TECHNOLOGY

Radiographic Interpretation

Part 3.
Course Reference WIS 20
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TECHNOLOGY

Radiographic
Techniques

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Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
- film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
- film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
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TECHNOLOGY

Single Wall Single Image

SWSI

Film
Film

IQIs should be placed source side

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Single Wall Single Image Panoramic

SWSI panoramic

Film

IQIs are placed on the film side

Source inside film outside (single exposure)
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TECHNOLOGY

Double Wall single Image

DWSI

Film
IQIs are placed on the film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
This technique is intended for pipe diameters over
100mm
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TECHNOLOGY

Double Wall single Image

Identification
Unique identification
IQI placing
Pitch marks
indicating readable
film length

EN W10

B
ID MR11

Radiograph
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Double Wall single Image

Radiograph
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Double Wall Double Image

DWDI

Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of two exposures
This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than
100mm
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TECHNOLOGY

Double Wall Double Image

Identification
Unique identification

3
EN W10

IQI placing
Pitch marks
indicating readable
film length

2
ID MR12

Shot A Radiograph
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TECHNOLOGY

Double Wall Double Image

Elliptical Radiograph
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Double Wall Double Image perpendicular

DWDI

Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of three exposures
Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld
This technique is intended for small pipe diameters
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TECHNOLOGY

Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two
intensifying screens
There are three main there are three main types of
intensifying screens

Lead screens
Fluorescent screens
Fluorometallic screens
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Lead Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
particulate radiation (electrons/beta)
Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm
Front screen shortens exposure time and
improves quality by filtering out scatter
Back screen acts as a filter only
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TECHNOLOGY

Salt Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
Light radiation (Visible or UV-A)
Intensification action twice that of lead
screens
No filtration action achieved
Salt used calcium tungstate
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Fluoromatallic Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting light
radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate
radiation

electrons)

High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
Salt used calcium tungstate
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TECHNOLOGY

Comparison Chart, Intensifying Screens

Intensification
How
factor
intensification
is achieved

Screen type

Order of
image
quality

Lead

2-3

Fluorescent

8-15

Fluorometallic

5-10

Light radiation

None

N/A

None

Order of
speed

Electrons -ve
Beta radiation
Light radiation

An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure from six

minutes to two minutes
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TECHNOLOGY

Radiographic Film

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TECHNOLOGY

Radiographic Film

Base

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TECHNOLOGY

Radiographic Film

Subbing
Base
Subbing

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Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Emulsion AgBr
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Emulsion AgBr
Supercoat
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TECHNOLOGY

What are the advantages of Double Coated Film?

Improve contrast
Reduce the exposure time

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TECHNOLOGY

Radiographic Film
Film Types
Grain size

Speed

Quality

Film Factor

Coarse

Fast

Poor

10

Medium

Medium

Medium

35

Fine

Slow

Good

90

Ultra Fine

V Slow

V Good

200

Note: Some film manufactures my use different film factor systems

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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TECHNOLOGY

Image Formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially
absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any
differing densities
The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient
amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the
latent image (hidden image)
1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into
metallic silver to produce the latent image
2. The affected crystals are then amplified by the
developer, the developer completely converts the
affected crystals into metallic silver
3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation
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Film Processing
Film processing is carried out using the following

Developer tank - alkali

Stop bath or rinse tank - slightly acidic
Fixer tank - acidic
Final wash tank - running water
Wetting agent - detergent
Drying - drying cabinet or drying room
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TECHNOLOGY

Processing Systems
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver
3-5 min at 20OC

Main Constituents
Developing agent metol-hydroquinone
Accelerator
keeps solution alkaline
Restrainer
ensures only exposed silver halides converted
Preservative
prevents oxidation by air
Replenishment

Purpose to ensure that the activity of the developer and the

developing time required remains constant
Guideline 1. After 1m2 of film has been developed,
about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Processing
Development
Supplied as a liquid concentrated alkali mixed to
1 part developer to 4 parts water
Developer temperatures for manual processing
20oC
Development times are 4 to 5 minutes
During the development process agitation should
take place to avoid bromide streaking
Replenishment may be added to maintain
development times and the activity of the
developer
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TECHNOLOGY

Film Processing
Fixer
Supplied as a liquid concentrated acid mixed to 1
part fixer to 3 parts water
Fixing temperatures for manual processing 20 oC
Fixing times are twice the clearing time, clearing
time about 3 minutes, fixing time about 6 minutes
During the fixing process agitation should take
place to avoid light spots on the radiograph
When fixing times exceed 10 minutes the fixer
should be replaced, replenishment is not normally
added
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TECHNOLOGY

Film Processing
Washing / Drying

After washing in running water the films may be placed in a

wetting agent to reduce surface tension this results in even
drying, preventing black streaky marks on the radiograph
Before drying excess water should be removed with the use
of a squeegee
Drying should take place in a dust free environment
Typical drying times in a drying cabinet 15 minutes
Typical drying times in a drying room 45 minutes
Care should be taken not to allow drops of water to appear
on the drying films, this may cause black marks to appear
on the radiograph
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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Sensitometric curve
H & D Curve (Hurter & Driffield)
3.5

Density
(Log)

The point of solarisation

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.0

Maximum
inherent film
density 0.3

0.5

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Log Relative Exposure

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Information which can be obtained from a
films characteristic curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis
gives information about the films speed

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Density
A

Film A is faster than

Film B
Film B faster then C

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Log Relative Exposure

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives
information about the films speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films
contrast

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Density
(Log)

Density obtained in
a photographic
emulsion does not
vary linearly with
applied exposure
Steeper gradient
Highest contrast

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Log Relative Exposure

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Information which can be obtained from a films characteristic
curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives
information about the films speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films
contrast
The position of the straight line portion of the curve against
the density axis will show the density range within which the
film is at its optimal

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Shoulder

Density
(Log)

Straight line
section
Toe
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Log Relative Exposure

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TECHNOLOGY

Film Characteristic Curve

Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives
information about the films speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films
contrast
The position of the straight line portion of the curve against
the density axis will show the density range range within
which the film is at its optimal
A new exposure can be determined for a change of film
type
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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TECHNOLOGY

Changing Density
Density achieved 1.5
Density required

Density

2.5

2.5

Determine interval between logs

1.8 - 1.3 = 0.5
Antilog of 0.5 = 3.18

Therefore multiply exposure by 3.18

(measured density is lower than the required density)

Original exposure 10 mA mins

NewCopyright
exposure
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31.8mA mins

1.5

1.3 1.8

Log Relative
Exposure
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Changing Film
Obtain Logs for Films A Density
and B at required
2.5
density
Interval between logs = 0.15

Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42

Multiply exposure by 1.42
1.7 1.85

Original exposure 10 mA mins

New exposure
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14.2 mA mins

Log Relative
Exposure
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Determination of Exposure
Wavelength - Gamma fixed, X-ray variable
Intensity - Gamma curies fixed, X-ray mA
variable
Film density to be achieved
Film speed
Source to film distance
Material type
Material thickness
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TECHNOLOGY

Determination of Exposure
Gamma exposures are calculated by the use
of a gamma calculators/slide rule
Gamma calculators take into consideration
Film density to be achieved
Source type
Activity of the source
Film speed
Source to film distance
Material type
Material thickness
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TECHNOLOGY

Determination of Exposure
X-ray exposures are less straight forward
because the wavelength and intensity are
variable
X-ray exposures are determined by the following
By using exposure charts
By reference to previous exposure records
By trial and error test shots
By a combination of the above

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250

280

300

6.5
5.5

Milli Amps

TECHNOLOGY

Exposure Chart

4.5
3.5

Chart based on

2.5

Screen = pb

1.5

Density = 2.0

Philips 300kV
Dev = to spec

1.0
0.5
5
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10

15

20

25

30

35

Material thickness

40

45 50
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TECHNOLOGY

Density Equivalent Factor

st

1 Density
Achieved

Density Required
1.50

2.00

2.50

3.0

0.50

5.00

7.50

10.00

12.00

0.75

2.60

3.90

4.90

6.00

1.00

1.75

2.50

3.33

4.00

1.50

1.00

1.40

1.90

2.40

2.00

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.60

2.50

0.55

0.80

1.00

1.20

2.75

0.50

0.70

0.95

1.10

3.00

0.45

0.60

0.80

1.00

3.50

0.38

0.55

0.70

0.86

3.75

0.36

0.53

0.65

0.80

4.00

0.35

0.50

0.60

0.75

Multiply 1st

exposure by the above factors to achieve the density required.

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250

280

300

6.5
5.5

Milli Amps

TECHNOLOGY

Exposure Chart

4.5
Chart based on

3.5

Philips 300kV
Screen = pb

2.5

Dev = to spec
Density = 2.0

1.5

Material C/S

1.0
0.5
5
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10

15

20

25

30

35

Material thickness

40

45 50
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Exposure Equivalent Chart

Radiographic Equivalence Chart
50kv 100kV 150kV 220kV 400kV
Mg

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.08

Al

0.12

0.08

0.45

0.35

Ti
Cu

18

1.6

1.4

1.4

Steel

12

1.4

1.3

1.3

Zi
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

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Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250

280

300

6.5
5.5

Milli Amps

TECHNOLOGY

Exposure Chart

4.5

Chart based on

3.5

Philips 300kV

2.5

Dev = to spec

1.5

Material C/S

Screen = pb
Density = 2.0
Film Type

1.0
0.5
5
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

10

15

20

25

30

35

Material thickness

40

45 50
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Relative Film Exposures

Film Speed Chart
D7

Agfa
CX

Kodak

Fuji

150

D4

AX

MX

100

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5
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D5

80
6

8 10 12 14
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Relative Film Exposures

Change of Film From CX to MX
Original Exposure

4 mins

Film factor for CX

2.5

Film factor for MX

10

New Exposure = New film type X original exposure

original film
New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins
2.5
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Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250

280

300

6.5
5.5

Milli Amps

TECHNOLOGY

Exposure Chart

4.5
Chart based on
Philips 300kV

3.5

Screen = pb

2.5

Dev = to spec
Density = 2.0

1.5

Material C/S
Film Type

1.0

FFD = 900

0.5
5
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

10

15

20

25

30

35

Material thickness

40

45 50
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TECHNOLOGY

Exposure Calculation
Exposure = intensity x time
example 3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA minutes
1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA minutes
Exposure formula
old exposure = old distance2
new exposure new distance2
E1 = D12
E2 D22
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Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change

T1 D 1 2
=
T2 D 2 2
T1 = New exposure time
T2 = Original exposure time
D1 = New FFD
D2 = Original FFD
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Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change
Example:
Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600 mm
Original exposure at 500mm was 10 min

T1 =

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(600) 2
(500)

10 = 14.4 mins

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TECHNOLOGY

Any Questions

Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd

M.S.Rogers