INTRODUCTION 9

Introduction to space science and applications – historical development – Space

Environment- Vacuum and its Effects, Plasma & Radiation Environments and
their Effects, Debris Environment and its Effects – Newton’s Law of gravitation
– Fundamental Physical Principles.
1.1 Introduction to space science:
Science performed from vehicles that travel into Earth’s upper atmosphere or
beyond covers a broad range of disciplines, from meteorology and geology to
lunar, solar and planetary science to astronomy and astrophysics to the life
sciences. The term ‘space’ was first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky
in John Milton's Paradise Lost in 1667.
space science, body of scientific knowledge as it relates to space exploration; it
is sometimes also called astronautics. Space science draws on the conventional
sciences of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering, as well as requiring
specific research of its own.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has an active space science
programme that covers various domains of space science research including
Planetary science and exploration, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Heliophysics /
Sun-Earth interaction, Atmospheric science, and also research driven by
Microgravity platforms arising as part of the new human space programme.
Under the expanding programme in space sciences, ISRO encourages greater
participation from academia, for generating human resources in space science
and technology, expanding the user base of the space exploration mission data,
and fostering an ecosystem to facilitate active participation of the students in
space science and technology research
Applications of Space Science:
Communication: The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT), including the
GSAT (Geosynchronous Satellite) series satellites, facilitates communication
services such as television broadcasting, telemedicine, and disaster
management. These satellites ensure connectivity, even in remote and
underserved areas.
Television: INSAT has been a major catalyst for the expansion of television
coverage in India. DOS (Global Observing System) has made available the
required transponders through INSAT/GSAT satellites and through leased
capacity to cater to the needs of television service.
Remote Sensing: India’s earth observation satellites, like the HySIS (Hyper
Spectral Imaging Satellite) satellites, provide high-resolution images of the
Earth’s surface. These images are crucial for applications such as land use
mapping, resource management, and environmental monitoring.
Navigation: The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), now
known as NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) offers precise
positioning and timing information, benefiting various sectors including
transportation, agriculture, and disaster management.
Weather Forecasting: India’s meteorological satellites gather real-time
weather data which is pivotal for accurate weather forecasting and disaster
management. This data aids in predicting and mitigating the impact of natural
disasters.
Agriculture: Data from earth observation satellites is extensively used for crop
monitoring and assessment, soil moisture estimation, and drought prediction.
The KISANSAT is an example of a satellite used for agricultural purposes.
Disaster Management: The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC)
leverages satellite data for disaster management during events like floods,
earthquakes, and cyclones. Timely information helps in planning and response
efforts. For instance, during the Joshimath sinking, ISRO released vital data.
Defence: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) collaborates with the
Indian Defence forces to provide satellite-based services. These services include
surveillance, reconnaissance, and secure communication.
Education: EDUSAT', India's first thematic satellite dedicated exclusively for
educational services, was used extensively to cater to a wide range of interactive
educational delivery modes like one-way TV broadcast, video conferencing,
computer conferencing, web-based instructions, etc. EDUSAT had manifold
objectives - to supplement the curriculum-based teaching, imparting effective
teacher training, providing access to quality resource persons and new
technologies, thus finally resulting in taking education to every nook and corner
of India.
Archaeology Space archaeology employs the same methods as historical and
industrial archaeology in using survey, excavation, artifact analysis, oral
history, documentary research, aerial imagery, and geographical information
systems (GIS) to characterize and analyze material remains and landscapes.
Medicine: Over the years, NASA can claim at least partial credit for a wide
variety of medical innovations, from ear thermometers and automatic insulin
pumps to implantable heart defibrillators and improvements in digital
mammography technology. Here are a few of the many other medical advances
that came at least in part from NASA. Digital imaging breast biopsy system
developed from Hubble space telescope Technology, Tiny transistor to monitor
the foetus inside the womb, Laser angioplasty using fibre optic catheters, LEDs
for help in brain cancer surgery and Programmable pacemakers.

1.2 History of Space Exploration

Space exploration began in the 1950s during a period called the Cold
War. During this time, the United States and Russia, which was then in a
group known as the Soviet Union, competed against each other. They both
wanted to be perceived as the most powerful country in the world, and were
developing increasingly stronger weapons. At the time, many Americans were
afraid that the Soviets would attack the United States with these weapons, but
this never came to pass.
The US and the Soviet Union also competed to have better technology,
including the technology to explore space. This specific competition became
known as the “space race.” In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first man-
made satellite into Earth’s orbit, called Sputnik. They would also launch the
first human, Yuri Gagarin, into space. American politicians and scientists saw
this as a crisis because they thought it meant that the Soviets might win the
space race. The US government decided to commit more funds to space
exploration. In 1958, the government created the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), an independent agency of the federal
government responsible for American space exploration, as well
as aeronautics and space research.
Eventually, the United States and the Soviet Union decided that it would be
easier if they worked together to explore space. This cooperation was a step
towards the end of the Cold War and led to the world’s increasing collective
knowledge about space, and space program development across the globe.
When the Soviet Union dissolved into several countries in 1991, its space
program mainly passed to Russia. The US and Russia would continue to work
together with space shuttle and space station collaboration programs as well as
with the present-day construction and development of the International Space
Station.
In 1973, NASA launched its first space station, known as Skylab. In
1981, the space shuttle became the first reusable spacecraft launched. In 1998,
the American, Russian, Japanese, European, and Canadian space programs
worked together to build the International Space Station, or ISS. The purpose
of the ISS is to experiment with long-term stays in space with the hope of
exploring the possibility of humans living permanently in space. Astronauts
started living on the ISS in 2000, and the station is expected to operate through
the year 2030. Over 200 people from 20 countries have visited the ISS, making
it one of the largest signifiers of international technological cooperation both in
(and above) the world.

History of Space science in India.

India’s space technology sector has evolved into a remarkable success story,
boasting numerous achievements that have garnered global recognition. The
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has played a pivotal role in
advancing the nation’s capabilities in space technology, leading to
groundbreaking missions and cutting-edge innovations.

Phase I: 1960-70
● Vikram Sarabhai and Homi Bhabha laid the foundation of India’s space
program, recognizing the potential of satellites.
● The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was
formed in 1962.
● The launch of sounding rockets began in 1962, utilizing India’s
proximity to the equator.
● The Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) was
established in Kerala.
● The indigenous Rohini Family of sounding rockets was developed.

● ISRO was founded in 1969, and the Department of Space was

established in 1972.
Phase II: 1970-80
● India initiated satellite technology development for remote sensing and
communication.
● India’s first satellite, Aryabhata, was launched in 1975 with Soviet
assistance.
● The Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) was prepared for launch in 1979 but
faced initial failures.
 ● The first indigenous satellite, Rohini, was launched.
Phase III: 1980-90
● ISRO aimed for a satellite launch vehicle capable of placing useful
satellites in polar orbits.
● The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) faced initial launch
failures.
Phase IV: 1990-2000
● In 1992, the ASLV saw its first successful launch.

● The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) emerged as a reliable

workhorse, launching remote sensing and communication satellites.
Developments after 2000
● The GSLV’s development flight took place in 2001.

● India ventured into lunar exploration with the Chandrayaan mission in

2008.
● ISRO entered the business of launching foreign payloads from Indian
soil.
● Post-2010, ISRO focused on various programs, including the Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV), and next-generation GSLV Mark-III launch vehicle
missions.
● The Earth Observation program introduced cutting-edge Indian remote
sensing (IRS) satellites, weather/climate satellites, and the satellite
navigation program (IRNSS).

1.3 Space environment

Space environment is the large void which occupies the (relatively)
empty areas of the universe outside the atmosphere or surface of any planet or
other celestial body. It is a vacuum that contains a low density of particles, as
well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, and neutrinos.
Based on our own perspective from planet Earth, the space environment
is defined as the area beyond the atmosphere of the Earth. It is also considered
as a branch of astronautics that addresses conditions of space that might affect
the operations of spacecraft, the health of astronauts, and any other living being
during space flight.

The environment of space is lethal without appropriate protection: the

greatest threat in the vacuum of space derives from the lack of oxygen and
pressure, although temperature and radiation also pose risks. The effects of
space exposure can result in ebullism, hypoxia, hypocapnia, and decompression
sickness. Decompression is a serious concern during the extra-vehicular
activities (EVAs) of astronauts. Current Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU)
designs take this and other issues into consideration, and have evolved over
time.
A key challenge has been the competing interests of increasing astronaut
mobility (which is reduced by high-pressure EMUs, analogous to the difficulty
of deforming an inflated balloon relative to a deflated one) and
minimising decompression risk. Investigators have considered pressurizing a
separate head unit to the regular 71 kPa (10.3 psi) cabin pressure as opposed to
the current whole-EMU pressure of 29.6 kPa (4.3 psi). In such a design,
pressurization of the torso could be achieved mechanically, avoiding mobility
reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization.

1.3.1 Vacuum and its effect.

Human physiology is adapted to living within the atmosphere of Earth,
and a certain amount of oxygen is required in the air we breathe. If the body
does not get enough oxygen, then the astronaut is at risk of becoming
unconscious and dying from hypoxia. In the vacuum of space, gas exchange in
the lungs continues but results in the removal of all gases, including oxygen,
from the bloodstream. After 9 to 12 seconds, the deoxygenated blood reaches
the brain, and it results in the loss of consciousness.

Exposure to vacuum for up to 30 seconds is unlikely to cause permanent

physical damage. Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is
normal for exposures shorter than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures
are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful. There is only a limited
amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal
data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if breathing is not impaired.

In December 1966, aerospace engineer and test subject Jim LeBlanc

of NASA was participating in a test to see how well a pressurized space suit
prototype would perform in vacuum conditions. To simulate the effects of
space, NASA constructed a massive vacuum chamber from which all air could
be pumped. At some point during the test, LeBlanc's pressurization hose
became detached from the space suit. Even though this caused his suit pressure
to drop from 3.8 psi (26.2 kPa) to 0.1 psi (0.7 kPa) in less than 10 seconds,
LeBlanc remained conscious for about 14 seconds before losing
consciousness due to hypoxia; the much lower pressure outside the body causes
rapid de-oxygenation of the blood. "As I stumbled backwards, I could feel the
saliva on my tongue starting to bubble just before I went unconscious and that's
the last thing I remember", recalls LeBlanc. A colleague entered the chamber
within 25 seconds and gave LeBlanc oxygen. The chamber was repressurized in
1 minute instead of the normal 30 minutes. LeBlanc recovered almost
immediately with just an earache and no permanent damage.

Another effect from a vacuum is a condition called ebullism which results

from the formation of bubbles in body fluids due to reduced ambient pressure.
The steam may bloat the body up to twice its normal size and slow down
circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent
rupture. Technically, ebullism is considered to begin at an elevation of around
19 kilometres (12 mi; 62,000 ft) or pressures less than 6.3 kPa (47 mm Hg),
[34] known as the Armstrong limit. Experiments with other animals have
revealed an array of symptoms that could also apply to humans. The least severe
of these is the freezing of bodily secretions due to evaporative cooling. Severe
symptoms, such as loss of oxygen in tissue, followed by circulatory
failure and flaccid paralysis would occur in about 30 seconds. The lungs also
collapse in this process, but will continue to release water vapour leading to
cooling and ice formation in the respiratory tract. A rough estimate is that a
human will have about 90 seconds to be recompressed, after which death may
be unavoidable. Swelling from ebullism can be reduced by containment in
a flight suit which are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km. During
the Space Shuttle program astronauts wore a fitted elastic garment called a
Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevented ebullism at pressures as
low as 2 kPa (15 mm Hg).

The only humans known to have died of exposure to vacuum in space are
the three crew-members of the Soyuz 11 spacecraft; Vladislav Volkov, Georgi
Dobrovolski, and Viktor Patsayev. During preparations for re-entry from orbit
on June 30, 1971, a pressure-equalisation valve in the spacecraft's descent
module unexpectedly opened at an altitude of 168 kilometres (551,000 ft),
causing rapid depressurisation and the subsequent death of the entire crew.

1.3.2 plasma & radiation environment and its effect

Without the protection of Earth’s atmosphere and magnetosphere,

astronauts are exposed to high levels of radiation. High levels of radiation
damage lymphocytes, cells heavily involved in maintaining the immune system;
this damage contributes to the lowered immunity experienced by astronauts.
Radiation has also recently been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in
astronauts. Outside the protection of low Earth orbit, galactic cosmic
rays present further challenges to human spaceflight, as the health threat from
cosmic rays significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade or more
of exposure. A NASA-supported study reported that radiation may harm
the brain of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Solar
flare events (though rare) can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes. It is thought
that protective shielding and protective drugs may ultimately lower the risks to
an acceptable level
There are three kinds of space radiation:

● Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) originating outside the solar system;

● Solar particles emitted by the sun during solar flares (solar particle
events);
● Radiation trapped by the Earth's magnetic field.

On the surface of the Earth, these types of radiation are not significant health
hazards because the Earth's atmosphere and magnetic field protect us from most
of the radiation from space. Astronauts in low Earth orbit still receive some
protection from the Earth's atmosphere and magnetic field, but radiation
becomes a much bigger problem when they travel to places outside these
protective barriers, like the moon or mars.
Space radiation is one of the main health hazards of spaceflight. It is dangerous
because it has sufficient energy to change or break DNA molecules, which can
damage or kill a cell. This can lead to health problems ranging from acute
effects to long term effects.
Acute effects such as changes to the blood, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting are
mild and recoverable. Other effects of acute radiation exposure are much more
severe such as central nervous system damage or even death. Acute effects are
not expected to result from exposure to space radiation, except if an astronaut is
exposed to a large solar particle event, such as a solar flare, which produces a
high dose of radiation.
The major concern about space radiation is the long term effects on astronauts.
Long term effects can include cataracts, increased chance of cancer, and
sterility. Some health effects can skip a generation and appear in the
descendants of the exposed individual, being passed on by mutated genes.
The types of health problems that occur are determined by the extent of
exposure to radiation, an astronaut's vulnerability to radiation and other
variables. Exposure to radiation depends on:
 ● Altitude of the spacecraft
● Amount of shielding from the spacecraft or spacesuit,
● Length of mission,
● Duration and intensity of exposure,
● Type of radiation.

Vulnerability to radiation includes individual sensitivity to radiation and

differences in age, sex, or health status. In addition, variables such as
weightlessness or body temperature can weaken the human immune system and
affect how body tissues and organs respond to radiation.

1.4 Debris Environment and its Effects

Space waste encompasses any piece of debris left behind by humans in

space and therefore originating on Earth. Space debris can be as large as an
inactive satellite, similar to the size of a car, or as small as a flake of paint. The
real danger is the speed at which these objects move, more than 28,000
kilometres per hour, which turns them into real projectiles.

At the dawn of the space age in 1957, the North American Aerospace
Defense Command (NORAD) started a database with information about all this
waste. The first piece of space junk was the Sputnik satellite, which the Soviet
Union launched that same year. These days, the European Space Agency
(ESA), says there are around 900,000 objects measuring between 1 and 10 cm
in orbit and around 34,000 larger than 10 cm

Researchers have estimated that about 80 tons of space debris re-enters

Earth’s atmosphere each year, but again, most of that debris will burn up in the
atmosphere or fall to Earth without anyone noticing. Unfortunately, just because
something burns up doesn’t mean that it disappears. The intense heat caused by
friction may break down these pieces of debris and melt them, but the
compositional chemicals are still being released into the atmosphere. Some
composite metals and polymers actually consume ozone when they push back
through the atmosphere and burn up, experiencing chemical reactions that
produce nitric oxide, which can deplete ozone.
Fortunately, our planet is quite large, and space is absolutely massive, so
even with that many pieces of debris crashing back into Earth’s atmosphere
every year, the impact that it currently has on the environment in negligible.
The activities of mankind on the planet have a far more negative effect on the
ozone and climate change than a few thousand small impacts of small pieces of
space junk.
Types of space debris

According to the ESA, space debris include:

● Payload: these are mainly satellites. This includes fragments produced by

wear and tear and collisions.
● Rockets: remains of stages used to propel missions in orbit. This also
includes fragments produced by wear and tear and collisions.
● Mission-related objects: for example, dropped tools, screws, cables,
cameras, etc.

Space waste is classified by size as follows:

● Below 1 cm: it is estimated that there are more than 128 million of these
fragments and most of them are undetectable.
● Between 1 and 10 cm: it is calculated that there are around 900,000 in
orbit, which range from the size of a marble to a tennis ball.
● More than 10 cm: these objects include everything from tools lost
during missions to defunct satellites.

Causes of space debris

a) Defunct satellites

Satellites have a limited useful life and, when their batteries are spent or they
break down, they are left drifting about in space. At the beginning of the space
race, it was assumed that sooner or later these abandoned objects would fall to
earth and would burn up on re-entry. However, and particularly at higher orbits,
this may never happen.

b) Missing equipment

Astronauts sometimes drop tools or other objects during space walks. In 2008,
for example, astronaut Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper dropped a box of
tools. This disintegrated when it entered the Earth's atmosphere almost a year
later, after orbiting the Earth more than 4,000 times.
c) Rocket stages

Some rocket stages are discarded in low orbits and fall to Earth shortly after
takeoff. However, the higher ones are left drifting in space and sometimes
explode because they contain the remains of fuel. These explosions create
thousands of fragments.

d) Weapons

Both the United States and the Soviet Union began to conduct tests with anti-
satellite weapons in the sixties and seventies. In 1985, for example, the United
States destroyed a one-ton satellite (Solwind) with one of these weapons.
Similar missions of this type were carried out in later years by other countries
including China and India.

Effects:

● According to the ESA, since 1961 there have been more than 560
fragmentation incidents, most of them caused by fuel explosions in rocket
stages. As for direct collisions, there have only been seven, the most
serious of which destroyed an inactive Russian satellite called Kosmos
2251 and the operational satellite Iridium 33.

● However, it is the small fragments that pose the greatest danger.

Micrometeorites like paint flakes and solidified droplets of antifreeze can
damage solar panels on active satellites. Other dangerous debris includes
vestiges of solid fuel which float about in space and are highly
flammable. They can cause damage and disperse pollutants into the
atmosphere if they explode.

● Some Russian satellites contain nuclear batteries with radioactive

material that could cause dangerous contamination if they returned to
Earth. In any case, the heat of re-entry destroys the majority of this space
debris before it reaches the Earth. On rare occasions, larger fragments
have reached the surface and caused considerable damage

1.5 Newton’s Law of gravitation

Newton came up with truly brilliant insight: if the force of gravity reaches to
the top of the highest tree, might it not reach even further; in particular, might it
not reach all the way to the orbit of the Moon! Then, the orbit of the Moon
about the Earth could be a consequence of the gravitational force, because the
acceleration due to gravity could change the velocity of the Moon in just such a
way that it followed an orbit around the earth.

Newton knew that the force which caused the apple's acceleration
(gravity) must be dependent upon the mass of the apple. And since the force
acting to cause the apple's downward acceleration also causes the earth's upward
acceleration (Newton's third law), that force must also depend upon the mass of
the earth. So for Newton, the force of gravity acting between the earth and any
other object is directly proportional to the mass of the earth, directly
proportional to the mass of the object, and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance which separates the centres of the earth and the object.

he constant of proportionality G is known as the universal gravitational

constant. It is termed a "universal constant" because it is thought to be the same
at all places and all times, and thus universally characterizes the intrinsic
strength of the gravitational force. The numerical value of G is very small,
which is basically the reason for the force of gravity to be the weakest force of
the nature

But Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth.

Newton's law of universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity.
Newton's place in the Gravity Hall of Fame is not due to his discovery of
gravity, but rather due to his discovery that gravitation is universal. ALL objects
attract each other with a force of gravitational attraction. Gravity is universal.
This force of gravitational attraction is directly dependent upon the masses of
both objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance which
separates their centers.

F = force
g =gravitational constant

m1=mass of object 1
m2=mass of object 2
r2=distance between centers of the masses

Weight and the Gravitational Force

We have seen that in the Universal Law of Gravitation the crucial quantity is
mass. In popular language mass and weight are often used to mean the same
thing; in reality they are related but quite different things. What we commonly
call weight is really just the gravitational force exerted on an object of a certain
mass. We can illustrate by choosing the Earth as one of the two masses in the
previous illustration of the Law of Gravitation:
Thus, the weight of an object of mass m at the surface of the Earth is obtained
by multiplying the mass m by the acceleration due to gravity, g, at the surface of
the Earth. The acceleration due to gravity is approximately the product of the
universal gravitational constant G and the mass of the Earth M, divided by the
radius of the Earth, r, squared. (We assume the Earth to be spherical and neglect
the radius of the object relative to the radius of the Earth in this discussion.) The
measured gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface is found to be about
980 cm/second/second.
Mass and Weight
Mass is a measure of how much material is in an object, but weight is a measure
of the gravitational force exerted on that material in a gravitational field; thus,
mass and weight are proportional to each other, with the acceleration due to
gravity as the proportionality constant. It follows that mass is constant for an
object (actually this is not quite true as described by the Relativity Theory), but
weight depends on the location of the object. For example, if we transported the
preceding object of mass m to the surface of the Moon, the gravitational
acceleration would change because the radius and mass of the Moon both differ
from those of the Earth. Thus, our object has mass m both on the surface of the
Earth and on the surface of the Moon, but it will weigh much less on the surface
of the Moon because the gravitational acceleration there is a factor of 6 less than
at the surface of the Earth.
1.6 Fundamental Physical Principles.

Physics is a fundamental science because other natural sciences deal with

systems that obey physics laws. The physical laws of energy, matter, and
nature’s forces govern the interactions between particles, such as atoms and
molecules. Some basic principles of physics are:

● Newton’s Laws of Motion

● Gravity Theory
● Work, Energy and Power
● Force, Mass and Weight
● Energy Conversion, Transfer and Conservation
 ● Thermodynamics Laws
● Heat Flow

a) Newton’s Law of motion

Newton’s laws of motion relate an object’s motion to the forces acting on it.
Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law states that if a body is at rest or moving at a constant
speed in a straight line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at
constant speed unless it is acted upon by a force.
Newton’s second law
Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that
a force can produce on the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change
of the momentum of a body is equal in both magnitude and direction to the
force imposed on it. The momentum of a body is equal to the product of
its mass and its velocity.
F = ma,
where F (force) and a (acceleration) are both vector quantities. If a body has a net
force acting on it, it is accelerated in accordance with the equation. Conversely, if a
body is not accelerated, there is no net force acting on it.
Newton’s third law
Newton’s third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to
one another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The third law is
also known as the law of action and reaction. This law is important in analyzing
problems of static equilibrium, where all forces are balanced, but it also applies to
bodies in uniform or accelerated motion.

b) Gravity Theory
In physics, gravity (from Latin gravitas 'weight') is a fundamental
interaction which causes mutual attraction between all things that have mass.
Gravity is, by far, the weakest of the four fundamental interactions,
approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong interaction, 1036 times weaker
than the electromagnetic force and 1029 times weaker than the weak interaction.
As a result, it has no significant influence at the level of subatomic particles.
[2]
However, gravity is the most significant interaction between objects at
the macroscopic scale, and it determines the motion of planets, stars, galaxies,
and even light.
 Isaac Newton was the first to develop a quantitative theory of gravity,
holding that the force of attraction between two bodies is proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

c) Work, Energy and Power

Work
The work done by a force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of
the force multiplied by the distance moved in the direction of the force. Work
has only magnitude and no direction. Hence, work is a scalar quantity. The SI
unit of work is Joule (J).

Energy
Energy is the ability to perform work. Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, and it can only be transformed from one form to another. The unit of
Energy is the same as of Work, i.e. Joules. Energy is found in many things, and
thus there are different types of energy.
All forms of energy are either kinetic or potential. The energy in motion is
known as Kinetic Energy, whereas Potential Energy is the energy stored in an
object and is measured by the amount of work done.

Types of Energy
Some other types of energy are given below:

● Mechanical energy
● Mechanical wave energy
● Chemical energy
● Electric energy
● Magnetic energy
● Radiant energy
 ● Nuclear energy
● Ionization energy
● Elastic energy
● Gravitational energy
● Thermal energy
● Heat Energy

Power
power as the rate of doing work, and it is the amount of energy consumed
per unit of time. As power doesn’t have any direction, it is a scalar quantity. The
SI unit of power is Joules per Second (J/s), which is termed as Watt.

d) Force, Mass and Weight

The terms weight and mass are often used similarly. But in the scientific
world, they are two related quantities that are defined very differently. Mass is
the amount of matter in an object. It is a measurement of how much matter (how
many protons, neutrons, and electrons) make up an object. It is the same
whether an object resides on Earth, or Mars, or even in outer space. And
scientists usually measure it using units called grams.

Mass and weight on Earth and Mars.

Weight, on the other hand, is the downward force acting upon an object
due to gravity. It depends upon the mass of an object, of course. But it also
depends upon the pull of gravity, so it varies from place to place. A person who
weighs 200 lbs. on Earth would have a very different weight on Mars, for
example. But that person's mass on Mars would be exactly the same. Scientists
usually measure weight using a unit called Newtons.
e) Energy Conversion, Transfer and Conservation
Energy can be transferred (move from one location to another) and it can
change (transform) from one type to another – but the total amount of energy is
always conserved, i.e. it stays the same.

● Energy transfer is the movement of energy from one location to another.

● Energy transformation is the changing of energy from one type of

energy to another.
● Energy conservation means that the total amount of energy always
remains the same.

f) Thermodynamics Laws

Thermodynamics deals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the
inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy.

● Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics - It states that if two bodies are

individually in equilibrium with a separate third body, then the first two
bodies are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
● 1st Law of Thermodynamics - Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

● 2nd Law of Thermodynamics - For a spontaneous process, the entropy

of the universe increases.
● 3rd Law of Thermodynamics - A perfect crystal at zero Kelvin has zero
entropy.

g) Heat Flow

The rate at which heat flows across the area A, in Joules per second or
Watts. ΔT/Δx is the change in the temperature over the distance Δx in degrees
Kelvin or Celsius per meter.
ΔQ/Δt