Professional Documents
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Shaping The Way We Teach English
Shaping The Way We Teach English
Teach English
The Landscape of English Language Teaching!
These articles English Teaching Forum are specially chosen for this
MOOC. They are taken from the American English website
(http://americanenglish.state.gov),where you can download hundreds
of others. They are packaged together here to make it easy to read as an
eBook on a tablet or smartphone using free apps such as Google Play
Books (Android) or iBooks (iOS).
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M a r y A s h w o r t h a n d H . Pa t r i c i a Wa ke f i e l d
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MacDonald Had a Farm, each verse introduces a new animal sound. In English, the cow
says, A moo-moo here, and a moo-moo there.
But this approximation of animal sounds is
not the same in all languages. A Chinese cow,
for example, says, Woo.
All children need to play with language, try
it out, test it, receive feedback and try again.
This is the way children test the rules and
adjust them to their own world view, a process
that prevails among all language learners.
All children need to have adult language
adjusted to their level of understanding and,
finally, all children learn faster when language
and content are combined. Language is a tool
for learning.
Learning a concept is not a one-shot deal
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centers or play areas, are used as an organizational structure for the classroom. These centers provide a variety of learning experiences
and materials, encouraging children to
explore, experiment, discover and socialize in
their individual ways. As the children do so,
teachers can observe differences in learning
styles as well as childrens responses to stories,
songs or field trips.
At first, some ESL/EFL children may be
overwhelmed by the variety of new materials,
the freedom to choose, which may be strange
to them, and their inability to play as they
would like to with other children because of a
language barrier. Their responses may be quite
different: some may withdraw silently, others
may wander aimlessly from center to center,
and still others may choose one area, such as
the water table, and refuse to move. Sensitive
teachers will be sympathetic to their need for
time to adjust to the new environment.
The number of learning centers in a classroom varies with the needs of the children, the
imagination of the teacher and the limitations
of the space. They are all useful for involving
children in different activities, for extending
language and thinking and for encouraging
social interaction with different groups.
Learning centers give teachers a chance to
observe ESL/EFL children closely as they
interact with others, and to make note of their
linguistic, cultural and social needs. If their
English is to develop so that it can keep pace
with their cognitive development, teachers
need to ensure that the progression is logical
and continuous, that language support is visual, aural and emotional and that stimulation is
appropriate and consistent.
Block center
This area, like the others, provides opportunities for learning through play. It gives teachers a chance to observe the concepts ESL/EFL
children have already developed in their first
language, ensure that they have an opportunity to express these concepts in English, and
plan for extension.
Number, order, shape, size, space and measurement are only a few of the concepts
ESL/EFL children may have already developed
in their first language. Age is not always a reliable measure of what children know: observing children as you interact with them is much
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In some early childhood education classrooms, the library is a center, a cozy, inviting
corner where books are kept on shelves within
easy reach of children who want to sit quietly
to look and read. When children gather for circle or story time, this corner is often used.
Although the library is located in a specific
area, it is so integral to all the learning activities
in some classrooms that children constantly
carry books to other areas to use as references.
Whatever the design, the library is important for ESL/EFL children. They need to be
encouraged to look at books, choose stories for
reading, listen to tapes while following along
in the books and borrow books to take home.
They should also be encouraged to share
books from home with other children. If the
books are written in another language, it is a
wonderful opportunity for the other children
to see and learn about a different system of
writing. The illustrations, too, may be very
different from those in English books.
Writing center
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ESL/EFL children who may want to play quietly on their own for a while.
Music center
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B l e n t A l a n a n d F re d r i c k a L . S t o ll e r
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U R K E Y
A N D
N I T E D
T A T E S
Maximizing
the
of
Benefits
P
roject Work
in
Foreign
Language Classrooms
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In this article, we focus on how English language teachers can capitalize on the content
and language learning benefits of project
work. To explore the topic, we examine the
characteristics of under-exploited project
work, outline the features that maximize the
potential benefits of project work, and present
a case study of project-based learning. We conclude with recommendations for English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and materials writers who want to integrate project-based
learning into their own curricula.
Under-exploited project work
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The details of project work are largely dependent on contextual factors, language program objectives, and available resources. For
instance, in Turkey, at higher education levels,
students of agriculture can engage in project
work about soil erosion, which is a serious
contemporary issue, with the goal of generating possible solutions for deforestation in
Turkey. Engineering students can prepare
written reports after investigating the advantages and disadvantages of a third bridge over
the Bosphorus in Istanbul; they might even
send their reports to interested officials. Students enrolled in a vocational school on the
southern coast of Turkey might design a website that introduces their town, with an eye
toward attracting and building tourism in the
area (Hseyin Ycel, personal communication,
May 2004). Academic English-preparation
students in their first year of university studies
can explore a self-selected topic related to their
majors (reported orally to classmates and in
writing for their teacher) to prepare them for
future studies (Semra Sadik, personal communication, June 2004). Students majoring in
physical education may investigate reasons for
the limited numbers of Turkish athletes in
recent Olympic games. EFL students in the
eastern part of Turkey might conduct a survey
aimed at determining the causes for low
female-student school enrollments, concluding with suggestions, submitted to local officials, for turning around the trend.
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provides them with the vocabulary and language needed to participate in the project.
The instructor asks students where they live
and how they travel to school. To facilitate this
interaction, the instructor creates an overhead
transparency with a grid that lists different
forms of transportation, including tramcars.
The instructor fills in the grid with students
initials or tally marks to indicate who uses
which forms of transportation. After filling in
the grid, the instructor asks students to work in
small groups, ideally with at least one student
whose hometown has tramcar transportation.
Students are asked to discuss the effectiveness
of their hometown public transportation. A
handout providing relevant vocabulary and a
list of possible questions guides students in
group discussions (see Figure 1).
Follow-up activities are useful to guide students in comparing the advantages and disadvantages of the Eskisehir tramcar system with
the systems of other cities. At the conclusion
of group discussions, each group reports its
F IGURE 1: E FFECTIVENESS
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most important finding, most worrisome discovery, and any similarities discovered about
tramcar systems in other cities.
The instructor then asks students to take a
few minutes to fill in a semantic feature analysis grid that juxtaposes different features of
the local tramcar and bus systems (see Figure
2). Then students are asked to brainstorm the
advantages and disadvantages of the Eskisehir
tramcar, considering factors such as the locations of their homes, routes, and tramcar stations (see Figure 3).
After students complete these activities,
the instructor elicits suggestions for improving the quality of Eskisehir public transport.
The instructor asks students to judge whether
it is possible to implement the solutions that
they have put forward. Next, the instructor
tells students about a project that will help
them improve their English and might also
Cons
F IGURE 3: G RID
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B RAINSTORMING A CTIVITY
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the project. With the deadline for the final outcome in mind, students reach a consensus
about the sequencing of project tasks.
Step 4: Instructor prepares students
for information gathering
At this stage, the instructor prepares students for the upcoming language and skill
demands of the information-gathering stage of
the project. These lessons train students to
conduct interviews (e.g., forming a question,
posing follow-up questions, requesting clarification and/or elaboration) and introduce them
to the standard parts of an interview: polite
opening, body, and thank you (see Lee, Li, and
Lee 1999, for more details on the various stages
of an interview). The instructor might help
students determine the level of language formality and content of the questions to be asked
of different interviewees. Mock interviews can
be conducted with classmates, family members, teachers, or other language students on
campus. Audiotaped mock interviews can be
reviewed in class for appropriateness, politeness, pronunciation, stress, and grammar.
For students who are responsible for writing formal letters, the instructor introduces
writing conventions associated with formal
letter writing by means of model letters. Students write several drafts of their letters, followed by editing and revision activities that
examine levels of formality, formatting, and
linguistic accuracy. Guided peer-feedback sessions represent effective ways to encourage
student collaboration and writing practice.
For students who are going to use the Web
and library to gather relevant information, the
instructor initiates brainstorming sessions in
which students consider the best ways to
search for information in these venues. As part
of this preparation, the instructor may introduce students to relevant search engines or
websites on mass transit.
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dents gathering information by means of letters of inquiry draft their letters, solicit feedback from classmates and the instructor, and
then send out their letters. Students who are
to conduct library and Web searches move
ahead. Throughout this stage, the instructor
monitors students progress, making sure that
they are on the right track, giving them feedback on their language use throughout.
Step 6: Instructor prepares students
for compiling and analyzing data
After data have been gathered, students
need to compile, evaluate, and synthesize the
relevant information. The instructor prepares
students for this vital stage of the project by
using model transcripts, letters, lists, and grids
to illustrate different categorization, evaluation, and interpretation techniques. This is a
good time to introduce students to conversational gambits that they can use with each
other to negotiate the meaning and relevance
of gathered data, such as I see your point,
but and Dont you think that?
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Conclusion
We have showcased the details of one project designed for an EFL setting. Although the
tramcar theme itself may not be transferable to
other settings, because of its very local relevance, basic features of the project could easily
be transferred to other EFL classrooms. These
transferable features, in the form of recommendations for EFL teachers and materials writers
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who attempt to integrate project-based learning into their own curricula, appear below.
Devise projects with students immediate
and future language needs and content
interests in mind, while at the same time
remaining vigilant of institutional expectations and available resources.
Specify language, content, task, skill, and
strategy learning objectives in line with
students needs and institutional expectations to maximize the benefits of the
project.
Strive to engage students in all stages of
the project. Begin by giving students the
chance to structure parts of the project,
even if those contributions are small,
with the aim of building a sense of student ownership and pride in project
engagement.
Design and sequence tasks with great
care. Make sure that (1) skills are integrated to achieve real communicative
purposes, (2) students are obliged to use
various strategies for meaningful aims, (3)
critical thinking is required for successful
task completion, and (4) students are
held accountable for content learning.
Integrate tasks that require both independent and collaborative work. Help
students reach agreement about different
team member responsibilities. Students
should view each other as single links in
a chain that unite, through exchanges of
information and negotiation of meaning,
to produce a successful project outcome.
Be sure to plan an opening activity that
promotes students interests, taps background knowledge, introduces important vocabulary, and builds up expectations for the final activity.
Take advantage of Steps 4, 6, and 8 to
provide explicit instruction so that students not only improve their language
abilities but also excel in the information
gathering, processing, and reporting
stages of the project.
Allow time for feedback at the conclusion of the project and at other critical
junctures as well.
References
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Gender roles
Rights of the handicapped
In defense of human rights
Fighting crime in urban areas
Drug trafficking at the international level
Freedom of speech and press
4. General human interest topics: Project-work topics can be linked to general human interest topics, dependent largely on students ages, maturity levels, interests, and concerns.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Animal communication
Sports and youth
Population growth
Famous individuals
Stem cell research
Family album
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International terrorism
International efforts to fight air, water, and noise pollution
International efforts to turn global warming around
AIDS, malaria
Civil wars
Water shortages
Oral presentation
Pin and string display
Poster
Research paper
Scrapbook
Simulation
Survey report
Theatrical performance
Video or film
Website
Written report
A P P E N D I X 3 | C HECKLIST: Q UESTIONS
TO A SK W HILE
MAXIMIZING THE BENEFITS OF PROJECT WORK Blent Alan and Fredricka L. Stoller
P LANNING
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How might Stollers ten-step framework (summarized in this article) need to be adapted
for my teaching situation?
PROJECT PLANNING: While planning a project for your class, pose the following questions and make every effort to find answers to them.
What project-work topics are likely to (1) sustain student interests, (2) increase student
motivation, and (3) ensure meaningful student engagement?
What can I do to give students a voice in the selection of the project-work theme, the designation of a project outcome, and the process of the project (even if I have structured the
project myself)? In other words, what can I do to ensure that students develop a sense of
ownership in the project?
How can the project be designed to build upon (1) what students already know, (2) what
they are already able to do, and (3) what they want to learn?
What resources are readily available for the project theme (in print, on the Web, on video,
from different people/organizations, etc.)? What resources might I, myself, collect to share
with students? What resources will students be able to access on their own in a timely
fashion?
Which elaborated tasks will help me meet program objectives and assist students in completing the project in a satisfactory manner?
How can I structure elaborated tasks so that they lead to an authentic experience and critical thinking?
What activities can I incorporate into the process of project completion that will increase
students metacognitive awareness?
How will I assign student work groups? Should I group students who are similar or different in language ability, motivational level, etc.? Should I let students form groups of their
own or should I assign students to groups?
How can I structure the project so that it is both sufficiently challenging and manageable
at the same time?
What language and content-learning demands are inherent in Steps 5 (information gathering), 7 (information compiling and analyzing), and 9 (information reporting)? How can I
best prepare students for those demands in Steps 4, 6, and 8?
What grammar points stand out as being particularly relevant in Steps 5, 7, and 9? How,
and at what point(s) in the project, can I focus explicitly on form so that students can practice relevant grammar points in a meaningful way?
How can I structure the project so that there is a proper balance among teacher guidance
(and feedback), and student autonomy and collaboration?
How can I structure the project so that students are engaged in meaningful and purposeful integrated skills?
How can I conclude the project so that students have the opportunity to reflect on their
improved language abilities and the content that they learned as a result of the project?
How can I solicit honest feedback from students about the project-work experience so
that I can use their insights to assist me in future planning of projects?
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Nation, P. (1978). "What is it?": A multipurpose language teaching technique. English Teaching Forum, 16 (3),
20-23, 32.
"What Is It?":
A Multipurpose
Language Teaching
Technique
What is it?
It's interesting.
It's easy to make.
It makes your learners think.
It's good for work in pairs, groups, or with the whole
class.
It gives each learner a chance to show his skill.
It can be used for listening, reading, writing, or
speaking.
PAUL NATION
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'2.-0 -
z.. 3} s2._
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JULY 1978
While describing a stirrup, the teacher repeats each dents an opportunity to meet the new word several
sentence once or twice before going on to the next one. times.
He also goes back and repeats the previous sentences
Providing for Individual Work. The "What Is It?"
several times before he reaches the end of the descrip- technique can also be used for individual vocabulary
tion. In this way the students will have heard the new work, with the exercises on cards or in a book. Here is
word stirrup many times by the end of the description. an example:
They will also have listened with close attention because
ONE MORE SENTENCE
they want to discover what the new word means. Some
teachers make the mistake of giving the meaning of From the five "Missing Sentences" given at the end,
new vocabulary too quickly. Once the students have find the one that belongs to each of the groups of related
been given the meaning of the word, they have no sentences. Write the number of the sentence and, next
reason to pay attention any longer. Experiments on to it, the name of the object described in the group of
remembering (Jenkins 1974) have shown that recalling sentences to which it belongs.
the form of a word (its spelling or sound) is more diffiA farm is a big piece of land.
cult than recalling its meaning. For this reason, techA farm is usually in the country.
niques that give the student an opportunity for repeated
Sometimes a man grows vegetables or rice on a farm.
attention to a new word before discovering its meaning
A hen is a big bird.
are important for vocabulary learning. If the learners
We eat eggs from a hen.
are asked to translate stirrup after listening to the deA hen eats corn and other things.
scription, this is in some ways the same as a direct
A hen cannot swim.
translation where the teacher says, "Stirrup in your
mother tongue is
." But the differences are
A map is very useful.
important: Direct translation is quick; the "What Is It?"
A map is a picture of streets, roads, towns, and cities.
technique, involving the describing of the object before
A map shows us the hills, mountains, and rivers.
the learners are asked to translate, wastes some teachA restaurant is a building.
ing time, but it makes valuable use of learning time.
A man sells food in a restaurant.
By listening to the description the learners have heard
People can buy many kinds of food and drink there.
the new word several times, they have had to make an
effort to get the meaning, and they have been active
Sometimes a telegram brings good news.
in telling the teacher what they think the translation
Sometimes a telegram brings bad news.
should be (Nation, English Language Teaching Journal,
We send a telegram at the post office.
forthcoming).
The Missing Sentences
Limiting the Information. The order of the sentences
in the "What Is It?" technique is important if the teacher
1. We use it when we want to know the way.
wants to keep the meaning of the new word away from
2. People go there to eat.
the learners for as long as possible. The following ex3. Sometimes a man keeps animals there.
ample shows how this may be done. This time I will
4. People keep it and feed it.
teach a technical word used in botany. As you read the
5. It travels quickly through a wire.
description, make a note of the point at which you felt This exercise may also be used to teach verbs, adjecthat you knew the common name for the technical word. tives, or adverbs; in that case the missing sentence has
Brassicas are green.
an empty space where the new word should be.
Brassicas are made of leaves.
Introducing Vocabulary Incidentally. The "What Is
Brassicas have big leaves.
It?" technique can also be used to introduce new voOne costs about sixty cents.
cabulary incidentally. This often adds extra interest.
We can find brassicas in most vegetable gardens.
For example, if the teacher is describing a fork in a
Brassicas are round.
listen-and-guess exercise, he might say:
Brassicas are used for eating.
It is silver. Silver is a color as well as a material.
Many people cook brassicas before they eat them.
Can you think of other things that are silver but are
not made of silver?
You should not have been able to guess that the new
word brassica referred to cabbages, cauliflowers, etc.,
It is long.
until after you had read almost all of the sentences. So,
It usually has four prongs. Do you know what a
prong is? ...
in constructing a "What Is It?" exercise the teacher
should make sure that the first sentences do not provide
The value of the "What Is It?" technique in teaching
too much information. In this way he can give the stu- vocabulary lies in the opportunity it provides the stu-
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Ju d i t h A . R a n c e - Rone y
Reconceptualizing Interactional
Groups: Grouping Schemes for
Maximizing Language Learning
Group work. When it works, we are pleased. But when it does not
when the learners stare at each other without speaking or when two learners
begin an argument that threatens to disrupt the whole lesson
we know we should have done it better.
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learners to use academic resources and terminology in the L1 to assist the task in the L2.
When the objective is to master challenging
content with language learning as an auxiliary goal, grouping learners by L1 groups is
reasonable. For example, when you are teaching the finer points of English punctuation,
allowing learners to use some L1 to discuss
the nuances of punctuation leads to more
efficient learning, in addition to the valueadded discussions of punctuation differences
between languages. Paradoxically, English
accuracy may be facilitated through the use
of the L1 to scaffold the L2. Furthermore,
when the academic task requires the cognitive processing of highly abstract information, allowing the shared language groups to
codeswitch during discussion leads to greater
analytic depth. For example, identifying elements of deconstructionism within a novel
demands that learners codeswitch in order to
fully analyze literary factors.
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Explicitly teach functional language and conversational strategies that learners will likely need, such
as how to disagree and interrupt in a polite manner.
Teach learners awareness of body language appropriate for English-situated conversations (leaning slightly
forward, making eye contact, etc.).
Define specific but revolving roles for learners (discussion leader, notetaker, etc.) so that all learners are secure
in expectations but have an opportunity to engage
in differing roles and at times assume leadership.
Make the rules of engagement explicit to solidify expectations for tolerance of diverse viewpoints, respectful
use of language, equality of turn-taking, and the right
to speak. Consider writing these rules down on chart
paper and posting them during group work.
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References
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reduction of coercion, active learner involvement, experience before interpretation, avoidance of oversimplification,
and the value of silence.
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Kassim Shaaban
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well as language skill integration, the traditional paper-and-pencil tests no longer cover
the variety of activities and tasks that take
place in the elementary classroom. The summative form of testing that permeated the traditional curricula would not be fair to students
whose studies are based on communicative
activities. Fortunately, the field of evaluation
has witnessed a major shift from strictly summative testing tools and procedures to a more
humanistic approach using informal assessment techniques that stress formative evaluation (ONeil 1992).
This article discusses alternative forms of
assessment, in particular, personal-response
and performance-based assessment, which, in
congruence with the learner-centered principles of new methodological approaches, treat
assessment as an integral part of teaching culminating in formative evaluation.
Importance of assessment
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can be an enjoyable way of informal assessment that could be used effectively within a
content-based curriculum. For example, he recommends the use of role play to express mathematical concepts such as fractions, to demonstrate basic concepts in science such as the life
cycle, and to represent historical events or literary characters.
Written Narratives: Assessment of the written
communicative abilities of children could be
achieved through purposeful, authentic tasks,
such as writing letters to friends, writing letters
to favorite television program characters, and
writing and responding to invitations. Young
learners enjoy story telling and are usually motivated to listen to stories as well as to tell them.
Teachers can take advantage of this interest in
stories and have their students write narratives
that relate to personal experiences, retell or modify nursery stories and fairy tales, or retell historical events from different perspectives.
Oller (1987) suggests the use of a narrative development technique in an integrated
process of teaching and assessment. The first
step in the process is to check on how well
learners are following the story line. To establish the basic facts, the teachers asks yes-no
questions, then the teacher moves on to information questions.
Presentations: Presentations are important for
assessment because they can provide a comprehensive record of students abilities in both
oral and written performance. Furthermore,
presentations give the teacher some insights
into students interests, work habits, and organizational abilities. Presentations cover a wide
range of meaningful activities, including poetry readings, plays, role-plays, dramatizations,
and interviews.
Classroom presentations are nowadays
becoming more sophisticated as a result of
increasing access to educational technology. In
many parts of the world, students are becoming more aware of the power of multimedia for
communicating information, and they enjoy
keeping audio, video, and electronic records of
their involvement in class presentations.
Student-Teacher Conferences: Student-teacher
conferences, including structured interviews,
can be an effective informal way of assessing a
students progress in language learning. Conferences and interviews provide opportunities
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References
Allerson, G. and W. Grabe. 1986. Reading assessment. In Teaching second language reading for
academic purposes, eds. F. Dubin, D. Eskey, and
W. Grabe. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Arter, J. A. and V. Spandel. 1992. Using portfolios
of student work in instruction and assessment.
Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice,
11, 1, pp. 3644
Asher, J. 1988. Learning another language through
actions: The complete teachers guidebook, (3rd ed.),
Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions.
Blanche, P. 1988. Self-assessment of foreign language skills: Implications for teachers and
resources. RELC Journal, 19, 1, pp. 7593.
Brown, J. D., ed. 1998. New ways of classroom assessment. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Brown, J. D. and T. Hudson. 1998. The alternatives in language assessment. TESOL Quarterly,
32, 4, pp. 653675.
Fradd, S. and S. Hudelson. 1995. Alternative
assessment: A process that promotes collaboration and reflection. TESOL Journal, 5, 1, p. 5.
Friel, M. 1989. Reading technical texts: A class test.
English Teaching Forum, 27, 1, pp. 3233.
Gomez, L., R. Parker, R. Lara-Alecio, S. H. Ochoa,
and R. Gomez, Jr. 1996. Naturalistic language
assessment of LEP students in classroom interactions. The Bilingual Research Journal, 20, 1,
pp. 6992.
Huerta-Macias, A. 1995. Alternative assessment:
Responses to commonly asked questions.
TESOL Journal, 5, 1, pp. 811.
Katz, L. 1997. A developmental approach to assessment of young children. ERIC Digest.
ED407127. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood
Education.
Kelner, L. B. 1993. The creative classroom: A guide
for using creative drama in the classroom, Pre K-6.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Krashen, S. 1982. Principles and practices in second
language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D. and T. Terrell. 1983. The natural
approach: Language acquisition in the classroom.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Alemany Press.
Mayerhof, E. 1992. Communication dynamics as
test anxiety therapy. English Teaching Forum, 30,
1, pp. 4547.
McNamara, M. J. and D. Deane. 1995. Self-assessment activities: Towards autonomy in language
learning. TESOL Journal, 5, 1, pp. 1721.
Moya, S. S. and J. M. OMalley. 1994. A portfolio
assessment model for ESL. The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 13,
pp. 1336.
Murphey, T. 1994/1995. Tests: Learning through
negotiated interaction. TESOL Journal, 4, 2,
pp. 1216.
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Week 5!
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Humpty Dumpty
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,
(Pantomime sitting on a wall by squatting.)
Bzzzzzz..
(Wave fingers in the air.)
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Original
Around the Garden
Innovation of
Around the Garden
Round and round the farmyard,
Goes the little horse.
Round, round, round he struts,
Round into his barn.
Personal songbooks
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on the Range
Oh, give me a
where the
Where the
roam,
and the
play,
are not
,
all day.
on the range,
Where the
and the
play,
are not
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all day.
2
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We begin by articulating a model for promoting principled discussion (see Figure 1). We
conclude with a set of three specific but versatile formats for talking to learn in the English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom.
Engage
students in
lived
experiences
Align
dialogue with
student goals
and
expectations
Honor
difference,
reflect, and
offer closure
Principled
Discussion:
Talking to
Learn
Offer multiple
opportunities
for students
to prepare
Focus on
meaning and
value active
listening
Keep the
conversation
horizontal
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Teachers often reward students for spontaneity. However, spontaneity can exclude
students who prefer to think deeply before
they speak. If teachers do opt for spontaneity, questions should focus on topics that are
exceedingly familiar to students, such as daily
routines or personal preferences.
Thoughtful discussions depend on
thoughtful preparation. Language learners
benefit from structured opportunities to prepare and organize ideas before actually participating in discussion. We recommend that
teachers encourage all participants to write
their ideas on paper first and to bring that
writing to the discussionthis way we can
be certain that all participants have something to say or, if necessary, to read. Prediscussion preparation might engage students
in well-known cooperative learning practices
such as think-pair-share, three-step interview,
or round-robin brainstorming (Kagan and
Kagan 2009). We have also found it helpful
for students to end these brief preliminary
composition activities by writing down the
questions that emerged in the course of pre-
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Level
Expression
Thats an interesting opinion. In addition, I think
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
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about, teachers should concentrate on understanding and helping them clarify or elaborate
their points of view and challenging them to
consider alternative perspectives with empathy. What students are trying to say should
be valued over form. As opposed to correcting
student language, teacher-talk might sound
something like, Is there another way that
we might think about friendships? or Can
you think of any reasons why someone would
want to put limits on friendship?
During the discussion, the class might
identify individual participants who can help
out with students struggling to express their
ideas. We also imagine that students talking about something that matters to them
might have a tendency to shift into their first
language (L1). Instead of penalizing students
for attempting to express an idea or thought,
consider students use of L1 as an indicator of
their motivation.
Dialogue depends on both talking and
good listenership (OKeeffe, McCarthy, and
Carter 2007; Rost 2006). We encourage teachers to think of ways to promote active and
thoughtful listening by assigning certain students the role of observers. During a discussion
or structured interchange, observers might take
notes on content and participant strategies and
behaviors that either stimulate or block the
dialogue. After the discussion, observers might
report out to the class, highlighting strands of
the discussion that they found important or
particularly thoughtful. Students might also
reflect on individual or collective behaviors
and strategies that encouraged or discouraged
thoughtful participation. Students debriefing
might include what individuals learned from
their classmates and what new questions the
discussion generated.
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2. Rating agreement/disagreement
Rating activities are useful discussion scaffolds (McCann et al. 2006). In designing
a rating activity, teachers should choose a
theme that allows for a variety of opinions
some potentially controversial. We suggest,
for example, value-oriented topics that address
the lived experiences of students and encourage a wide range of responses, e.g., a ranking
activity that elicits opinions about gendered
roles in family and society; friendship; honesty, etc. We have structured ranking activities,
for example, around the theme of lovetaking popular quotes about the emotion such as
All you need is love or Love is blind and
asking student groups to rate their level of
agreement or disagreement using a numerical
scale ranging from one to five. Afterwards, a
representative from each group reports on two
to three highlights of the small groups discussion. Follow up by having students create a
multilayered definition for whatever category
the ranking activity is examining.
3. Scenarios for role play
Role plays stress the adoption of perspective. They offer emerging English speakers a
platform that emphasizes the complexity of
the human condition by simulating conflict,
resolution, and compromise (Au 2010; Cruz
and Thornton 2009). Choose a short narrative to read and identify participants who will
take on the perspectives of the various characters. Thinking about the theme of friendship,
teachers might select a short reading such as
The Giving Tree by Silverstein (1964)the
poignant tale of a tree who gives a little boy
all she has until she is nothing but a stump
for the boy-turned-old-man to sit on. Allow
characters to prepare with the support of a
small-group opening statement explaining
their motivation and point of view: Why as
tree did I give all of myself to the boy? Why
as boy did I ask so much of the tree? Follow
up with pre-prepared questions from the class
to the tree and the boy.
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References
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S. J. Thornton, 15962. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Au, W. 2010. Not playing around: Teaching roleplays in social education. In Social studies and
diversity education: What we do and why we
do it, ed. E. E. Heilman, 29295. New York:
Routledge.
Avery, P. G. 2002. Teaching tolerance: What
research tells us. Social Education 66 (5): 270
75.
Banks, J. A. 2008. Diversity, group identity, and
citizenship education in a global age. Educational Researcher 37 (3): 12939.
Cruz, B. C., and S. J. Thornton. 2009. Teaching
social studies to English language learners. New
York: Routledge.
Dewey, J. 2009. Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York:
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Ellis, R. 2001. Introduction: Investigating formfocused instruction. Language Learning 51 (s1):
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Fitchett, P. G., and S. Salas. 2010. You lieThats
not true: Immigration and preservice teacher
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Freire, P. 2000. Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York:
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Haneda, M., and G. Wells. 2008. Learning an
additional language through dialogic inquiry.
Language and Education 22 (2): 11436.
Harmer, J. 2007. The practice of English language
teaching. 4th ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman.
Hess, D. E. 2002. Discussing controversial public
issues in secondary social studies classrooms:
Learning from skilled teachers. Theory and
Research in Social Education 30 (1): 1041.
. 2009. Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion. New York: Routledge.
Heyden, R. 2003. Literature circles as a differentiated instructional strategy for including ESL
students in mainstream classrooms. Canadian
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Hoffman, M. L. 2000. Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Kagan, S., and M. Kagan. 2009. Kagan cooperative
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McCann, T. M., L. R. Johannessen, E. Kahn, and
J. M. Flanagan. 2006. Talking in class: Using discussion to enhance teaching and learning. Urbana,
IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
McCoy, M. L., and P. L. Scully. 2002. Deliberative
dialogue to expand civic engagement: What
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Mercado, L. 2012. Guarantor of quality assurance.
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In A handbook for language program administrators. 2nd ed. Ed. M. A. Christison and F. Stoller,
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Moll, L. C. 2011. Only life educates: Immigrant
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speak: The importance of talk in the learning process. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton-Cook.
OKeeffe, A., M. McCarthy, and R. Carter. 2007.
From corpus to classroom: Language use and
language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxfam. 2006. Teaching controversial issues. www.
oxfam.org.uk/education/teachersupport/cpd/
controversial/files/teaching_controversial_
issues.pdf
Parker, W. C. 2003. Teaching democracy: Unity and
diversity in public life. New York: Teachers College Press.
Rost, M. 2006. Areas of research that influence L2
listening instruction. In Current trends in the
development and teaching of the four language
skills, ed. E. Us-Juan and A. Martinez-Flor,
4774. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter.
Shor, I. 1992. Empowering education: Critical teaching for social change. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Silverstein, S. 1964. The giving tree. New York:
Harper and Row.
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