Activated Sludge

Written by: Steven I. Safferman Ph.D., P.E.

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Activated Sludge

Educational Objectives
Upon completion of this course, the operator should understand the activated sludge process, the requirements
for the treatment of wastewater in an activated sludge system, different reactor configurations, and monitoring
parameters.

I.

Abstract

This operator education course describes the activated sludge

process as used for domestic wastewater treatment. An
overview of the microbiology, system requirements, reactor
configurations and operational parameters are discussed.

II. Keywords
Take a glance through this list and be sure to read carefully any
terms or abbreviations with which you are not familiar.
Activated Sludge: The solids formed when microorganisms
are used to treat wastewater using the activated sludge treatment
process: mixing primary effluent with bacteria-laden sludge.
Mixed Liquor: The combination of return activated sludge
and wastewater in the aeration tank.
Solids Retention Time: The average time a sludge molecule
remains in the system.
Food to Microorganism Ratio (F/M): An activated sludge
process control calculation based upon the amount of food
(BOD5 or COD) available per pound of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids; the amount of pollutant divided by the
amount of microorganisms.

is used to remove dissolved biodegradable organic material

(generally containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) from
the wastewater. The organic material is used for new cellular
material and is oxidized to provide energy. Approximately
half of the dissolved organic material (pollutants) goes to
new cell growth and the other half to the formation of carbon dioxide (as part of energy production). As a result, the
original dissolved pollutant is either removed from the bulk
fluid stream by exiting the reactor as a gas or is transformed
into a solid material that can then be effectively and efficiently
separated by sedimentation. However, it is possible to operate an activated sludge system to produce little to no excess
microorganisms, as discussed later.
Microorganisms used in the activated sludge process are
generally aerobic bacteria originating from soil. An image of
bacteria cells is shown below. In general, half of the weight of
bacteria is from carbon, 20 from oxygen, 14 is from nitrogen, 8
is from hydrogen, and 3 is from phosphorous. The remainder
(all less than or equal to 1) is from sulfur, potassium, sodium,
calcium, magnesium, chlorine, iron, and many other elements
in very trace amounts (from Environmental Engineering, by
Peavy, Rowe, Tchobanoglous, McGraw-Hill, 1985, p. 81).

Aeration: A physical treatment method that promotes biological degradation of organic matter. The process may be passive
(when waste is exposed to air) or active (when a mixing or bubbling device introduces air).
Clarifier: A device designed to permit solids to settle or rise
and be separated from the flow. Also known as a settling tank
or sedimentation basin.

III. Introduction
Activated sludge is a flock-like substance with aerobic biomass as the active ingredient. The activated sludge process
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The discussion above only provides a generalization of

the microorganisms in activated sludge. In reality, there are
hundreds of strains of bacteria and dozens of other microorganisms such as protozoa and cysts.
A schematic of the activated sludge system is shown below. This system consists of 2 separate, but interdependent
units. The aeration basin provides the environment (air and
mixing) needed for the biological conversion of the pollutants
to a gas and/or solid. Following the aeration basin, a sedimentation basin is used to separate and concentrate the solids
(excess bacteria) from the bulk fluid stream.
A recirculation line from the bottom of the sedimentation
basin returns concentrated microorganisms, returned activated sludge (RAS), to the aeration basin so that an optimal
concentration can always be maintained. Excess material
(sludge) is wasted from the system and disposed of.

IV. System Requirements

For the aerobic biodegradation of organic pollutants, the following are required.
Organic carbon
Macronutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous)
Micronutrients (sulfur, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron,
sodium, chloride, copper, nickel, and hundreds of others)
Proper pH
Lack of toxicity
Adequate temperature
Microorganisms
Electron acceptor (oxygen for aerobic microorganisms)
Contact between the wastewater and microorganisms

dilution, the wastewater arriving at the treatment plant is generally not toxic. The wastewater generally arrives at the treatment plant within an adequate temperature range for efficient
treatment. The temperature is also fairly constant throughout
the year because of the long period of time it spends in the
underground sewer system. However, if an industrial user has
a wastewater with an elevated temperature, it most be cooled
before being discharged. This also protects the sewer system
and minimizes hydrogen sulfide production. As the microorganisms necessary for activated sludge treatment are found in
soil, they are naturally deposited into the wastewater stream
and are recirculated between the sedimentation basin and
the aeration basin and, therefore, do not need to be routinely
added. However, to rapidly start or restart a system, activated
sludge from a properly operating system is often seeded into
the process. The biological degradation of wastewater by activated sludge is an oxidation/reduction process that requires
an electron acceptor. Because the process is aerobic, oxygen
serves as the electron acceptor. Oxygen is not present in
wastewater in adequate amounts and must be continuously
supplemented. The contact between the microorganisms and
the wastewater is achieved by mixing.
From the above discussion, it is clear that activated sludge
is an engineered process to optimize aerobic biodegradation
of the dissolved organic pollutants by providing oxygen, mixing, and microorganisms (through recirculation from the bottom of the secondary clarifier to the aeration basin). All other
required components are found naturally in the wastewater
or controlled by pretreatment. Consequently, if the activated
sludge plant receives wastewater with characteristics that are
not typically found in domestic sources it may fail.

V. Activated Sludge Process Components

As shown below, the activated sludge process contains two
physical units, the aeration basin and secondary clarifier. The
aeration system contains aeration equipment and the associated facility, if needed, to house blowers.

The organic material is the pollutant that is to be removed.

Macronutrients are also present in the wastewater and are
pollutants. However, to remove a substantial amount of the
macronutrients requires advanced treatment, beyond what is
provided in a typical activated sludge system. Micronutrients
are also present in the wastewater. The pH must be close to
neutral or the process will be less effective, at best, and completely shut down, at worst. Industrial users are required to
adjust the pH before discharging into the sewer system so that
by the time the wastewater reaches the plant the pH is within
the proper range. Industrial users are also required to pretreat
any compounds that could be toxic to the microorganisms at
the wastewater treatment plant. Through pretreatment and
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Continuing with the components involved with the activated sludge process
The mixed liquor seen in the picture below is within the
aeration basin. The concentration of the microorganisms in
the mixed liquor is typically represented as mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS) or mixed liquor volatile suspended
solids (MLVSS).


A return sludge pump and associated piping is used to

return a portion of the solids and biomass from the final clarifier to the aeration basin. Without the return sludge pump,
the numbers of microorganisms needed to provide effective
degradation of the aeration influent solids loadings would
not be possible. The secondary clarifier also contains a wasting system to remove excess sludge that is not needed in the
aeration basin. Sludge is recycled from the secondary clarifier
to the aeration basin in order to increase the population of
microorganisms in the aeration basin.
In addition to biomass quantity, the quality of the mixed
liquor is also critical. A well stabilized sludge should settle
rapidly in the secondary clarifier. In order for this to occur, the
sludge particles along with the microorganisims must form a
floc with enough mass for sedimentation to occur. Furthermore, certain filamentous bacteria cause sludge bulking and
poor settling. Solids that escape in the effluent of the secondary clarifier will contribute substantially to the BOD of the
receiving stream.

VI. Design and Operational Parameters

There are several operational and design parameters that
determine the characteristics of an activated sludge process.
These parameters will first be described below and then their
relation explained and correlated to variations in the activated
sludge process.
A. Hydraulic Retention Time
The average time that a water molecule spends in the aeration
basin, as represented by the hydraulic retention time (HRT) as
shown in Equation 1.

where,
V = the volume of the aeration basin
Q = flow rate (volume/time)
This parameter, however, is fixed by the flow and size of
the aeration basin and the operator has little control unless
equalization or storage is available. A typical HRT is 4 to 24
hours.
The 30 minute mixed liquor settleability test is used as one
method to determine a good microbial population based on
the settling characteristics of the sludge. The MLSS typically
ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 mg/L and the MLVSS is typically
10 to 30% less. Furthermore, TSS represents the total suspended solids (organic and inorganic) in an activated system.
The MLVSS value is dependent on the amount of oxygen,
solids, and recirculated biomass under aeration. The greater
the efficiency of the aeration system, the larger the population
of bacteria can be supported which in turn determines the
treatment capacity. With a higher concentration of bacteria,
more pollutant removal, per unit volume of aeration basin, can
be achieved.

B. Solids Retention Time

The average time a sludge molecule remains in the system is
the solids retention time (SRT), Equation 2.

where,
MLSS = the TSS (mg/L) in the aeration basin
V
= the volume of the aeration basin
TSSw = the TSS (mg/L) of the sludge wasted from
the secondary clarifier

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 Qw
= the flow rate (volume/time) of the sludge
wasted from the secondary clarifier
TSSe = the TSS (mg/L) of the water discharged
from the secondary clarifier
Qe
= the flow rate (volume/time) of the water
discharged from the secondary clarifier
Often the (TSSe X Qe) component of Equation 2 is ignored without a substantial impact on the final value as this
component is very small compared to the product of (TSSw
X Qw). SRT is a critical design and operational parameter as
it directly determines the type of activated sludge process being used, as discussed later in this section. The SRT typically
ranges from 4 to 15 days, depending on the type of activated
sludge process being used, and can be controlled by adjusting
Qw, which is directly related to the RAS. If more RAS is
desired, less excess sludge is wasted.


C. Food to Microorganism Ratio
The food to microorganism ratio (F/M) is the amount of
pollutant divided by the amount of microorganisms. There
are various ways to express the ratio. Often both the F and
M are represented as a concentration (mg/L) and the ratio is
dimensionless. There are several other commonly accepted
variations, however, the meaning is still the same. Similar
to the sludge age, the operator can control the F/M ratio by
the RAS rate, and again, this determines the type of activated
sludge system that is being operated. The F/M, based on a
concentration over a concentration, typically ranges from 0.1
to 0.8.
D. Sludge Volume Index
Sludge volume index is commonly used to quantify the settling
characteristics of MLSS. It is defined as the volume (in ml)
occupied by one gram of sludge after 30 minutes of settling.
Each installation has its own typical sludge volume index and
the index will vary slightly from day to day. However, a lower
index indicates better settling and compacting sludge.

VII. Variations of the Activated Sludge Process

Design and operational parameters determine the specific
characteristics of the activated sludge process as represented
below.
The extended aeration system provides a very long SRT
and small F/M. The result is excellent BOD removal and a
high degree of nitrification (conversion of ammonia to nitrate). The microorganisms are essentially in a state of starvation and therefore have depleted the carbon (BOD) and are
using the ammonia for energy (nitrification). The bacteria also
cannibalize themselves (endogenous respiration) because of
the lack of food. The growth curve shown below is typical for

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bacteria in a batch reactor and illustrates endogenous respiration. When bacteria are first exposed to a pollutant there is a
lag period during which they adjust to the environment and
start to degrade the pollutant. Then, as long as no required
amendments, such as oxygen and nutrients, are missing and
no byproducts become toxic, the population grows rapidly. As
the pollutant is used, the population enters a stationary phase
where death and growth are equal. This is followed by the
endogenous phase where death is greater than growth and the
population slowly declines.

To achieve extended aeration, a substantial amount of the

settled sludge from the clarifier must be recirculated back to
the aeration basin. This system can essentially operate with
no sludge wasting. This, however, would be unusual for a
municipal facility because of the large size of the aeration
basin that would be required. Consequently, some sludge
is typically wasted. In addition to the large size, the capital
and operating costs associated with the required high RAS
recirculation rate and long aeration period make this system
expensive to operate.
The opposite of the extended aeration system is the high
rate system. This variation requires only a small aeration
basin and low RAS flow but may not meet all regulatory
limits for BOD removal and little to no nitrification occurs.

Low sludge age, no nitrification, and low BOD removal, describes the High Rate type of activated sludge system. There
is a tremendous amount of excess sludge produced because
the bacteria does not undergo endogenous respiration and, in
fact, remains in the log growth phase of the growth curve,
illustrated below.

A conventional aeration system falls between the other

two with regards to the size of the basin, the RAS flow rate
and the amount of sludge produced. The system is usually
able to meet the minimum Federal Clean Water regulations
for typical domestic wastewater, however it typically will not
meet the requirements for more sensitive receiving streams.

In mechanical systems, a turbine or a pump throws the

water into the air (shown in the image above). No additional
equipment and facilities, beyond the mechanical devices moving the water, are required.
Continuing our discussion of Oxygen Delivery
Diffused systems disperse air directly into the water at
low pressure. Blowers force the air through porous material
in plates or tubes that break the air stream into bubbles (as
shown below). These bubbles may be either large (coarse) or
small diameter (fine) but smaller diameter bubbles have better
diffusion characteristics and, therefore, provide more oxygen
due to their greater surface area.
Alternatively, in jet aeration, high-pressure water and air
are mixed and, upon release to the mixture at the bottom of an
aeration tank, air bubbles form. Diffused aeration equipment
generally allows for the transfer of more oxygen than mechanical systems, resulting in higher concentrations of microorganisms in the mixed liquor and greater pollutant removal per unit
volume of aeration tank. A substantial amount of additional
equipment and facilities are required including blowers and air
cleaners and buildings to house this equipment.

VIII. Oxygen Delivery

The concentration of microorganisms in the aeration basin
is limited by the oxygen concentration. Because the amount
of oxygen determines the maximum bacterial population, it
also determines the amount of sludge that can be recycled
from the secondary clarifier to the aeration basin. Aeration
provides the oxygen to the bacteria in the aeration basin and
also typically provides the mixing that is required for optimal
contact between the wastewater and the microorganisms. The
two general categories of aeration equipment are mechanical
and diffusion.

The general residual dissolved oxygen level that should be

present in the aeration basin is 0.5 to 2 mg/L. The higher end
of the range is needed for extended aeration and nitrification.
If an adequate supply is not available, oxygen becomes limiting and the treatment efficiency drops. An excessive amount
of air wastes energy and increases the maintenance needed
for aeration equipment. However, an adequate air supply is
required for proper mixing of the aeration basin.

IX. Reactor Flow Regimes

There are four reactor flow regimes as they relate to aeration
basins: completely mixed, plug flow, dispersed plug flow
and sequencing batch reactor (SBR). In a completely mixed
system (shown below), the influent wastewater is instantly
diluted. The concentrations of MLSS, pollutants, and oxygen
are, theoretically, constant throughout the aeration basin. The
shape of the basin is more square or round than rectangular
or oval and the amount of aeration is equal throughout the
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basin. This arrangement is ideal for strong wastewater that

may contain a potentially toxic component. Theoretically, the
wastewater is instantly diluted when it enters the reactor.

A plug flow system, like the one in the picture below,

consists of interconnecting ovals or a long narrow tank with
minimal axial (in the direction of flow) mixing. The concentration of pollutants is greatest at the influent of the tank and
gradually decreases towards the effluent. Often step aeration,
in which more aeration is applied at the influent where the
pollutant concentration is highest, is practiced. In general,
plug flow systems are more efficient, in terms of the volume
of pollutant removed per unit volume of reactor. Practically, it
is impossible to have a tank that is completely mixed or plug
flow. All tanks are dispersed plug flow, a variation. However,
a flow regime can be favored.

In an SBR one basin serves as both the aeration basin and

the sedimentation basin. It is completely mixed during the
aeration cycle.

X. Summary
This operator education course described the activated sludge
process as used for domestic wastewater treatment. An
overview of the microbiology, system requirements, reactor
configurations and operational parameters were discussed.
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Questions
1. Which of the following statements
does not apply to the activated sludge
system? Choose the best answer.
A. It usually follows the
secondary clarifier.
B. It is an aerobic process.
C. Microorganisms are used to convert
organics to biomass and gas.
D. It involves natural material.

2. Which of the following are

required by an activated sludge
system? Choose all that apply.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Nutrients
Proper pH
Lack of toxicity
Microorganisms

8. Which of the following

activated sludge systems can be
operated with little to no wasting of
sludge? Choose the best answer.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Extended aeration
High rate
Conventional
SBR

9. The average time a sludge

molecule remains in an activated
sludge system can be abbreviated as
____. Choose the best answer.
A.
B.
C.
D.

SRT
HRT
SBR
F/M

3. What is used to represent the mixed liquor

suspended solids (MLSS) in an activated
sludge system? Choose the best answer.
A.
B.
C.
D.

TSS
BOD
Floc
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

4. Why is sludge recycled from the

secondary clarifier to the aeration
basin? Choose the best answer.
A. Increase the population of
microorganisms in the aeration basin
B. Improve the performance
of the primary clarifier
C. Increase the concentration of
oxygen in the aeration basin
D. Assist in mixing

5. Which of the following is an

activated sludge system flow
regime? Choose all that apply.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Plug flow
Completely mixed
Step aeration
RAS

6. Low sludge age, no nitrification and

low BOD removal describe which
type of activated sludge system?
Choose the best answer.
A. High Rate
B. Conventional
C. Extended

7. Which of the following can be used to

supply oxygen to the microorganisms in
the aeration basin? Choose all that apply.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Coarse bubble diffusers

Fine bubble diffusers
Blowers
None of these

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Activated Sludge
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