STUDIES IN PRE-COLUMBIAN ART & ARCHAEOLOGY NUMBER TWENTY-ONE

THE BURIAL THEME IN

MOCHE ICONOGRAPHY

C H R I S T O P H E R B . DONNAN
D O N N A M CC L E L L A N D

Dumbarton Oaks

Trustees for Harvard University

Washington, D.C. 1979

Copyright 1979 by Dumbarton Oaks

Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D. C.
Library of Congress catalog number 7963727

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to express our appreciation to the
following individuals who contributed to this research: Yoshitaro Amano, Lawrence Dawson, Guillermo Ganoza, Alan Lapiner, Diane Latham, Herbert
Lucas, Luis Lumbreras, Donald McClelland, Dorothy
Menzel, Oscar Rodrguez, John Rowe, and Alan
Sawyer.

The Burial Theme in Moche Iconography

The Moche Kingdom, which flourished on the

north coast of Peru between 100 B.C. and A.D. 700,
produced one of the most remarkable art styles of
Pre-Columbian America. Although the Moche people had no writing system, they left a vivid artistic
record of their activities and their environment. Their
art illustrates their clothing, architecture, implements,
supernatural beings, and a multitude of activities such
as warfare, ceremony, and hunting. Although Moche
art gives the impression of having an almost infinite
variety of subject matter, analysis of a large sample of
it has suggested that it is limited to the representation
of a small number of specific events, or activities,
which are referred to as themes (Donnan 1975). One
of the most provocative of these themes has recently
been identified on the basis of an extremely complex
and detailed scene, painted on the chambers of six
different ceramic bottles. Since the scene painted on
each of the bottles depicts a burial, we refer to it as the
Burial Theme.
The six examples of the Burial Theme are among
the most complex representations ever produced by
Moche artists. Analysis of these representations provides a number of important insights into the nature
of Moche iconography, the development of Moche
artistic canons, and various aspects of Moche ritual.
Moreover, it generates some rather profound implications about the potential of utilizing ethnohistoric
documents to reconstruct the Pre-Columbian past.
The six examples of the Burial Theme are located
in various public museums and private collections.
None of them was excavated archaeologically, and
thus there is no good evidence of where they were

found, or of their archaeological associations. One of

the pieces (Figs. 9, 10), however, is said to have been
found at Huaca Moro in the Jequetepeque Valley.
We were able to make a complete photographic
record of five of the six vessels (Figs. 110). Roll-out
drawings were made of the chamber designs on these
five, omitting the background filler elements, such as
circles and dots, so that the depiction would stand out
more clearly. Only two photographs of the sixth vessel (Figs. 11,12) were available. Drawings were made
from these photographs, again leaving out the background filler elements for clarity. Five of the vessels
(Figs. 1, 5, 8, 9, 12) are in a remarkably good state of
preservation; they exhibit no evidence of major reconstruction or restoration. Some of the clay slip has
spalled off the chamber of the other vessel (Fig. 4),
and thus a portion of the original design is missing.
Although the paintings on these six bottles clearly
portray the same related events, certain aspects of design, art canons, and composition are unique to each
vessel. By comparing the similarities and differences,
we have learned which features are always shown,
and which could be omitted or greatly altered by the
individual artist. Having the six examples has thus
been crucial in deciphering the basic nature of the
Burial Theme.
The Moche style can be divided into five sequential phases, defined on the basis of changes in the form
and decoration of ceramic vessels. These phases are
numbered I through V, with Phase V being the latest.
All of the bottles with representations of the Burial
Theme are Phase V.

Activities

37 are typical representations of Iguana and Wrinkle

Face in fineline drawing.2 Figure 17 is a Phase IV repEach of the six bottles in our sample depicts four disresentation, while Figures 3637 are Phase V. Iguana
tinct activities: burial, assembly, conch-shell transfer,
and Wrinkle Face are also represented in modeled
and sacrifice. The key to separating the complete
form (Figs. 18, 19). Their representation in Moche art
drawing into these four activities is the set of double
suggests that they are specific individuals who frelines found on each bottle. These double lines are conquently accompany one another, and who engage in a
sistently used to circumscribe the four activities, and
variety of activities.
their importance to understanding the overall depicIn the burial activity (Fig. 13), Iguana and Wrinkle
tion cannot be overemphasized. To make it easier to
Face are using ropes to lower a long horizontal casket
visualize the four activities, the roll-out drawing in
into a grave shaft. The casket is shown at the bottom
Figure 2 has been separated into its four components,
of the scene, and it usually has a face drawn on one
and each is shown individually in Figures 1316. Since
end. As will be discussed below, this casket conforms
the four activities provide the basic structure for unto the shape of wicker caskets that have been excaderstanding the Burial Theme, we will analyze each
vated in Moche graves, and the face may be a metal
of them separately.
mask. A variety of grave goods surrounds the casket
BURIAL
and extends above, between the ropes. In Figure 3,
anthropomorphized birds are substituted for Iguana
One of the activities shown on each of the five
and Wrinkle Face, apparently without changing the
bottles is burial (Fig. 13). There are two major figures
nature
of the activity.
in the upper part of this scene: an anthropomorphized
In
four
of the examples (Figs. 512), Iguana holds a
iguana and an individual with lines on his face that
llama with a rope. A llama with a rope around its
look like wrinkles. These two figures have extremely
neck is also being held by Wrinkle Face in Figure 6.
important roles in the Burial Theme. We will refer to
These llamas may have been used to transport the
l
them as Iguana and Wrinkle Face. Iguana has a
casket and/or burial goods to the grave site. Alternalizardlike face and a long pointed tail with serrations
tively, they may have been intended for sacrifice and
along the upper edge. He generally has a sashlike bag
inclusion in the grave. 3 The animals in front of both
tied over his shoulder or around his waist and wears a
bird headdress. He almost invariably has an almond- Iguana and Wrinkle Face in Figure 6 are dogs. These
dogs frequently accompany Iguana and Wrinkle Face,
shaped eye, which seems to be pendant from the botand probably were not sacrificed and interred.
tom edge of his headdress.
The details of the burial conform closely to what is
Wrinkle Face has a round rather than an almondknown archaeologically about Moche burial pracshaped eye, and the eye is not contiguous to the headtices. Some elaborate Moche burials are in deep, nardress. He generally wears a short-sleeved shirt with a
row grave pits (Donnan and Mackey 1978; Strong
step design on the front. The shirt is cinched at the
and Evans 1952: 151), and lowering a casket to the
waist with a long belt or sash, which terminates in
bottom of one of these would have been practically
serpent heads. He invariably wears a feline headdress.
impossible without the use of ropes. The form of the
Iguana and Wrinkle Face are major figures in
casket itself is reminiscent of some that have been
Moche art, and often appear together. Figures 17, 36
1

Moche artists depict many people with what appear to be

wrinkles on their faces, and they should not be confused with
this particular individual. The term Wrinkle Face, as used in
this study, refers only to those individuals who combine
most, if not all, of the characteristics which follow.

2 The scene in Figure 17 is remarkably similar to one published by Lavalle (1970: Pl. 78a), from a bottle in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Washington, D.C.
3 Many Moche graves containing llama remains have been
excavated, indicating that the Moche people placed parts of
llamas in graves as part of the burial goods.

found in Moche graves. The casket of the Warrioridentify from the fineline drawings. The object to the
left of the casket in Figure 2 may be an elaborately
Priest measured 2.35 meters long, .57 meters wide,
and .35 meters high, and had a lid which was tied
woven textile, while the object to the right may be a
shut with cordage (ibid.: 153). Its rigid structure of necklace or collar of beads. Particularly puzzling are
reinforced heavy canes would not have bowed when
the oblong objects, with lines across their width, in
it was lowered with ropes into the grave, even with
rows above the right side of the coffin in Figures 7 and
the human body inside. The casket was wrapped with 11. Nothing of a similar form has yet been reported
twilled cloth, which covered the cane. This may ex- from a Moche burial. However, other Moche V vesplain why the artists did not show the cane in draw- sels illustrate similar objects; figures wearing a net
ing the caskets.
shirt and seated in tule boats (Figs. 2325, 27, 28) are
frequently shown with these oblong objects on their
The faces shown on the caskets in Figures 2 , 6, 7,
and 10 may well be hammered metal masks. Such
torsos (Figs. 24, 25).
masks were made of copper and gold by Moche
ASSEMBLY
craftsmen (Fig. 20). If the faces on these caskets are
metal masks, it would appear that they are somehow
A second activity shown on each of the five bottles
attached to the outside of the casket. They would
in our sample is what might best be termed assembly
probably have been attached to the lid or upper sur(Fig. 14). It is divided in the middle by the ropes that
face; however, the artists may have rotated the casket lower the casket. The assembly activity involves a
90 to make the mask visible.4
grouping of human, animal, and anthropomorphized
The grave goods depicted on the Burial Theme
figures. The primary figures, judging from their large
vessels are nearly all items frequently found in Moche
size, are Iguana and Wrinkle Face. Each is shown
graves. Ceramic vesselsstirrup-spout bottles, jars,
holding a stafflike objectpossibly a rattle. Figure 29
and pedestal-base bowlsare particularly common.
is a modeled representation of Iguana holding a simiThe shallow bowls filled with food are less common.
lar staff. An anthropomorphized feline in Figure 10
They are made of gourd, and would tend to decomand a human figure in Figure 11 have been substituted
pose through time. However, gourd bowls filled with
for Wrinkle Face, apparently without changing the
corn and beans have been reported from one of the
nature of the activity.
better-preserved Moche graves (Strong and Evans
In horizontal bands above Iguana and Wrinkle
1952: 153). The shallow gourd bowls shown in the
Face are various smaller figures holding long vertical
drawings generally appear to be stacked in pairs. This
staffs in front of them. Each faces the center of the
was apparently the way gourd bowls were presented
scene.5 On one side are human figures, all of whom
in ceremonial contexts, with the stacked gourds usually tied together on one side (Figs. 2122). Conch
5 Dorothy Menzel (personal communication) has sugshells are included among the grave goods in Figures
gested that the assembly section may reflect Huari influence.
2, 3, and 6. Although there are no reports of conch
She has stated that it . . . is remarkably similar to a typical
shells actually having been found in Moche graves,
Huari arrangement (and also Tiahuanaco). On Huari (i.e.,
Conchopata-style) offering urns of Middle Horizon 1A figthey might have been placed in the graves of some
ures I refer to as Angel figures, that is, the Feline-headed
high-status individuals.
Angel, are shown running toward a central deity figure, in a
Several of the other grave goods are difficult to
row, each figure carrying a staff in front and shown in profile,
each appearing to form a small panel, as in your assembly
scene.
Of course, the Middle Horizon 2 example from
Tiahuanaco, the so-called Gateway of the Sun lintel, is also
4 Turning an object 90 so that it is more recognizable is a
a good example. There the figures appear in three rows, just
common feature of Moche fineline drawing (see Donnan
as in your design, mythical humans and mythical bird figures
1976: 24).
in alternating rows.
7

are dressed in long, netlike shirts and wear headdresses apparently made of clipped feathers projecting
up from a headband. Each of these figures wears a
tiered item of attire extending down his back. We
will refer to these figures as Net Shirts.
The representation of groups of Net Shirts standing
together in the same scene indicates that they are a
group of people who wear similar garments and perform the same roles. It is interesting that Net Shirts
are not depicted in Moche art until Phase V. During
that phase they are found in only two contexts: in the
Burial Theme and in tule boats. Almost every Moche
V representation of a tule boat, whether realistic
(Figs. 23, 2628) or stylized (Figs. 24, 25) has a Net
Shirt inside it (Cordy-Collins 1977, n.d.). As mentioned above, some of the most enigmatic of the burial goods shown around the coffins in the burial activity are the oblong objects with lines across their
widths. It is curious that the only representation of
similar objects in Moche art are on the torsos of Net
Shirts seated in the tule boats (Figs. 24, 25). Moreover, the jars above the right side of the casket in Figure 10 are remarkably similar to those shown in tule
boats (Figs. 26, 28). Possibly both the oblong objects
and the jars shown adjacent to the casket in the Burial
Theme (Figs. 7, 10, 11) were brought to the grave
site by the Net Shirts who are shown standing to one
side in the assembly activity.
Opposite the Net Shirts in the assembly are animal
figures. These are depicted either as natural animals or
as part animal and part human, apparently depending
on the choice of the artist. It is interesting that, of all
the animals depicted in Moche art, only felines and
male deer are found in this context. All of the figures
in the assembly seem to be engaged in a ritual at the
grave site which is performed as part of the burial
ceremony.
CONCHSHELL TRANSFER

The third activity shown on each of the six bottles

in our sample involves the transfer of conch shells
(Fig. 16). This activity is being conducted under the
gabled roof of a large and very elaborate structure.
8

The structure is approached by a set of stairs, suggesting that it is located on the upper part of a high platform or pyramid.
Inside the structure is a major figure that we shall
refer to as Kneeler, because of his posture. The appearance of Kneeler can vary much more than that of
Wrinkle Face or Iguana. The only element that he
wears on all six vessels is the crescent-shaped ornament in his headdress. By itself, the crescent-shaped
ornament does not constitute a means of identifying
Kneeler outside of the Burial Theme vessels, since it is
worn by many different Moche figures. Kneeler also
wears a tiered item of attire which extends down his
back and is similar to that worn by the Net Shirts.
The tiered item of attire is replaced by a wing in Figures 5 and 6, but, since the wing is also tiered, it may
be a substitute for the tiered item on the other vessels.
The most distinctive aspect of Kneeler is his posture. A kneeling posture is rarely found in Moche art.
Inside tule boats, however, figures holding paddles
are frequently shown kneeling (Figs. 2628).6
In the Burial Theme, Kneeler is consistently shown
reaching forward with one hand, which often holds a
conch shell. Facing him on the stairway below are
Wrinkle Face and Iguana (Figs. 14), Iguana and a
Net Shirt (Figs. 58), or a Net Shirt (Figs. 9, 10). It is
not clear whether Kneeler is giving the conch shells
or receiving them.
In one example, Iguana wears conch shells in his
headdress (Figs. 1, 2) and, in two examples (Figs. 1
4), Iguana stands in front of llamas that have backpacks filled with conch shells. One Phase V stirrupspout bottle (Figs. 31, 32) depicts this activity in modeled formIguana wears a conch shell on top of his
bird headdress while leading a llama with a rope. The
llama carries rope saddlebags filled with conch shells,
and Wrinkle Face lies on top holding a spearthrower
in one hand and two spears in the other.
One representation of the conch-shell transfer (Figs.
5, 6) is unique because a Net Shirt and a small gabled
6 When a kneeling paddler is shown in a tule boat on one
side of a bottle, a Net Shirt is usually shown in a tule boat on
the opposite side of the bottle.

roof structure are positioned behind Kneeler. These

were possibly drawn by the artist to fill the large
extra space behind Kneeler in this representation.
Conch shells are obviously the focus of activity in
conch-shell transfer, and may be related to those seen
as part of the grave goods in the burial activity.
Conch-shell monsters are even used to decorate the
gabled roof in Figures 14. The representations showing llamas with pack bags full of conch shells (Figs.
1-4, 16, 31, 32), and the large number of conch shells
drawn in the background, suggest that considerable
numbers of shells are involved. Since both iguanas
and conch shells are native to the coast of Ecuador,
and not to the north coast of Peru, Iguana may have
an inherent association with conch shells.
The importation of conch shells from Ecuador to
Peru is documented to have occurred as early as 900
B.C., and appears to continue until the European contact in the sixteenth century (Paulsen 1974). Llamas
may well have been used as pack animals for transporting these shells. Unfortunately, we cannot determine whether the llamas in the Burial Theme were
used to transport the shells to the gabled structure, or
are being loaded with shells from the gabled structure
which they will then take elsewhere.
The area beneath Kneeler in the conch-shell transfer activity is outlined with parallel lines, and therefore it is possible that this area represents another distinct activity. We have been unable to define what
that activity is, however, and thus we have included
it as part of the conch-shell transfer. Small structures
are shown in this area on five of the bottles (Figs. 18,
11, 12). The small structures appear to be miniature
or stylized versions of the major structure above. In
two instances (Figs. 1, 2, 5, 6), a row of seated figures
replaces a row of small structures. The seated figures
in Figures 5 and 6 are Net Shirts. In Figures 1 and 2
they are probably females wearing long dresses and
shawls. Secondary figures similar to the latter are frequently shown in Moche art, and are usually associated with gabled roof structures.

SACRIFICE

The fourth activity shown on each of the five bottles in our sample involves sacrifice (Fig. 15). It is
always located in the area above the conch-shell transfer activity. Although most of this scene has spalled
off of one bottle (Figs. 3, 4), and there is limited documentation of it on another (Figs. 11, 12), Iguana and
Wrinkle Face can be easily recognized. Iguana holds
a tumi knife in one hand, and may hold a rope of
birds in the other. Wrinkle Face stands nearby, holding a spearthrower and several spears. On the far left
is a splayed, nude female, lying on her back, being
attacked by birds. On the far right is a group of birds
tied together with rope. These are the same type of
birds seen pecking at the nude female figure. In at
least four of the examples (Figs. 24, 7l0), the rope
of birds is held by an anthropomorphized spear.
Another feature found in the sacrifice activity is a
bird on a rack (Figs. 2, 510). Again, the bird is similar to those pecking at the nude female figure. In
Moche art, there are a number of representations of
individuals tied to racks (Fig. 30). Frequently they
are being pecked by birds. Ethnohistoric sources indicate that this was a form of punishment used by people living on the north coast of Peru prior to European contact.7
The six vessels in our sample show the wide range of
variation used by Moche artists in reproducing a fineline drawing of the same theme. Although each of the
six vessels is divided into the same four scenes, many

7 Father Antonio de la Calancha states that the native people of the north coast of Peru were preoccupied with stealing
and that the punishment of thieves was a religious as well as a
civil matter, as if property ownership were a divine right.
Diviners were consulted and sacrifices were made to the
Moon and to the constellation of Pat (our constellation
Orion) to entreat their aid in finding thieves. When the moon
was dark, they said that it was in the other world, punishing
thieves. In the constellation of Pat (Orion), the row of three
stars (Orions Belt) was seen as a thief flanked by emissaries of
the moon who were sent to feed him to the buzzards. The
latter were represented by the four stars immediately below
Orions Belt (Calancha 1638: Book III, 553).

elements vary from vessel to vessel. There are omissions and substitutions of both major figures and
minor elements, such as background objects.
A comparison of the detailssuch as the hands of
the same figureon the vessels in Figures 912 suggests that they were created by the same artist. These
two vessels provide an unusual opportunity to examine the range of variation on a single theme by an
individual artist. The two vessels vary in many details. For example, the artist placed jars in the grave
on the vessel depicted in Figure 10, whereas he drew
the oblong objects instead of jars on that in Figures 11
and 12. In Figures 10 and 11, in the assembly activity,
he replaced Wrinkle Face with another figure. He
drew an anthropomorphized feline on the vessel in
Figure 10 and a Net Shirt on the one in Figure 11. In
the conch-shell transfer activity, the area beneath
Kneeler provides another interesting variation. The
artist drew small structures in this area on the pot depicted in Figure 11, structures similar to those depicted in Figures 18. On the vessel in Figures 9 and
10, however, he filled the area with geometric designs and created a stepped dais similar to those in
Figures 3335. The range of variation between these
two vessels, and among all six vessels, would indicate
that the Moche artists were not slavishly reproducing
a fineline drawing of the Burial Theme, but were
enjoying a degree of artistic freedom.

Chronology
Although all six bottles with depictions of the Burial
Theme belong to Phase V of the Moche style, only
two appear to have been made by the same artist
(Figs. 912). It is quite possible that the five artists
were not contemporaneous, and that the bottles were
made at different times. A chronological sequence for
the six bottles can be suggested, based on the style of
painting and the features of the vessel forms. The vessels, as shown in Figures 112, are arranged in that sequence. The vessels in Figures 14 are probably the
earliest, since the style of the fineline drawing is most
similar to that of Phase IV. This is particularly evident
10

in the depiction of the major figure, Kneeler, seated

under the gabled roof. The Phase IV Moche artistic
canons for drawing a human figure have been followed by the artists, i.e., a front view of the chest and
a profile view of the rest of the body (Donnan 1976:
24). In Figures 5 and 6, Kneelers chest is drawn in
profile (as are the chests of the two figures wearing
net shirts). In Figures 7 and 8, Kneelers profile chest
is greatly exaggerated, and, in Figures 911, his torso
has been reduced to a U-shape.
The depiction of the crescent-shaped ornament in
Kneelers headdress reflects the same chronological
sequence. In Figures 14, the ornament is similar to
Phase IV fineline drawings, but, in Figures 511, the
tips of the crescent broaden. In Figures 911 the crescent assumes a shape which, although aberrant for the
Moche style, is similar to the form of crescents depicted in the Chim art style, which succeeds the
Moche style on the north coast of Peru. The way in
which the hands are drawn on the major figures further supports the chronological sequence of the bottles as they are arranged in Figures 112.
The monkeys modeled on the stirrup spout of the
vessel in Figure 12 are additional evidence for its
placement at the end of the chronological sequence.
Modeled figures are not found on the stirrup spouts
of the earlier Moche phases, but are very common on
later Chim pottery. In this regard, it is interesting to
examine the bottles in Figures 3337, which are very
similar in form to those in Figures 9 and 12, and
which have monkeys modeled on their stirrup spouts.
The vessel in Figures 3 335 is particularly interesting
since the drawing on its chamber shows Iguana and
Wrinkle Face lying in a prone position on top of a
stepped platform. A nearly identical representation is
found on several double-spout-and-bridge bottles,
painted with polychrome slip, and generally thought
to postdate the end of the Moche style.8 Figure 38
illustrates one of these vessels, and Figure 39 shows
the roll-out of the drawing on its chamber. The two
8 One bottle of this type has been discussed in detail by
John H. Rowe (1942).

figures on these double-spout-and-bridge bottles can

be clearly identified as Iguana and Wrinkle Face who,
in most examples, are represented with all of their
characteristic features. The similarity between the
drawings on bottles such as that depicted in Figures
38 and 39 and the drawing on the vessel shown in
Figures 3335 is evidence that the latter dates to the
end of Moche V, as would the three similar vessels
shown in Figures 912, 36, and 37.
From the chronological sequence of the five bottles representing the Burial Theme, it appears that the
earliest (Figs. 1, 2) would date to the beginning of
Phase V, when the artistic canons for fineline representation were nearly identical to those characteristic
of Phase IV. The bottles subsequently define a sequential evolution in the representation of this theme
through what appears to be the very latest part of
Phase V, when not only has the fineline representation greatly changed from its earlier style, but also the
vessel form has developed features that are clearly
antecedent to Chim pottery. The implications of
this chronological sequence are very important. The
sequence, if reliable, offers a basis for dividing Phase V
into subphases on the basis of both the evolution of
fineline drawing and the evolution of vessel form.
Such a division would be particularly useful, since the
end of the Moche style and the transition into the
earlier part of the Chim style constitute an extremely important problem in Andean culture history, one
whose solution has been particularly elusive because
of the inability of scholars to develop a reliable chronology.

Interpretation
It is clear that the Burial Theme consists of at least
four distinct activities: burial, assembly, conch-shell
transfer, and sacrifice. The artists who painted the
bottles consistently used parallel lines to separate these
four activities. Moreover, since Iguana and Wrinkle
Face are specific individuals, their presence in each of
the four activities indicates that the activities are sep-

arate events, which are not occurring at the same time.

This suggests that the artists were depicting a sequential narrative of the four activities.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to reconstruct the
chronological sequence in which the four activities
took place. There is, however, some evidence that
burial was the most important activity. First, the
stirrup-spout bottle with monkeys modeled on the
stirrup spout (Figs.11, 12) has both of the monkeys
facing out over one side of the bottle. Presumably,
this is the front and most important side, and it is
significant that the burial activity is centered on this
side of the chamber. Second, examination of the bottles indicates that the burial activity was drawn on the
bottles first, at least in its overall layout, and then the
assembly section was added. Only then were the sacrifice and conch-shell transfer activities painted, and
they appear to have been condensed to fill the remaining available space. The dominance of the burial and
assembly sections over sacrifice and conch-shell transfer is particularly noticeable in Figures 7 and 10,
where the burial and assembly sections occupy about
two-thirds of the available space.
If burial and assembly are the primary activities,
how might they have been related to the conch-shell
transfer and sacrifice activities shown on the opposite
side of the bottle? One explanation is suggested by the
writings of Father Antonio de la Calancha, a littleknown Augustinian monk who lived on the north
coast of Peru during the early part of the seventeenth
century. He wrote an account of the native customs
of that area, which was published in Spain in 1638.
In that account, Calancha states that, prior to the arrival of Europeans, curers (Oquetlupuc) were public
officials of high privilege, and were paid a regular
wage by the state. If a curer lost a patient through
ignorance, however, he was put to death by beating
and stoning. His body was tied by a rope to that of
his dead patient, and the latter was buried. The curer,
however, was left above the ground to be eaten by
birds (Calancha 1638: Book III, 556).
There is evidence that some of the curers in Moche

society were women9 (Sharon and Donnan 1974:52

of the long sequence of cultural development in Peru,
3), and thus it is possible that, in the Burial Theme
extending back thousands of years before European
representations, the nude female being consumed by
contact. Indeed, it was not until the beginnings of this
birds was a doctor. Although there are no ropes
century that an adequate picture of the chronology
shown tying the nude female to the person in the
of cultures in the Andean area began to be assembled.
grave, the other details are so similar to those of the
Similarly, the native informants who related the oral
practice described by Calancha that it seems fair to
traditions to the Spanish chroniclers were more than
suggest that the two may be related. But is it possible
a generation removed from the events they were
that the customs described by a Spanish chronicler in
describing, and thus in many instances would have
1638 could relate back to an event that happened
had little way of knowing exactly how far back in
perhaps a thousand years earlier?
time a particular part of the story took place.
Recent archaeological work on the north coast of
Since some of the information recorded by Father
Peru has indicated that there was a continuing cultural
Calancha was derived from oral traditions that had
tradition in this area that developed at least as early as survived from earlier times, it is quite possible that
the first century B.C. and continued into the Spanish
portions of the information contained in his chronicolonial period. No major effect on the art style,
cle had been carried on not just for the period immearchitectural pattern, technology, or economic reladiately prior to Spanish contact, but rather for more
tionships can be attributed to any outside influence.
than a thousand years! If so, it is interesting to conMany of the customs, beliefs, and religious practices
sider what may have been the genesis of such a story.
also appear to have been maintained without signifiOne possibility could be that, when a patient died, it
cant change.
was common practice to kill the doctor and have the
It is known that oral traditions were kept by the
doctors body consumed by carnivorous birds. The
Inca at the time of first European contact. Mytholfive representations of the Burial Theme, however,
ogy, legend, historical romance, and history were
are so similar to one another as to suggest that all are
handed down from generation to generation in the
representing the same specific occurrence, rather than
form of long poems . . . which were learned word for
a generalized practice. It is more likely that we are
word and repeated at public gatherings (Rowe 1946:
witnessing events associated with the burial of one
extremely important individual. On the occurrence
321). We know that there was a similar practice
of his death and burial, a female, presumably a doctor
among the native people of the north coast of Peru,
held responsible for the death, was sacrificed and her
and some scholars have even suggested that it was
body was consumed by carnivorous birds. These
from the latter that the Inca obtained their interest in
events were commemorated by elaborate representathe preservation of oral traditions (ibid.: 202).
tions in ceramic art. They may have also entered into
It should be pointed out that the Spanish chronithe oral tradition of the local people, who told and
clers, who recorded these oral traditions during the
retold the story for generations.
early part of the colonial period, had little awareness
If there is a correlation between the Calancha ac9 It should be mentioned that there is some archaeological
count and the Burial Theme representations, there is,
evidence for the practice of killing females and placing their
of course, no way of knowing whether we are witbodies in, or adjacent to, the grave pit. The famous Tomb
nessing
the burial of a real or a fictitious individual.
of the Warrior-Priest contained two middle-aged females
who had been crowded in at the head and foot of the large
Oral traditions frequently develop around entirely
cane casket (Strong and Evans 1952: 152). Another tomb,
fictitious figures, which through time take on an air
which was similar to that of the Warrior-Priest had a
of reality and are believed in by the people of subsefemale body on the surface of the ground above the burial pit
(Donnan and Mackey 1978: 208).
quent generations. Alternatively, oral traditions can
12

develop around real people, and later be overlaid

with so much conscious and unconscious fiction, and
combined with so many alien elements, that the original facts cannot be recovered by any critical analysis.10
Nevertheless, whether the Burial Theme representations are showing an actual event or one that is
fictitious, the event must have had a particular importance to the people living during the later part of
10 For good discussions of the difficulties of using oral tradition to reconstruct historical events, see Forsdyke (1964)
and de Vries (1963).

the Moche Kingdom. We witness the impressive

burial of the principal figure through the art of the
Moche. Whether real or fictitious, he must have held
an important position to have received such a distinguished burial. The stories surrounding his burial
elaborate graveside rituals, offerings of rich burial
goods, the transfer of conch shells, and perhaps the
unusual circumstances of his deathapparently related an event that was important during Phase V,
late in the Moche culture sequence. The six complex
stirrup-spout bottles serve as testimony to the importance of this event.

ADDENDUM

had been sent to the

typesetter, a seventh bottle with a fineline representation of the Burial Theme was located. Since it clearly
relates to the six examples discussed in the report, it
was determined that a note of its existence and several
photographs of it (Figs. 4044) should be included in
this publication. We are very grateful to Elizabeth
Benson and Anne-Louise Schaffer for making it possible for us to add this section to the original manuscript.
This bottle has three features that are not found on
any of the other six. The first is the hole that perforates the chamber from front to back at the equator.
This hole was made before the bottle was fired, and
was built into the chamber with a tube of clay connecting both openings so that liquid could be contained in the chamber without escaping through the
holes.
The second unusual feature is the pair of low-relief
figures placed immediately above the openings of the
hole through the chamber. Each figure has a large
rounded head with large eyes and mouth, a short
body, and long arms and legs. Although it is not
clear what the artist intended these figures to be, it is
possible that they were meant to be frogs.
S HORTLY

AFTER THIS REPORT

The third unusual feature is the fineline drawing

that covers the bottom of the bottle (Fig. 44). The
drawing illustrates an anthropomorphized bird-warrior holding a club and shield in his left hand and
what appears to be a goblet in his right hand. In an
arc around the head and shoulders, there is a series of
clubs and shields similar to those painted on the stirrup spout of this bottle.
It should be noted that each of these three features
the hole through the chamber, the modeled figures
in low relief, and the fineline drawing on the bottom
of the chamberare rarely found on Moche ceramic
vessels, although a few rare examples of each do exist.
The fineline drawing of the Burial Theme on the
chamber of this bottle conforms in nearly all respects
to the other six examples, and is consistent with our
interpretations as stated in the body of the report.
There are, however, a few distinctive features that
should be noted. The most significant anomaly can
be seen in Figure 41. The artist apparently lacked
sufficient space to depict all aspects of both assembly
and conch transfer on this part of the chamber, and
chose to omit Wrinkle Face from the lower part of
the assembly section. He also omitted the double lines
that divide assembly from conch transfer on each of
13

the other six bottles, although his use of the double

lines elsewhere conforms to their use on the other
examples. Another anomaly is the stafflike object held
by Iguana in the lower part of the assembly section
(Fig. 43); it is unique in having a face at the upper
end. Finally, the oblong objects placed above the left
side of the casket in the burial section (Fig. 43) are
unusual in being placed horizontally instead of vertically.

14

With regard to chronological placement, this bottle would clearly be late in our sequence, and appears
to fit between the bottle shown in Figures 7 and 8
and that shown in Figures 9 and l0. Such a placement
is based largely on the inventory of grave goods, the
manner of representing the body and headdress of
Kneeler, and the scroll motif that decorates the ring
base on this bottle.

Fig. 1 Stirrup-spout bottle. Private collection, Trujillo. Photo courtesy of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York.

Fig. 2

Roll-out of bottle in Figure 1. Drawing by D. McClelland.

Fig. 3

Roll-out of bottle in Figure 4. Drawing by D. McClelland.

Fig . 4
18

Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo Nacional de Antropologa y Arqueologa, Lima. Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 5 Stirrup-spout bottle. Photo courtesy of the Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence.

Fig. 6 Roll-out of bottle in Figure 5. Drawing by P. Perlman and D. McClelland.

Fig. 7

Roll-out of bottle in Figure 8. Drawing by D. McClelland.

Fig. 8 Stirrup-spout bottle. Collection of Herbert Lucas, Brentwood, California. Photo by S. Einstein.

22

Fig. 9 Stirrup-spout bottle. Collection of Oscar Rodrguez Razzeto, Chepn Per Photo by C. Donnan

23

Fig. 10 Roll-out of bottle in Figure 9. Drawing by D. McClelland.

Fig. 11

Front and back views of bottle in Figure 12. Drawings by D. McClelland.

Fig. 12 Stirrup-spout bottle. Private collection, Lima. Photo courtesy of the Muse de lHomme, Paris.

26

Fig. 13 Detail of the burial scene from Figure 2.

27

Fig. 14 Detail of the assembly scene from Figure 2.

Fig. 15 Detail of the sacrifice scene from Figure 2.

Fig. 16

Detail of the conch-shell transfer scene from Figure 2 .

Fig. 17 (above) Stirrup-spout bottle. Art Institute of

Chicago. Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 19 (above) Wide-mouthed jar.

Museum of the American Indian,
Heye Foundation, New York.
Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 18 (left) Wide-mouthed jar.

Museum fr Vlkerkunde, Mnchen.
Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 20 Hammered metal mask. Photo courtesy of Alan Lapiner.

Fig. 22 (right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Art Institute of Chicago.

Photo by R. Woolard.

Fig. 21 (above) Detail from vessel. The British Museum, London.

Drawing by D. McClelland.

34

Fig. 23 (opposite, above, left) Detail from vessel (after Kutscher 1950:
Fig. 69).
Fig. 24 (opposite, above, right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo de Amrica,
Madrid. Photo by C. Donnan.
Fig. 25 (opposite, below, right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo de
Arqueologa, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo.
Photo by C. Donnan.
Fig. 26 (opposite, below, left) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo de Amrica,
Madrid. Photo by C. Donnan.
Fig. 27 (right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Drawing by D. McClelland
(after della Santa n.d.: front cover).
Fig. 28 (below) Roll-out of bottle in Figure 26. Drawing by
A. Cordy-Collins.

Fig. 29 Stirrup-spout bottle. Museum fr Vlkerkunde, Berlin.

Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 30 Vessel. Museum fr Vlkerkunde, Berlin. Photo by

R. Woolard.

Fig. 31 Stirrup-spout bottle, left side view. Private collection,

Berkeley. Photo by C. Donnan.

Fig. 32 Right side view of bottle in Figure 31.

38

Fig. 33 (opposite, above, left) Stirrup-spout bottle,

front view. Collection of Herbert Lucas, Brentwood,
California. Photo by S. Einstein.
Fig. 34 (opposite, above, right) Side view of bottle in
Figure 33. Photo by S. Einstein.
Fig. 35 (opposite, below) Roll-out of bottle in Figures 33
and 34. Drawing by D. McClelland.
Fig. 36 (right) Stirrup-spout bottle. Museo Amano, Li ma.
Photo by A. Cordy-Collins.
Fig. 37 (below) Roll-out of bottle in Figure 36.
Drawing by D. McClelland.

Fig. 38 (above) Stirrup-spout bottle. Private collection, Chiclayo, Per. Photo by C. Donnan.
Fig. 39 (below) Roll-out of bottle in Figure 38. Drawing by D. McClelland.

40

Fig 40 Stirrup-spout bottle. Collection of Herbert Lucas, Brentwood, California. Photo by R. Woolard.

41

Fig. 41 Side view of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

42

Fig. 42 Back view of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

43

Fig. 43 Another side view of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

Fig. 44 Bottom of bottle in Figure 40. Photo by R. Woolard.

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46