CHAPTER 4 STEEL4.0 4a 410 4,100 4.101 4,102 ‘The general strength properties and the related clmracteristics of various steels are Listed in the tables at the end of this chapter, Partiatlar attention should be paid to the detailed notes at the bottom of each tatLe and to the general explamtory notes in Chapter 3, These tatiles will be revised and amplificd fron time to tine as found necessary and to include new naterials of construction. sonny Colum Formas wary Failure, The general formilas for primry instability are given in Sec. 1.27, For convenience, these formulas are repmted in Table 41 in simplified form applicatle to round steal tubes. These formulas also can be used for colwins mving cross sections other than those of round tubes when local instability is not critical. Local Failure. Tatile 4-1 also contains notes concerning the Local in- stability of round tubes. The local failure stresses for columns having cross sections of other shapes are given in the allowable stress curves at the end of this chapter. Effects of Welding. The primry failure stress of a colum having welded reviews ends can be detemined from the formas of Table 4-1 witht regard for ecto the effects of welding, These stresses, hovever, should not exceed a 4.0 Noutacff" stress which accounts for the effects of welding on the local failure of the column, In the case of X-4150 tubing having tensile yield stresses of. 75,000 and 85,000 psi, the welding cut-offs are at stresses of 67,500 and 76,60 psi, respectively, See Sec. 4,510 for the effects of welding in other cases. Column Stress Curves. ~ Curves of the allowable column stresses for various ‘types of steel tubing are given in Pigs. 41 to 4.5. The allowable stress is plotted against the effective slanderness ratio which is defined by the formula: Loe = = cag) 4012 Column Load Gurves, Figures 46 to 4.29 give the allovatie loads of x~4130 42 4,20 ‘ound tube colums against length, It showld be noted that these curves can bo used for any condition of end restrain if the effective lengtl of the coum, I//6, 4e uaed with the scale for c= 1. Bau General. See Sec, 1.21, By. 1:3, and Sec, 1.414 for general infomation fon beans, 4Pes oq gen rsd goofs, “y uo peeeg emmros uamqoo str} ‘Poqwoymyeoyed pte peTeoure 3 TwpoaTo00s ee, Buyany 04 ATuo soTrdde wrmsoy eTUY ‘XINO SENVLELTY ‘Tato NO Sen WOE +(@) o30N "seadeio Jo pus 4u sotaes serqaodaxy TeoTMEYONR 89g (p) OFON FO 2 ALe vonm £artrqersuy TeooT so; opeeyasoaut oy ArvsEsOeH 30K (0) exon iutioney om 20x WOTIK MOTOR PUP WBUOTy ae sumNTOD YOTYA oneKE 4UI aT O/T TeOTSHIN “ia Ste “ows Bupsueo yy *e Evtaroosd om way AyHoWeH oTZToeds qRoMn A AT poooxs you-THME O/T fane/re at *(@) erow ) 20K 2 (9/11) /gorease| ‘6°ss PET | (9/1 7)@4°22-000's9T | Coo‘seT. O00%S9T | 884g AoTTy Peq8e79—4 BOY ke) [) e208 | .(4/:1)/got982] ors WET | e(0/01)26*St-000'sst| ooo'sst | ooo'set] tees forty 2p ) @320N 2 (9/11) /goRee 9°sh VEIT | | (9/11)¥L"8-000"R0T| O00foOt | 000foOT T8s9s ATTY (p)PovParIH0H (2) e20N 2l/:T)/gorxsez: o's8 SBT | go (O/sT)% 8 ytf0s | cot‘os | ooo'se OSTh-x 9) 930K 2(9/:7)/sorxaee s*t6 S@IT | 5-7 (9/1T)6 "13-008 ‘en 008 “én, 000%s2 | osTH—x ION | e(/iD/gorxoue] vat. ‘vet | (9/s1)2e1"t-o00'98 | o00'ss | ooo'ee | — szor thy oyseq| STmuIO uMTOD oantreg ot ) 09, fe, Toot | (gy FHRTPO BuOT} TOF FED ‘sun Top 40ug jad y fred~ty | Topsogey (or ase encima) ‘SHOAL THAIS ANNOY YOX S¥TOMIOE NMNICO t-» aTEVESTEEL 4.21 __Stwle Bears, Beans of solid, tubular, or sintlar cross-sections can newego 0 489une to fail through exteeding ah allowable mocilits of supeose in ccrhe bending (Ry). For soltd sections, it umally can be assumed tine Fp 4,210 4.20. 4.22 422, 4,25 43 4,50 4052 44 4,40, enals the ultinate tensile stress, This assumption is conservative and higher values my be used if substantiated by test data. Roun Tubes, Far roun tubes, the value of Fy will depend on the I/t ratio, as well a the ultimte tensile stress, Figure 4.20 gives the bending nodulus of rupture for chrome molybdenun stecl tubing? ea fers, Tnformtion on the failure of thin-walled cylinders in beniing is given in Secs, 1.651 and 1.641, Unconventional Cross-sections. Soctiom other tian solid or tubular should be tested to determine the allowable bending stress, Deans, Built-up beans usually will fail due to local failures of the component parts. In welded steel tube beams, the allowable tensile stresses should be reduced properly for the effecte of welding. ‘Thincweb Beans, The allowatLe’ stresses for thin-web beans will depend on ‘the nature of the failure ani are determined from the allowatle stresses of the web in tension and of the flanges ami stiffeners in compressions See Ref. 15 for general stress analysie methods. ‘TORSION General, The torsion failure of steel tubes may be due to plastic failure of the metal, clastic instability of the walls, or to an intemediate condition. Pure shear failure usually will not occur within the range of will thicknesses comorly used for aircraft tubing. Allowatle Torsional Shear Stresses. In the range of lor values of D/t, no theoretical fommila.is applicable directly. The results of tests hive been used to determine the enpirical curves of Figs, 4-21 and 4-22, For high values of D/t,'the equations given in Sec, 1.682 can be used, Provided thet the alloratile stress so determined does not exceed the proportional limit in shear, COMBINED LOADTNDS Roand Tubes in Bending’ and Soupression, The general theory of failure under combined loadings is given in Sec, 1.424, In the case of combined bending and compression it is necessary to consider the effects of secondary bending; that is, bending produced by the axial load acting in conjuncation with the lateral deflection of the column. In general, Bq. 1:37 See, 1.424 can be used in the following form for safe values: Seong ee ----- 42) RF48 4.42 45 4450 4.500 4.501 STEEL. where fp! = maxim bending stress incluting effects of secondary bending, Py = bending mdulus of rupture fq = axial compressive sires Fo = allowable colum stresi ‘Tubes in Bending and Torsion, Byuaticn 1:37, Sec. 1,424 can be used in ‘the following forms for safe values: Round tubes: Reo Re ~~ (435) Streamline tubes: Ry + Re = 10--------~ (4:4) Higher values can be used if substantiated ty adequate test data, Tubes in Bewing, Comression and Torsion. The bending stresses should include the effects of secondary bending due to compression. The follow ing empirical equation will serve as a working basib, pending a tore thorough investigation of the subject: Re + Rl + Ry? = 0 =~ ~o- = (435) In addition to using the above equation, the xaximm nomal compressive stress should algo be determinel, The latter should not exceed the yield stress of the material, JOINIS, FITTINGS AND PARTS Bolted and Riveted Joints. Mlratile Shear Stresses. The alloratle shear stress for rivets, tits and pins is given dn Tatle 412, Allowable Bearing Stresses. The basic values of the allomatie Stresses for varios steels will be found in the tables at the end of this chapter, These stresses are applicable only when the D/t ratio (diameter of rivet over thickness of sheet) is less than 5.5. When thie ratio is equal. to or greater than 5,5, the allowable bearing strengths must be cub- Stantiated ty tests covering both yield and ultimate of the joint. the allowable bearing strength of steel sheets on rivets, bolts, ani ping 1s given in Tate 4-12, These values are to be used only for the design of the connecting elenents of rigid Joints when there is no possibility of relative novenent between the parts joined without deformation of these Farts, For otter types af joints, the allowatLe bearing stresses are to be reduced ty dividing ty the factors of safety specified in Table 4-2 (desigated as "bearing factors"), or are to be used in accordance With Tatle 4-5, whichever 4s applicallé. For antifriction bearings the critical Limlt load stould not exceed the namifacturer's non-2rinell rating. 44TAELE 4-2 (4208p ocr ae) MATERIALS FACTORS FOR PLAIN BEARINGS HAVING SMALL RELATIVE MOVEMENT (the requirenents of this table are mandatory on Army and Navy airplanes and are recomended on civil airplanes, Note also the requirements in OAR 04.271 to 04.277 inclusive which apply to civil airplanes.) ‘Type of Bearing Shook oF Vibration | Lubrication | Factor Rigid connection, rivets, drive fit bolts, or taper pins, no relative movement. None None 1.0 Rigid comaction, rivets, drive fit bolts, or taper pins, no relative movenent. Yes Wone 15 Free fits, no relative rotation None None Ls Free fits, infrequent relative rotation. None None 2.0 Free fits, no relative movement, Tos Immaterial 240 Free fite, infrequent relative : movement. Yes | Innaterial 2S Eee ae uae ey a gata I | TABLE 4-5 over ocr a) ULTIWATE BEARING STRESS FOR PLATN LUBRICATED BEARINGS HAVING FREQUENT RELATIVE MOVENENT (the requirenents of this"tatle are mandatory on Amy and Navy airplance gad are vecounended on civil airplanes, Note aleo the requirenents in OAR 04.271 to 04.277 inclusive which apply to civil airplanes.) ‘Type_of Bering hook or \Vibration | tubrication| 1b./sa.in.| Free fits, frequent relative movenent,| approximately 100 revolutions per hour (or equivalent) per flight. None Grease | 15,000 Free fits, subject to very frequent relative novenent with three or more bearings in line, sealed or protected None Grease | 12,000 Free fits, subject to very frequent Telstive movenent with three or nore bearings in line, unprotected from Light, dirt, None Grease 8,000 Free fite, subject to very frequent Telative movenent with three or more bearings in line, unprotected from dirt. Yes on 1,500 “5SUE 4,502 ollow-end Rivets. If hollowond rivets with solid cross-sections for ‘oven @ portion of the length (AN 450) are used, the stremgth of these eirete ose may be taken equal to the strength of solid rivets of the sine raterinl, provided that the bottom of tho cavity is at least 25 percent of the Zivet dianeter from the plane of shear, as measured tomard the hollow ond, ani further provided that they are used in locationa where they Ill not be subjected to appreciable tensile stresses. 4:51__Welded Joints, 4,510 Effects of Welding on pase Metal, Tho allowatle stresses in the base netal near the weld for steels that Inve been wolded after heat treatment are given in the tables at the end of this chapter, When heat-treated after welding, the allovable stresses should be reduced t0 80 percent of the standard heat-treated values. 4,51. Allovable Loads for Welded Seuss, The allowable load on the weld metal in welded seaus can be computed fron the following fanmulas: (Low carton steel) P 82,000Lt - - = (4:6) (Chrone-nolytdemun steel) P = 648 Lts. - ~~ (4:7) where P = alloratile Load, Ibs. L= Length of welded seans, ins, t= thickness of thimost material joined ty the weld in ‘the case of lap nelds betmoon tro steel plates or between plates ani tubes, ins, t= average thickness in inches of the weld metal in the case of tube assentlies, (Cannot be assumed greater thin 1,25 tines the ‘thiolness of the welded stock), 8 = 90,000 pot for raterial not heat-treated after welding, s+ ultinate tensile stress of material heat—treated after welding, but not to exceed 150,000 psi. 4,512 Welded Guster, In welded structures where 7 or more menber's converge, sevseo the allovatile stréss shall be determined by dividing the normal alos, ewse able stress ty a mterials factor of 1.5, unless the joint is reinforced in a manner for which specific authority has been obtained fra: the licensing or procuring agency, A tube thet is contimous through a deint should be assured as 2 menbers, 4:52 ___Brazed Joints, The term "brazing" is defined as a method of joining steel parts by means of @ copper-aine mixture which is applied by malt— ing with an air~gas flame or dipping into the molten mixture, The strength of braged joints depemis upon the area ani the clearances between the parts to be joined. A braaing mixture my have a shearing 46STEEL, strength as high as 40,000 pounis per square inch, but this strength is influenced by several factors, and, therefore, shaild not be used in design, In gmeral a value of 10,000’ pounis per square inch can be assumed as the allowable ultimate shear stress, Procedures and restric— ‘tions in the use of brazing mill be found in the detailed reyirenente of the procuring or Licensing agencies and should be observed carefully, 455 _Tle Rods, Ings and Cables. The rated strergth of AN stanlard tie rods 4a given in Table 4-15. Tension lugs conforming with the dimensions in Table 415 chor minimum margins of safety with respect to the strength ‘Listed in colum 2b of tint table approximtely as follows: 18% 25% Tension across lateral section through hole —- —— U0% Tension in necked down section aft of hole ~——— 100% For Ings not conforming to the dimensions of Table 415, the strengths may be commuted by the folloring nethods: Py = Wey Py = (RDO, Pye DR, -- = Py = (2RD)R, ~~ where: Py = Allowable tensile strength in the shank or eye in pounds. Por = Allowatile bearing strength on the pin in pounis, Ps = Allovatile shearing strength in the eye in pounds. D = Diameter’ of pin in inches, t = Thickness of lug in inches. R = Outside radius of eye ani radius at base of oye in inches. W = linimin'width of shank in inches. Fy = Allowable witinate tensile stress. Fig * Allowatlle bearing stress. Fy ~ Allowable shearing stress, ‘The strength of steel cable is given in Table 414, 4a-STE, 4,550 Gable Terminal Ffficiency, In caleulating the strength of aircraft cables ecrsep and wires the following efficiencies shall be used: Flexitie and extre flexible cable (7 x7 flextble and 7 x 19 extra flexible cable with Amy (tavy) fll five tuck splice) - - 1% iiard wire (loop terminal equipped with shake ani ferrule) = - - 8st 1o strand wire (with wrapped end soldered splice) —veces mirorins oy waeeas OZ S SVEE o o contrior roma |2a™ Serna fae Geese aul TT] | won wot | i Ets 3.00 iD. i 0 “Tels 3 ooo 000 i‘ © [Pex [tants (eat) Seen, Fe wom Defer eeeletae Se a : fo [Repetto Hastntty, eet | mom a 12] Fyq |Witteate Stews pal ee fe [a [frcoat toa oP j pies ms pom Efren ee po : ee pean eeateae | momo : [| [im se = mom _ fe nae hr] etnth nanor BERRI en 3 0 i AP EH Sern) [= [eine mies, aes W/m soe la 2 ee en eee 49ans a aaae secucuay morse oF suraata ALLOY STEELS | © © 9 3 | was wetpmve,? commen args ga | AeA EAP cy lbs en My rb Abe i PUGS [Bk Me sey! | "aramaeer | mane ELE Dre [Pemetios ses a [ae Sea ae cheet Cesta © Hongation ia @ tn, ‘PROPERTIES | Pe ee em as i © [Rep [Prepertioesl Unit, mt wo woo + [ie [ates Biers wt |e er : Ce ee momo Eee cee cee 1 wo 08 Tue [mesmte score, “oe [soo 129 000 12s 0 etal? ar i t [SEGRE theo aes a ao © beta premio ese Halt, at : 7 | 885 T8/eu ie 490 Ih/ou ey an |Chonteal Goaposttion - oe SSO Save arn tsa vate tos struters Aber ore ei ln tte ae aly “hay thews seni rah ets ae! Gs Srp" fer ence fata Ser eee cohen MESS een ee 8 RRs 4-10DEE 4-6 revoes or) MBOFARTOA, PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS: ALLoyw STEELS Jcas® rare | wy su far Sete) emer 20 Jeeat? Mex | abst tterasy em eeu’ |ravce i aves eas) | den Geetso)” [Gcsoy env [feeeso) ere, cw ToT Po [otiiante ficaany me mm 35 000| 2200" | a00 o0o 5 [Pe it ee mt 00 or eo G2 [te [emrtion tatty vt eon | EC [e [remus crmacuiay, et | eee | amon 2 om ono | 600 09 = Boagtion te 2 tm, meee “Te [eg [omsinet (took) stron, pet © 00 2 20 ee 100 00 BG [rey [wats ctor, mt 10 00 78 000 95 000 | 7 [Pop [Porortionn inks, vat 000 2 ~ 1010 7 3 0 [a [testes of Rasstoiy, ret | ax eno ozo t0 cco coo 20.009 000 | 29 ow 009 11 | Pay |Uitisete Stree, oa ‘$5 000 ‘88 000 * sa 900 ‘58 000 Te freee ae a (torsioa)s Pet He fe fomeace ce meets, | tccocwe | 1 000 tno woo [pea | Po | Far [rience stress wir] oon | 000 120 om urece | in aetuelt tember aE z g Ee Soe sete oh oo : ‘ . ee ret eaSoeecs) _ Spcitte Yolen, 0.8053. 30/e fos tj te shee, salen tre golat ie fe Sosa ebtnnad ¥en the lisersieg or pocteieg apeocy. 3 case that in oom those enrsigne goine aoe Solace nth Yaperel mee Many or 4-11 iy ealy *os ee ® @ @ ® ae mucin | mc geese 0 | me gam m| ses ae Beef ae a | es ere ‘Medatus of Elasticity, pak ‘29 000 000 23 900 000, 29 000 000. 22 000 000 = Flongetion fe ? ins, # _ By [ry [Hote sree, pat 300 000 155 000 es 009, | [ote peti |e |e |e [a Bi mrt wc on a | ie [|i canine mt | frewoo | ence | eos | woven eee eee Sh [me Prem ow | wee | we | ee |e ran a Peet Gee eee eae z » : ° | [eae [ete ees ais ecm as Sea Sia ac ecko Raker ne I a Betoeld Rater I | pe es see et etre : aE baa) : = See eee eta nee Tame (oeeeuery ie Pre ae ee ee aaa irhien fire crsesmeamanttia atari 4-12- — AvLtoy STEELS @ ® ® sar reso! 10 oe egies [ry [tts tee re [us 0 : Be re Drennan tare et | toe ma E LQ [a [onion of mastiotty, pai 29 000 000 - 7 ote nt tne 7 [ies [rm (em) 9 mon 3 [rg [ra ten, ies 0 | epee Te fe [re ces ot anny eet in [ta [times en, | nrew De es | ee Para roreeerer were atte a = fi [re [uate see me i a Yetnell Bamber _ _ a. pas peaae a T g SSBrceag seed Skee) eats a © [ie [he |porstoont Seaurance Liste, pet z eae ee ae a |e [evettisnige one in wee a ; a Talus serreapos. Toirete tor Soom ‘ho uso of higher best-troutancts thas tnt corresponding 21 Freestone tes nani ca roliage the preouring ot Homateg newsciete{CORROSION RESISTANT (STAINLESS) STEEL ® @ weak WELDING ® ee sae | Oe wn eo oe wave smst 4rs19 fs Se, Sa i ae aoe 9 Ee fein oo fad Boaeah @ Sli eee Se & B [wodutus of asticity, pst dblieed eee a eae citiaete (neck) Feros, er ee a oe fens af maace veimavensnseaae ee aed ‘70 000 tah ee a pa Es bY Pepin = =P eae fo tale en : i : Te a ‘eee [>= ne) lecat en Ls Son notes tn chapter 3 BL Tor eateral Saving en altinats tenetle etrese of 186,000 pats‘rate 4lO-arraoxsarare™* RELATIONS BETWEEN RARDNESS ND TENSILE STRENGTH OF A.B STESLS ca oe Sie a coe a | is g 8 us| 3 a | B = Bf B: # Roy is | 8 Hi Bi) EB) £| 8 if 2ii ala] & #) eg a a) 8 || & ay) Bye tela teeta a) 8 7 7 #/2| oi: al ele : : || Bl g) ie) g f : as | Bo] | 8 Pog {a oe i a a BLS) Bela] 2) By] eB 7 7 HEI Ele) 8/8] & | § 5 BUSS lei ell & 7 7 sHlote: Emphasis is laid on the fact that this téble gives an approximate relationship of Brinell, Roclorell and Soloroscops values. It is impossible to give more than an approximate relationship duo to the inevitable in- fluence of size, mass, composition and method of heat treatment. Where nore precise factors are required they should be especially developed for each steel composition, heat treatment and part. (This table was reproduced by permission of tho Socioty of Automotive Engineers). 4-15