a metal.
Arrhenius: Acid contains H, dissociates to produce H+ ions, base contains

OH, dissociates to produce OH- ions. [Did not explain neutralisation by

bases with no OH- or gases]
Bronsted-Lowry: Acids are proton donors, bases are proton acceptors.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

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Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base
and its conjugate acid. Describe acidic/basic/neutral salts.

An acid and its conjugate base differ by a proton.

The conjugate base of a strong acid is extremely weak.
The conjugate base of a weak acid is moderately weak (reacts with water

producing OH-.)
The conjugate acid of a strong base is extremely weak.
The conjugate acid of a weak base is moderately weak (donates proton to

water to produce H3O+ in solution.)

If the ion of a salt is a weak conjugate base (such as acetate in sodium

acetate) then it will accept a proton from water, producing OH- ions,
making the salt solution basic.
If the ion of a salt is a weak conjugate acid (such as ammonium in

ammonium chloride) then it will donate a proton to water to produce H3O+

ions, making the solution acidic.
If the ion of a salt is the conjugate acid/base of a strong acid/base, it is

extremely unreactive and will not react with water, having no affect on pH.
Eg. Na+ [NaOH], Cl- [HCl] (NaCl is neutral as neither ion undergo
hydrolysis with water.)

Qualitively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific

example in a natural system.

A buffer resists drastic changes to pH.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

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The H2CO3/HCO3buffer system in blood plays a crucial part in maintaining

the pH of blood in a healthy 7.35 7.45 range to avoid cell deterioration

and effective functioning of cells.
1. CO2(g) CO2(aq) + heat
2. CO2(aq) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq)
3. H2CO3 (aq) H+(aq) + HCO3(aq)
If the blood pH decreases [H+ conc. increases], equilibria 3,2,1 all shift to

the left to minimise each disturbance respectively and neutralise the change,
maintaining the pH within the healthy range. (opposite if pH increases)

Titration calculation or procedure (including preparing standard solution) is

likely.

Explain the difference in melting point/boiling point between alkanols and

alkonoic acids, describing the differences between their respective
functional groups.

Alkanols
Hydroxy functional group (-OH)
Relatively less polar due to only 1
hydroxy group.
Less polar than alkanoic acids, lower
molecular mass, less intermolecular
forces operating between molecules,
therefore a lower M.P./B.P.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School

Alkanoic Acids
Carbonyl functional group COOH.
Relatively more polar due to having an
extra polar carboxy group aswell as a
hydroxy group, therefore a higher net
dipole. This causes stronger dipoledipole interactions between molecules.
These intermolecular forces must be
weakened for melting / broken for
boiling, and due to their stronger
nature, require more energy. There are
also 2 polar groups on each molecule
allowing more dipole-dipole interactions
between molecules. Therefore the M.P
and B.P. is greater than alkanols.

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Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis.

Concentrated H2SO4 catalyst is used because it shortens the time taken to

reach equilibrium by increasing the rate of the reaction (lowers activation

energy).

Outline some of the occurrence, production and uses of esters.

Ethyl butyrate is used in pineapple oil.

Pentyl ethanoate is used in banana/pair oil.
Pentyl butanoate is used as a perfume ingredient.

2010 HSC Chemistry Exam - Probable Dot-points

By Ali Hosseini, James Cook Boys Technology High School