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Erotokritou-Space Time Block Coding
Erotokritou-Space Time Block Coding
A Thesis
by
Ioannis D. Erotokritou
B.S.E.E., Louisiana State University, 2004
May 2006
57
I would like to dedicate this work to my parents Demetrios and Koulla Erotokritou,
who have supported me throughout my academic endeavors,
without them this may have never been possible.
ii
58
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Xue-Bin
Liang for his constant encouragement, guidance and research support throughout my
masters studies. His technical advice and suggestions, made this work wonderful
learning experience.
I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Subhash C. Kak and Dr.
Shuangqing Wei, for taking time out of their busy schedule and accepting to be part of
my committee.
I would like to give special thanks to my friend Elena Loizou for her help and support
during this difficult time. In addition, I would like to thank my friends here at LSU
and back home for all their help, love, and support.
Finally, I want to thank my beloved parents, who have always stood behind me
regardless of my decisions. They have encouraged me to get my degree and succeed
in life more than anyone. I hope the effort that I put to complete this degree will be a
new starting point for my professional career that will open many doors to future
success.
iii
59
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments...iii
List of Tables...vi
List of Figures.vii
Abstract........ix
Chapter 1 Introduction and Literature Review......................................................1
1.1
Background ....................................................................................................1
1.2
Orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes (O-STBC)..........................................2
1.3
Antenna Theory .............................................................................................4
1.3.1
Multipath Interference Effect.................................................................5
1.3.2
Doppler Effect........................................................................................6
1.4
MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output.......................................................8
1.4.1
Principles of MIMO Systems.................................................................9
1.4.2
Transmit Diversity Model....................................................................10
1.5
Thesis Organization .....................................................................................11
Chapter 2 The System Model .................................................................................12
2.1
Encoding ......................................................................................................13
2.2
Decoding ......................................................................................................16
Chapter 3 Simulation Methodology .......................................................................17
3.1
Simulator......................................................................................................17
3.2
Components of Simulation ..........................................................................17
3.3
Constellations...............................................................................................19
3.4
Terminal Speeds...........................................................................................20
3.5
Simulation Parameters .................................................................................21
Chapter 4 Two Transmit Antennas........................................................................23
4.1
Channel Matrix Calculations .......................................................................23
4.2
Simulation Results .......................................................................................24
4.3
Performance Evaluation...............................................................................27
Chapter 5 Three Transmit Antennas.....................................................................29
5.1
Channel Matrix Calculations .......................................................................29
5.2
Simulation Results .......................................................................................31
5.3
Performance Evaluation...............................................................................32
Chapter 6 Four Transmit Antennas.......................................................................35
6.1
Channel Matrix Calculations .......................................................................35
6.2
Comparison of Performance of Two O-STBC for Four Transmit
Antennas ......................................................................................................37
6.2.1
Orthogonal Designs .............................................................................37
6.2.2
The Conventional O-STBC..................................................................38
6.2.3
The New High-Rate O-STBC..............................................................38
6.2.4
Comparison of the Orthogonal Designs...............................................39
60
iv
6.2.5
Simulation Results for 1.5 Bits per Channel Use ................................39
6.2.6
Conclusions..........................................................................................42
6.3
Simulation Results for 2 Bits per Channel Use ...........................................42
6.4
Performance Evaluation...............................................................................42
Chapter 7 Five Transmit Antennas........................................................................45
7.1
Channel Matrix Calculations .......................................................................45
7.2
Simulation Results .......................................................................................47
7.3
Performance Evaluation...............................................................................49
Chapter 8 Conclusions.............................................................................................51
Bibliography.. 54
Vita.. 56
v
61
List of Tables
1.1 Transmission sequence for two transmit antennas...............................................10
3.1 Vehicle speeds with their corresponding constants .............................................20
62
vi
List of Figures
1.1 System block diagram............................................................................................2
1.2 Block diagram of multiple transmit and receive antennas.....................................2
1.3 Transmission matrix...............................................................................................3
1.4 The effect of multipath on a mobile user ...............................................................5
1.5 Representation of the Rayleigh fade effect on a user signal..................................6
1.6 Illustration of co-channel interference ...................................................................6
1.7 a) Stationary source b) Moving source .................................................................7
1.8 Block diagram of MIMO system ...........................................................................8
1.9 Basic spatial multiplexing scheme with 3-Tx antennas. Ai, Bi, and Ci represent
symbol constellations ............................................................................................9
1.10 Discrete time equivalent model .........................................................................10
2.1 The channel model for n-Tx antennas ................................................................12
2.2 Orthogonal time-space block code for 3-Tx antennas .........................................13
2.3 Bessel Function of the first kind ..........................................................................14
2.4 The time-selective codeword ...............................................................................15
3.1 Flowchart of the m-file functions of the simulation software..............................18
3.2 a) 4-PSK constellation b) 8-PSK constellation.....................................................19
4.1 Transmission model for 2-Tx antennas................................................................24
4.2 Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for
2-Tx antennas base on vehicle speed 0, 25, 50, 75, 150, 200, and 250 km/h. .....25
4.3 BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 2-Tx antennas..........27
5.1 Transmission model for 3-Tx antennas................................................................30
5.2 Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for
3-Tx antennas base on vehicle speed 0, 25, 50, 75, and 150 km/h. ....................31
5.3 BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 3-Tx antennas..........33
vii
63
6.1 Transmission model for 4-Tx antennas, for 2 bits per channel use ....................35
6.2 The conventional code [p, n, k] = [8, 4, 4]..........................................................38
6.3 The new High-Rate O-STBC [p, n, k] = [8, 4, 6] ...............................................38
6.4 The BER vs. SNR performance between the two orthogonal designs for terminal
speeds 0, 25, 50, and 75 km/h.............................................................................40
6.5 The BER performance of the O-STBC with rate =
4
........................................41
8
6
........................................41
8
6.7 Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for
4-Tx antennas base on vehicle speeds 0, 25, 50, and 75 km/h. ............................43
6.8 BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 4-Tx antennas..........44
7.1 Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for
5-Tx antennas for speeds 0, 25, 50, and 75 km/h.48
7.2 BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 5-Tx antennas.........49
8.1 Bit error probability versus SNR for different number of transmit antennas ......52
viii
64
Abstract
The last decade we have witnessed an extraordinary growing interest in the field of
wireless communications. Wireless industry has recently turned into a technology
known as Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) to minimize errors and optimize
data speed. This is done by using multiple transmit and receive antennas, as well as
appropriate space-time block code techniques.
Due the fact that time-selective fading channels exist, the assumption that the channel
is being static over the length of the codeword does not apply in this thesis. The
channel state varies over the number of signal intervals, and in such case the
orthogonality of the space-time block code will be destroyed leading to irreducible
error floor. This thesis deals with orthogonal space-time block coding schemes where
time-selective fading channels arise due to Doppler Effect. A realistic channel model
was used, where the channel coherency was considered. Modeling the time-selective
channels as random processes, a fast and simple decoding algorithm was derived at
the receiver. Using MATLABTM as a simulation tool, we provide simulation results
demonstrating the performance for two, three, four, and five transmit antennas over
time-selective fading channels. We illustrate that using multiple transmit antennas and
space-time coding outstanding performance can be obtained, under the impact of
channel variation.
ix
65
Chapter 1
Introduction and Literature Review
In the last decade, the study of wireless communications with multiple transmit and
receive antennas has been conducted expansively in the literature on information
theory and communications. It has been known from the information-theoretic results
[1], [2], [3], [4], [5] that the application of multiple antennas in wireless systems can
significantly improve the channel capacity over the single-antenna systems with the
same requirements of power and bandwidth. Based on those results, many
communication schemes suitable for data transmission through multiple-antenna
wireless channels have been proposed, including Bell Labs Layered SpaceTime
(BLAST) [1], spacetime trellis codes [6], spacetime block codes from orthogonal
designs [7], and unitary spacetime codes [8], [9], among many others.
1.1 Background
It is well-known that the decoding algorithm must have as low as possible complexity
in order to find applications in the real-world of wireless communication systems.
Base on this criterion, Alamouti [10] developed a simple and effective transmit
technique for two transmit antennas which has remarkably low decoding complexity.
Tarokh, Jafarkhani, and Calderbank [7] presented orthogonal designs that can be used
as space-time block codes for wireless communications and generalized the Alamouti
scheme for more than two transmit antennas. Spacetime block coding provides an
exceptional link between orthogonal designs and wireless communications. Since this
coding scheme achieves full transmit diversity and has a very simple maximum-
likelihood decoding algorithm at the receiver, Alamoutis space-time block code has
been established as a part of the W-CDMA and CDMA-2000 standards.
h11
y1
Ant#2
Transmit
Antenna
Array
.
.
.
Ant#n
y2
.
.
.
h ij
Receive
Array
yk
hn n
In the receiver terminal, spacetime coding combines together all the copies of the
received signal in an optimal way to extract as much information from each of them
as possible.
A complex orthogonal space-time block code for any number of transmits antennas n ,
is described by a p n transmission matrix
z 21
=
M
z p1
z12
O
z p2
z1n
z 2n
O M
L z pn
L
time slots
H = z1 + z 2 + K + z k
where
) I
nn
(1-1)
the n n identity
matrix. An orthogonal space-time block code with n transmit antennas can send k
information symbols, namely z1 , z 2 ,..., z k , from signal constellations such as phaseshift keying (PSK) and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) in a block of
p channel uses. The rate of the orthogonal code is defined as R =
the bandwidth efficiency of the code.
3
k
, which reflects
p
z2
z1*
(1-2)
2
= 1 . Three,
2
four, five, and eight transmit antennas, with different rates were constructed by Liang
[12]. Obviously, a complex orthogonal space-time block code with high rate can
improve the bandwidth efficiency. Hence, in order to improve the bandwidth
efficiency of a complex orthogonal space-time block code for any given number of
transmit antennas, we need to apply the space-time block code with the highest rate
( R ) as possible. Orthogonal designs with maximal rates where demonstrated
successfully by Liang [12].
theory refer to Ref. [13]. However, antennas are operated in a noisy environment
where many hostile effects should surpassed or minimize in order the communication
to be successful.
Path C
Path A
Path B
Base
Station
Mobile
User
1
4
2
3
4
3
2
1
reduction of data rates in cellular systems. The Doppler Effect may occur from either
motion of the source (Figure 1.7) or motion of the receiver. This thesis will consider
the latter case, where the receiving end (mobile user) is in motion and the source (base
station) is stationary.
Low
Freq.
(a)
High
Freq.
(b)
v
c
(1-3)
Reflecting Object
Transmitter
Receiver
Figure 1.9: Basic spatial multiplexing scheme with 3-Tx antennas. Ai, Bi, and
Ci represent symbol constellations (Adapted from Ref. [16])
Figure 1.9 shows an intuitive representation of how MIMO systems operate. A simple
bit sequence is decomposed into three independent sequences, which then are
transmitted simultaneously through multiple antennas. Bit sequences pass through
modulation and mapping process using various symbol constellations. The signals use
the same frequency spectrum and they naturally mix together in the wireless channel.
At the receiver, after having identified the mixing channel matrix (coherent case), the
individual bit streams are separated and estimated. This works in the same way as a
linear system of three equations. Therefore, each pair of transmit-receive antennas has
a single scalar channel coefficient, hence flat fading channel. A more detail
z1 , z 2*
h1
z1 , z 2
SpaceTime
Encoder
Antenna 2
y
h2
Noise
z 2 , z1*
Figure 1.10: Discrete time equivalent model
The above description is an implementation of the complex orthogonal space-time
block code that was first proposed by Alamouti [10].
Table 1.1: Transmission sequence for two transmit antennas
Antenna 1 Antenna 2
time t
time t + Ts
z1
z2
z 2*
z1*
The orthogonal space-time block code which was decrypted in equation (1-2), using
two transmit antennas and one receive antenna, can achieve diversity order of two and
10
full coding rate. This scheme can be generalized to n transmit antennas and one
receive antenna in order to achieve greater diversity order.
Chapter 2 introduces the system model which was used to analyze the performance of
various number of transmit antennas over time selective-fading channels.
11
Chapter 2
The System Model
A realistic channel model was used in this paper, where the channel coherency was
considered. Due the fact that time selective or fast fading channels exist, the
assumption that the channel is static all over pTs does not apply in this thesis (where
s1 , s 2 , s 3 , s 4
O-STBC
n ... 3
2
Modulator
n-Tx
sk
t =1
t=2
t=3
t=4
...
t=p-1 t=p
h11
h12
h13
h14
h1 p
h21
h22
h23
h24
h2 p
h31
h32
h33
h34
hn1
hn 2
hn 4 L
hnp
hn3
1-Rx
Transmitter
~
s1
~
s2
Detection
ri
~
s3
M
~
sn
ni
Receiver
In order, to reduce the above error floor a high rate orthogonal time-space block codes
are introduced for the cases of two, three, four, and five transmit antennas [12]. The
orthogonal designs that will be presented in this thesis have a special structure.
z
1
z*
= 2
*
z3
z2
z1*
0
z3*
z3
0
z1*
z*2
2.1 Encoding
We assume n transmit antennas and one receive antenna, where the information
symbols z1 , z 2 , L, z k are transmitted using complex orthogonal time-space block
codes [12]. All the complex information symbols are first grouped together by a
modulator and then passed trough an O-STBC encoder. Then they are transmitted
over Ts = 1, 2, L, p symbol periods.
The receive signal ( ri ) at time i can be estimated by:
n
ri = h ji cij + ni
j =1
where
i = 1, 2, 3, ... p
(2-1)
where ni is a complex additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) with zero mean and
variance
i2
2
13
h ji denotes the time selective channel from the j th transmit antenna to the receive
antenna.
One of the best known models that have been used for a time variant flat-fading
channel is the Jakes model [17], which is the following:
h ji = (i 1) h j (i 1) + w ji
where j = 1, 2, K , n
i = 1, 2,K , p
(2-2)
where w ji is noise which has complex Gaussian zero-mean with complex variance
i2
2
be estimated by:
ai = J 0 (2 i f d Ts )
(2-3)
Figure 2.3: Bessel Function of the first kind (Adapted from Ref. [18])
14
i2 = 1 (i 1)
(2-4)
where it depends on the variable . The value of depends on the terminal speed.
In order to find the Doppler frequency, f d , we have to use the following formula:
fd = fc (
V
)
c
(2-5)
where f c corresponds to the carrier frequency, V is the speed of the mobile terminal,
and c is the speed of light in vacuum .
The information symbol duration Ts can be found by:
Ts =
SF
ChipRate
(2-6)
chips
and SF = 128 .
sec
Therefore, as the length of the codeword increases the more vulnerable is the system
to channel variation. As shown in Figure 2.4, a realistic model was used, where the
channel is static only over a symbol period ( Ts ) instead of being static over pTs .
h11
h12
h13
h14
h15 h1 p 1 h1 p
Time
Ts
15
2.2 Decoding
As mentioned above, the information was encoded based on the following model:
Y p1 = H pk S k 1 + W p1
(2-7)
where Y is the received signal, H the channel, S the information, and W the noise. All
the variables are in a matrix form.
Given that the receiver knows the channel state information (coherent case), a simple
decoding algorithm was used:
~
S k 1 = d H kH p Y p1
where
(2-8)
d=
1
2
h11 + h12
16
+ L + h pk
(2-9)
Chapter 3
Simulation Methodology
MATLABTM Release 14, V 7.0 was used as a simulator tool in order to perform the
simulation experiments.
3.1 Simulator
MATLABTM is a software package for high-performance in technical computing,
integrating programming, visualization, and computation in a very user-friendly
environment. Best of all, it also provides extensibility and flexibility with its own
high-level programming language. Common uses of MATLABTM involve [19]:
(a) Mathematics (Arrays and matrices, linear algebra, etc.)
(b) Programming development (Function, data structures, etc.)
(c) Modeling and simulation (Signal Processing etc.)
(d) Data analysis (statistics etc.)
(e) Visualization (graphics, animation etc.)
All the simulations were performed by automation programs which were created by
me. The whole simulation program was divided in sub-functions which were built in
M-files form, .m extension. More details about the structure of the software are
shown in Figure 3.1.
17
START
Main function
Initialize variables
o Signal-to-Noise Ratio ( 0 36 dB )
o Number of realizations ( 5 10 6 )
o Number of errors (1000)
Load output matrix
Testing invalid outputs
Save and print results
do { # realizations }
Given
A complex O-STBC design [ p, n, k ]
System Model
Find Block error rate, Symbol error rate, and Bit error rate
Given
A complex vector k 1
Given
Two vectors of the same
length
Given
A complex vector
Given
Two binary sequences
STOP
18
3. Doppler effect
4. White Gaussian Noise
5. Terminal speed
3.3 Constellations
The complex information symbols [ z1, z 2 , L, z k , z1* , z 2* , L , z k* ] are
transmitted using complex orthogonal time-space block codes. The information
symbols are randomly selected from 4-PSK or/and 8-PSK constellations accordingly
in order to achieve transmission of two bits per channel use (Figure 3.2).
2
3
4
1
6
(a)
(b)
10> PSK8_constellation= [
11>1 1/sqrt(2)+i*1/sqrt(2) i -1/sqrt(2)+i*1/sqrt(2) -1 -1/sqrt(2)-i*1/sqrt(2) -i 1/sqrt(2)12> i*1/sqrt(2)
13>];
15>
16> PSK8_bitmapping= [
17> 000 001 101 100 110 111 011 010
18>];
km
were used to
h
128
s and f d is the Doppler
3.84 10 6
frequency shift and can be calculated using the equations 1-3, 2-3, and 2-5 (see Table
3.1).
Table 3.1: Vehicle speeds with their corresponding constants
Vehicle Speed (
km
)
h
f d Ts
25
0.001543
50
0.003086
75
0.004630
150
0.009300
200
0.012300
250
0.015400
Its obvious, that the value of ai depends on the applications. Recalling the formula
of ai
ai = J 0 (2 i f d Ts )
20
(3-1)
we can realize that the terminal speed is the major factor that determines the value of
ai . Using the above formula it can be shown that for speeds less than 150
( V 150
km
h
km
) , i is greater than 0.9991 ( ai 0.9991 and assuming that i 4 ).
h
Consequently, as the number of transmit antennas increases the length of the block
increases as well. In addition, as the terminal speed increases more channel variation
occurs. The consequences of the above factors result to an irreducible error floor in
the BER curves at the high signal-to-noise ratio region.
Considering the above restrictions and base on realistic scenarios the range of the
above speeds ( 0 250
km
) was chosen among many others in order to determine the
h
performance of different multiple transmit antennas. For instance, high speeds trains
in Europe can easily reach 250 kilometers per hour. On the other hand, indoor
networks can be built where the receiver is stationary ( 0
km
).
h
Channel Realizations: 5 10 6
kbits
sec
km
h
21
chips
sec
22
Chapter 4
Two Transmit Antennas
This chapter presents performance results of two transmit antennas and one receive
antenna over the impact of time-varying channels base on the terminal speeds.
z2
z1*
(4-1)
Alamouti scheme has low complexity and it can achieve full rate R =
2
=1
2
( [ p, n, k ] = [2, 2, 2] ).
The complex modulation symbols z k are arranged based on a transmit matrixz . It
2
hi (t ) hi (t + 1)
where i = 1, 2
23
(4-2)
t=1
t=2
z1
h11
z 2*
h12
2-Tx
1-Rx
z1*
z 2 h22
h21
y1 = h11 z1 + h21 z 2 + w1
(4-3)
t=2
*
*
y 2 = h22 z1* h12 z 2* + w2 y 2* = h22
z1 h12
z 2 + w2*
(4-4)
From equations 4-3 and 4-4 the receive signal in matrix form is:
y1 h11
y * = h *
2 22
h21 z1 w1
+ *
*
h12
z 2 w2
(4-5)
(4-6)
~
~ h
and H is the new mortified coded channel matrix, H = 11
*
h22
w2* ]T ,
h21
* .
h12
~
~
s = HH ~
y =
(h
11
+ h12
+ h21 + h22
2
) s + w~
(4-7)
receive antenna based on seven different vehicle speeds 0, 25, 50, 75, 150, 200, and
250
km
, for transmission of 2 bits per channel use. The transmission using
h
Alamoutis scheme [10] for two transmit antennas employs the 4-PSK constellation.
(a) 0 km/h
(b) 25 km/h
(c) 50 km/h
(d) 75 km/h
Figure 4.2: Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) for 2-Tx antennas base on vehicle speed 0, 25, 50, 75, 150, 200,
and 250 km/h, respectively. (Figure Continue)
25
26
Figure 4.3: BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 2-Tx
antennas
Assuming that the receiver has perfect knowledge of the channel, a very low
complexity decoding algorithm is proposed. At low vehicle speeds or slow fading
scenarios ( V 75
km
), our simulations indicated that the bit error probability has very
h
low variation below the bit error rate of 10 5 . However, above 10 5 the bit error
remains the same for vehicle speeds below 75
27
km
. Consequently, the scheme
h
performance of the proposed decoding algorithm is excellent and shows no error floor
at all at low vehicle speeds and under the presence of channel variation. On the other
hand, when the vehicle speed is equal to or higher than 150
km
the receiver exhibits
h
a progressively severe irreducible error floor in the high SNR region. At low vehicle
speeds, the assumption that the channel remains static over the length of the codeword
is reasonable; whereas, our simulations show that channel variation at higher speeds
destroys the orthogonality of transmission matrix leading to irreducible error floor in
the high SNR region. As shown in the graph, the higher signal-to-noise ratio the lower
the number of errors. Therefore, the desired low error bit probability comes with a
costly price of high SNR. This undesirable price will be minimized by the addition of
more transmit antennas, which will be discussed in the following chapters.
28
Chapter 5
Three Transmit Antennas
This chapter exhibits performance results for three transmit antennas and one receive
antenna over time-selective fading channels, according to user vehicle speeds.
z2
z1*
0
z 3*
z3
0
z1*
z 2*
(5-1)
k 3
=
( [ p, n, k ] = [4, 3, 3] ) and it has a special
p 4
structure where each row has either only complex symbols or only conjugate ( )
complex symbols. This structure gives the flexibility to use the complex number
properties in order to demodulate the receive signals. The complex modulation
symbols [ z1 , z 2 , z 3, z1* , z 2* , z 3* ] are transmitted and arranged according to the
transmission matrix z . During the time intervals, t, t+1, t+2, and t+3 the channel
state varies over the length of the codeword. Let h1i , h2i , h3i be the channel for the
transmit antennas one, two, and three respectively, where i = 1, 2 , 3, 4 , as shows in
Figure 5.1.
29
t=1
3-Tx
t=2
t=3
h11
z1 h12 z 2*
h21
z 2 h22
z1*
h31
z3 h32
t=4
h23
h33
1-Rx
0 h24 z3*
z1* h34
z2*
(5-2)
t=2
*
*
y 2 = h22 z1* h12 z 2* + h32 0 + w2 y 2* = h22
z1 h12
z 2 + 0 + w2*
(5-3)
t =3
*
*
y 3 = h23 0 h13 z 3* + h33 z1* + w3 y3* = h33
z1 h13
z 3 + 0 + w3*
(5-4)
t=4
*
*
y 4 = h14 0 h24 z 3* + h34 z 2* + w4 y 4* = h34
z 2 h24
z 3 + 0 + w4*
(5-5)
From equations 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, and 5-5 the receive signal in matrix form is:
y1
y*
2 =
y 3*
*
y4
h11
*
h22
*
h33
h21
*
h12
0
*
h34
h31
w1
z1 *
0 w2
* z2 +
w3*
h13
z
*
* 3
h24
w4
(5-6)
w2*
the
w3*
signal
vector, s = [ z1
z2
(5-7)
z 3 ]T , w is
the
noise
vector,
~
w4* ]T , and H is the new mortified orthogonal coded channel
matrix.
30
h =
h11
*
h22
*
h33
h21
*
h12
0
*
h34
h31
0
*
h13
*
h24
(5-8)
km
.
h
The transmission matrix which I mentioned earlier was used, while 4-PSK and 8-PSK
constellations were considered in order to achieve transmission of 2 bits per channel
use.
(a) 0 km/h
(b) 25 km/h
Figure 5.2: Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) for 3-Tx antennas base on vehicle speed 0, 25, 50, 75, and 150
km/h, respectively. (Figure Continue)
31
(c) 50 km/h
(d) 75 km/h
32
Figure 5.3: BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 3-Tx
antennas
Assuming that the receiver has perfect knowledge of the channel, a very low
complexity decoding algorithm is proposed. Theoretical and simulation results show
that the proposed decoder performs reasonably well when the channel varies
significantly from one signaling interval to another. At low vehicle speeds
( V 75
km
), our simulations indicated that the bit error probability has very low
h
km
our simulations
h
shows no error floor at all in the high SNR region and SNR values are minimized by
5-dB compare with the BER performance of two-transmit antennas. However, when
the vehicle speed is increased above 75
km
an irreducible error floor appears in the
h
km
this error floor is increased
h
successfully. As shown in Figure 5.3, using three transmit antennas we achieved the
same bit error probability with lower SNR values, compared with the two transmit
antenna scheme (Figure 4.3). Overall, three antennas can perform better in some
applications but on the other hand, hostile error floor effects must be considered at
high vehicle speeds.
In the next chapter, we will consider a scheme where four transmit antennas and one
receive antenna take place.
34
Chapter 6
Four Transmit Antennas
This chapter presents performance results for four transmit antennas and one receive
antenna over time-varying channels based on the terminal speeds. In the section 6.2
simulation results were built with 1.5 bits per channel use, where in the section 6.3
2 bits per channel use was considered.
O-STBC
4
3
2
4-Tx
t=1
t=2
h11
h12
h21
t=3
t=4
t=5
t=6
t=7
t=8
h13
h14
h15
h16
h17
h18
h22
h23
h24
h25
h26
h27
h28
h31
h32
h33
h34
h35
h36
h37
h38
h41
h42
h43
h44
h45
h46
h47
h48
1-Rx
Figure 6.1: Transmission model for 4-Tx antennas, for 2 bits per channel use
At times: (see Figure 6.1)
t =1
(6-1)
t=2
(6-2)
t =3
*
*
*
*
y 3* = h13
z 2 h23
z 4 + h33
z1 + h34
0 + w3*
(6-3)
t=4
*
*
*
y 4* = h14
z 3 h24
z 5 + h34 0 + h44
z1 + w4*
(6-4)
t =5
(6-5)
t=6
*
*
*
y 6* = h16 0 h26
z 6 h36
z 3 + h46
z 2 + w6*
(6-6)
t=7
(6-7)
t =8
*
*
*
y8* = h18
z 6 h28 0 h38
z 5 + h48
z 4 + w8*
(6-8)
y1 h11
y h
2 22
*
y 3* h33
* *
y 4 = h44
y5 0
*
y6 0
y 0
7*
y8 0
h31
0
h41
0
*
h13
*
h14
h32
h42
0
h25
*
h46
0
*
h36
h27
0
0
*
h23
0
w1
0 z1 w2
0 z 2 w3*
0 z 3 w4*
+
h45 z 4 w5
*
*
h26
z 5 w6
h37 z 6 w7
*
*
h18
w8
*
h24
0
0
h15
0
0
h17
*
h38
0
*
h48
(6-9)
w2
w3*
w4*
w5
w6*
(6-10)
z4
z5
z 6 ]T , w is the noise
z2
z3
w7
~
w8* ]T , and H is the new orthogonal
h11
h
22
*
h33
*
h
h = 44
0
0
0
h31
0
h41
0
0
h32
0
h42
*
h13
0
0
*
h14
*
h23
0
0
*
h24
h25
h15
*
h46
0
*
h36
h27
0
0
0
h17
*
h48
*
h38
36
0
0
0
0
h45
*
h26
h37
*
h18
(6-11)
~
structure of H , so the retrieve symbols can be found by :
~
~
s = HH ~
y
(6-12)
4
6
and R2 = , for four transmit antennas over time-selective
8
8
fading channels. It is shown that under time-selectiveness and once the vehicle speed
rises above a certain value, the code with rate of
6
is much more efficient than the
8
4
[12, 22].
8
37
Z2
Z3
Z
= *4
Z1
Z *
2
3
Z *
4
k 4 1
= = [22].
p 8 2
Z2
Z3
Z1
Z4
Z4
Z1
Z3
Z 2*
Z2
Z 3*
Z 1*
Z 4*
Z 4*
Z 1*
Z 3*
Z 2*
Z4
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z 4*
Z 3*
Z 2*
Z 1*
k 6 3
= = [12].
p 8 4
Z1
*
Z2
Z 3*
=
Z4
0
Z5
Z*
6
Z2
Z1
Z4
Z 4*
Z 5*
Z 1*
0
Z2
Z 6*
0
Z 3*
Z3
0
Z6
Z 5*
Z3
Z5
0
Z 1*
Z6
Z 2*
0
Z 4*
38
3
is
4
1
. The transmission model that
2
was used it is described in detail in chapter 2 and is similar with the transmission
model for wireless communication systems with multiple antennas as described in
Ref. [23]. A simple decoding algorithm under the assumption that the receiver knows
the channel state information is also described in chapter 2. The receiver estimates the
transmitted bits by using the signals of the receive antennas (coherent case). Figure
6.5 and Figure 6.6 show bit error rates (BER), for transmission of 1.5 bits per channel
use for four transmit antennas and one receive antenna, with rates
4
6
and
,
8
8
respectively. In order to achieve a transmission with 1.5 bits per channel use, 8-PSK
(Phase Shift Key) constellation for the conventional orthogonal design and 4-PSK
39
constellation for the new orthogonal design were used. Channel matrix H was
generated using the equation 2-2, Jakes model [17]. Each graph in Figure 6.4
presents the performance results for terminal speeds 0, 25, 50, and 75
km
. The bit
h
(a) 0 km/h
(b) 25 km/h
(c) 50 km/h
(d) 75 km/h
Figure 6.4: The BER vs. SNR performance between the two orthogonal
designs for terminal speeds 0, 25, 50, and 75 km/h respectively
40
4
8
6
8
41
6.2.6 Conclusions
The section 6.2 has shown simulation results for the performance of the new
orthogonal space-time block code. It is clearly shown that the new orthogonal design
(Figure 6.6) has better performance compared with the conventional orthogonal
design (Figure 6.5). It reduces efficiently the error floor at the high signal-to-noise
ratio region, especially when the terminal speed is 50
km
(Figure 6.4c).
h
km
,
h
for transmission of 2 bits per channel use. The orthogonal transmission matrix that
was used is the one that was demonstrated in Figure 6.3. Its important to mention,
that in order to achieve a transmission rate of 2 bits per channel use, 4-PSK and 8PSK constellations where used. Therefore, two symbols where selected from 4-PSK
constellation and four symbols from 8-PSK constellation since the orthogonal design
has rate of R =
k 6
= .
p 8
km
h
42
(a) 0 km/h
(b) 25 km/h
(c) 50 km/h
(d) 75 km/h
Figure 6.7: Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) for 4-Tx antennas base on vehicle speeds 0, 25, 50, and 75 km/h,
respectively.
43
Figure 6.8: BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 4-Tx
antennas
km
is excellent and shows no
h
error floor at all, under the presence of channel variation. Consequently, when the
terminals speeds are kept below 25
km
, a very good performance appears where the
h
bit error probability is very low at low signal-to-noise ratio areas. The performance of
this scheme has shown that it can find real applications, which are discussed in detail
in chapter 8.
44
Chapter 7
Five Transmit Antennas
This chapter demonstrates performance results for five transmit antennas and one
receive antenna over time-selective fading channels, according on user vehicle speeds.
z1
*
z2
z3*
*
z4
z
5
0
z = 0
z6
0
z7
*
z8
z9*
*
z10
0
z2
z3
z1
z5*
z5
z1*
z6
0
z 6*
z1*
z 7*
z2
0
0
0
z8
z8*
z9*
z3*
z 4*
z 2*
0
z3
z8
*
z10
z4
0
z9
z 4*
z10
z 6*
z5*
0
0
z7*
0
0
z 7*
*
z10
z9*
45
z4
z7
0
0
z1*
z9
0
z 2*
z10
z3*
0
0
z5*
z 6*
z8* 155
(7-1)
k 10
=
p 15
( [ p, n, k ] = [15, 5, 10] ) and it is used for five transmit antennas. The complex
modulation symbols are transmitted and arranged according to the above transmission
matrix z in such a way that each row has either only complex symbols or only
conjugate ( ) complex symbols. During the fifteen time intervals, channel state varies
over the length of the codeword. Let h1i , h2i , h3i , h4i , h5i be the channel for the
transmit antennas one, two, three, four, and five, respectively, where i = 1, 2,L, 15 .
The corresponding orthogonal channel matrix is shown below:
h11
h
22
*
h33
*
h44
*
h35
0
0
h = 0
0
0
0
0
0
h31
h41
h51
0
*
h13
0
0
0
*
h14
0
0
0
h32
*
h23
0
h42
0
*
h24
h52
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
h26
*
h47
0
0
*
h37
*
h15
0
0
0
h16
0
0
0
0
*
h25
0
0
0
h46
*
h27
0
h56
0
*
h58
0
0
0
h29
*
h510
*
h38
0
*
h410
0
0
0
0
h19
0
0
0
0
0
h39
0
*
h28
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
h211
0
0
0
0
*
h312
0
*
h514
h111
0
*
h313
*
h414
*
h412
*
h513
0
0
h311
0
*
h113
0
*
h515
*
h415
46
*
h112
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 (7-2)
h59
h210
h411
0
0
*
h114
*
h315
Using the same procedure as decrypted in chapters 4, 5, and 6 the receive signal on a
matrix form is constructed below.
~
~
y = H s+ w
y1 h11
y h
2 22
*
y3* h33
* *
y 4 h44
*
y5* h35
y6 0
y* 0
7*
y8 = 0
y 0
9
*
y10
0
y11 0
*
0
y12
*
y13 0
y* 0
14
*
y15 0
(7-3)
h31
h41
h51
0
*
h13
0
0
0
0
h32
*
h23
h42
0
h52
0
0
0
0
0
*
h14
*
h24
0
h26
0
0
*
h15
0
h16
0
0
*
h25
0
h46
0
h56
*
h47
*
h58
*
h37
*
h27
0
h29
*
h38
0
0
0
h19
0
0
0
h39
*
h28
0
*
h510
*
h410
0
0
0
0
h211
0
0
*
h312
h111
0
0
*
h112
h311
0
*
h412
*
h513
*
h313
*
h113
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
*
h514
0
*
h414
0
0
*
h415
*
h515
0
w1
w
0
2
w3*
0
z1 *
0 w4
z2
0 w5*
z
0 3 w6
z
0 4 w7*
z5
0 + w8*
z
h59 6 w9
z7
*
*
w10
h210
z
8
h411 w11
z
*
0 9 w12
z *
0 10 w13
w*
h114
14
*
*
h315
w15
z2
z3
z4
z5
z6
z7
z8
z 10 ]T ,
z9
w = [ w1
w2
w3*
w4*
w5*
w6
w7*
w8*
w9
*
w10
w11
*
w12
*
w13
*
w14
* T
w15
]
~
and H is the new mortified coded channel matrix as shown in equation 7-2.
km
, for
h
(a) 0 km/h
(b) 25 km/h
(c) 50 km/h
(d) 75 km/h
Figure 7.1: Bit, symbol, and block error probability versus signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) for 5-Tx antennas for speeds 0, 25, 50, and 75 km/h, respectively.
48
Figure 7.2: BER comparisons between different values of speeds, for 5-Tx
antennas
Our simulations indicated progressively severe irreducible error floor in all SNR
regions. The failure of this scheme is due to the length of the block. Each codeword
has fifteen dependant channel states which at the end, they totally destroy the
othogonality of the transmission matrix. Due to this phenomenon, error control coding
techniques are applied in order to reduce the bit error probability. On the other hand,
when the receiver is stationary the scheme performance of the proposed decoding
algorithm is excellent, as indicated in Figure 7.2. It achieves low values of probability
49
errors with low amount of signal-to-noise ratio. This scheme can successfully find
many applications where the receiver terminal is stationary, such as indoor wireless
networks.
50
Chapter 8
Conclusions
Through our work, we investigated and demonstrated that significant gains can be
achieved by increasing the number of transmit antennas. We provided a special family
of complex orthogonal space-time codes for transmission using multiple transmit
antennas. The encoding and decoding of these codes have low complexity. Earlier
works have ignored the variation of the channel state over the length of the codeword.
This thesis presented performance results where the channel state varies from symbol
to symbol. For comparison and readability purposes we plot all the corresponding
BER curves for each number of transmit antennas, according to terminal speed, as
shown in the Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1(a), shows bit error probability curves for different amount of transmit
antennas, where the receiver is stationary. It can been seen from the Figure 8.1(a), that
at bit error rates equal to 10 6 , the scheme with five transmit antennas achieves more
than 2-dB gain over the scheme with four transmit antennas. Moreover, the
performance of four transmit antennas achieve 5-dB gain over the three transmit
antennas and lastly the three transmit antennas more than 5-dB gain over the two
transmit antennas. Previous works confirm our results [11, 22, 24]. A possible
application of the scheme is to provide diversity improvement in all stationary receive
units in a wireless system, such as an indoor wireless network.
Figure 8.1(b), shows bit error probability curves for different amount of transmit
antennas, where the receiver have speed of 25
km
. Clearly, the following simulations
h
51
(a) 0 km/h
(b) 25 km/h
(d) 75 km/h
(c) 50 km/h
Figure 8.1: Bit error probability versus SNR for different number
of transmit antennas
52
Its essential to observe that the two, three, and four transmit antennas schemes shows
no error floor at any value of SNR. However, when it comes for the scheme of five
transmit antennas under the speed of 25
km
, an error floor appears at high SNR
h
regions. This happens due the channel variations between the transmitted symbols and
due to the long length of the codeword. In addition, Figure 8.1(c), shows the
performance results of the abovementioned schemes under the speed of 50
km
,
h
where the three transmit antennas can achieve better diversity gain (3-dB) than two
transmit antennas. However, four and five transmit antennas schemes appear to suffer
from error floor. In Figure 8.1(d), shows that all the schemes except from the two
transmit antenna scheme suffer from error floor at the high SNR regions under the
speed of 75
km
. Lastly, the performance results of two and three transmits antennas
h
km
are demonstrated in Figure 8.1(e).
h
Future studies can consider combination of multiple transmit antennas and error
control coding techniques in order to suppress the above error floors.
53
Bibliography
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
54
[13]
[14]
"http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/smart_ant/index.html."
[15]
P. Tipler, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 3 ed: Worth Publishers, 1991.
[16]
[17]
[18]
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/."
[19]
"http://www.mathworks.com/access/helpdesk/help/techdoc/matlab.html."
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
55
Vita
Ioannis D. Erotokritou was born in Nicosia, Cyprus, on August 3rd, 1979. In the
months after completing his high school education from Acropolis Lyceum in July of
1997, he enrolled as a student in the Higher Technical Institute in Cyprus, with focus
in electrical engineering. After completing his first degree in electrical engineering, in
June 2000, he joined the Greek Army and the Cyprus National Guard where he served
as an officer during his 26 month term. After he was discharged from the army in
2002, he enrolled in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at
Louisiana State University where he graduated with a first class in spring 2004 with a
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering. Upon graduation, Ioannis was accepted
as a graduate student in the same department and he is expected to get his Master of
Science in Electrical Engineering with specialization in telecommunications and
networking in spring 2006.
56