Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Control Systems
Control Systems
APracticalApproach
byFrankOwen,PhD,P.E.
MechanicalEngineeringDepartment
CaliforniaPolytechnicStateUniversity
SanLuisObispo,California
May2012
byFrankOwen,May2012
TableofContents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter1Introductiontocontrolsystems
Chapter2Laplacetransformations
Chapter3Systemmodeling
Chapter4Firstandsecondordersystemresponse
Chapter5Stability
Chapter6Steadystateerror
Chapter7Rootlocus
Chapter8Frequencyresponse
Chapter9DesigningandtuningPIDcontrollers
Chapter10Anintroductiontodigitalcontrol
Preface
Preface
Whythisbook?
ThisbookhasbeenwrittenforcontrolsstudentsatCalPolyquitesimplytosavethemmoney.Thereare
many,manygoodcontrolsbooksavailable,buttheyhave,inmyopinion,threeflaws.
1) Theyareveryexpensive.
2) Theyareratherreferencebooksthanabasic,firstbookwhatoneneedswhenfirstapproaching
thesubject.ThuswehavefoundatCalPolythatwebuyabookforalotofmoneyandthenuseonly
asmallpartofit.Itisnotthatthepartsthatwedontusedonthaveanyvalue.Theydo.Butone
doesntneedtobuyacompletereferencebooktounderstandthebasicsandtheessentialsofa
topic.
3) Theyarehighlymathematical.Controlsisaverymathematicaltopic,perhapsthemostheavily
ladenmathematicallyinmechanicalengineering.Therearemanygoodengineersinindustrythat
arenotparticularlyadeptatmathematics,whopracticeengineeringwithasmuchintuitionand
commonsenseasmathematicaladeptness.Amathematicalapproachtocontrolslosessightofthis,
leavesmanypeoplebehind,anddoesnottakeadvantageofthefactthatthistopicalsomakesalot
ofsense,alotofcommonsense.Thustheapproachtakenhereistoincludewhatmathisnecessary
buttoappealtocommonsenseandintuitionwheneverpossible.Withtodaysmodelingtools
readhereMatlab/Simulinkagreatdealofthemathcanbeskippedandreplacedwithmodel
building,toposeandanswerquestionsthatstartwithWhatwouldhappenifwe?
InadditionithasalwaysbeenmyconjecturethatwhatwehavedevelopedatCalPolyinourcontrolslab
wouldalsobeveryusefultocontrolsengineersinindustry.Ourlab,whilenotunique,isveryrare.It
bringscontrolsdowntoearthandteachescontrolsengineershowtodealwithrealsystems,howto
modelthemandthentunethemodels,andhowtosetupandtunePIDcontrollersforrealsystems.
Thesearetheessentialskillsthatacontrolsengineermusthavetooperateinindustry.Inmy
experienceinacademia,theseessentialskillsarenotoftentaught.Controlsstudentshavetheirheads
filledwithmathematics,indeedthemathematicsofcomplexnumbers,butthentheyarenotgiveneven
astartingnotionofhowsuchknowledgeisapplicableintherealworld.Thisbookfocuseseveronthe
realworldofcontrolsinindustry.Ittriesnevertolosesightofthatgoalandtriestoavoidthealluring
trapofmathematicaleleganceandindeedmathematicalsnobbishnessthatseemscommoninthefield
ofacademiccontrols.Sothebookhasalsobeenwrittenforindustrialpractitionersofcontroltheory
whoneedtounderstandthetopicandthenbringintoplaytotheiradvantage.
TheotherinfluencethatledmetowritethisbookwasthethreeyearsIspentteachingcontrolsin
Germany,twoyearsattheMunichUniversityofAppliedSciencesandoneyearattheKarlsruhe
UniversityofAppliedSciences.InGermanytextbooksarerare.Ratherstudentsworkfromascript,a
collectionoftheprofessorsnotesorganizedandprintedforstudentuse.Thisbookisreallyascript,a
collectionofmynotesfromteachingcontrolsoverthepastdecade.Thoughwritingabookisalotof
Preface1
Preface
work,itscommonpracticetohaveshort,directedscriptsatlowcostsforpoorstudents.SoIthought,
whydontwedothesameatCalPoly?Wehavelotsandlotsofexperienceteachingcontrols,sowe
shouldbeabletocomeupwithagoodscript.Besides,withourinvolvementinourlaboratory,wehave
alreadydemonstratedthatwecancomeupwithahighqualitydocumentforteachingthelabportionof
thecourse.
Thusitismyhopethatstudentswillbenefitfromthispracticalapproachtocontrolsjustastheyare
assuredlybenefitingfromsavingalmost$200(in2010).AndIhopethatthisscriptservesasanexample
ofwhatcouldbedoneinothercoursesatCalPolyifprofessorswouldtaketheirhardwonexperience,
collectit,andmakeitavailableatlowcosttothoseeagertolearnbutwithoutalotofmoneytobuy
expensivereferencebooks.Thisdoesnotmeanthatoneshouldntbuytheexpensivereferencebooks.
Maybeoneneedstheminhisorherwork.Butatthatstage,onehasthemeanstobuythemorones
companywillbuythemwhenthereisaneed.
TheuseofMatlab/Simulink
ItishardnowadaystoenvisionpracticingcontrolsengineeringwithoutMatlab/Simulink.The
employmentofthissoftwareinanalyzingsystemsanddesigningcontrollersindeednowinrunning
realcontrollersinphysicalsystemsisderigueur.Thistextdoesnotincludeatutorialinlearning
Matlab/Simulink.Thatsavailableonlineorwiththesoftware.Itisassumedthatthereaderhassome
knowledgeofthissoftware.Problemsareposedinthetextthatdirectlydirectthestudenttousethis
software.Occasionallytipsaregiveninspecificapplicationsthatillustratetheutilityofaparticular
MatlabcommandorSimulinkprocedure.Iftheusersknowledgeofthissoftwareisnotatalevelwhere
thesereferencestoitmakesense,heorsheshouldexplorethesoftwareabit,researchingitshelp
facilityforbackgroundknowledge.ControlsrequiresknowingaboutonlyatinybitofMatlaband
Simulink.Sothereaderisnotrequiredtodoanyextensivefoundationbuildinginordertobeeffective
withMatlab/Simulinkinhisorherstudyofthesubject.
Acknowledgements
Wow,howdidahillbillyguyfromalawyerfamilyinMississippievergettothepointthathecouldsit
downandwriteacontrolsbookalmostdirectlyoutofhishead?Well,ifItoldthatwholestory,thatd
beabookinitself.Lotsofhardwonexperiencebutalsolotsofhelpalongtheway.Itsalwaysbeenmy
contentionthatwhenbestowingthanks,wenevergofarbackenough.SoIwanttoatleastgobackand
thankmyhighschoolmathematicsandphysicsteacher,MacEgger.Hedidntplanttheoriginalseed,
buthewasthereclosetothebeginning.Thentherewerelotsoftwistsandturnstogettothispoint.
Alongtheway:GlenMasadaattheUniversityofTexasatAustintaughtmeclassicalcontrolswhenI
wentandgotamidcareerPhD.JustbeforethatIworkedatoneofthelargestcoalfiredplantsinthe
UnitedStates,AmericanElectricPowersGavinplantinGallipolis,Ohio.Aplantengineertheretaught
mealot,RandyScheidler.Hetaughtmealotaboutpowerplantsbutalsoaboutthelevelofknowledge
ofgoodplantengineersintheUnitedStates.Randyservedasasortofmodeltouseinkeepingwhat
Ivewrittenpractical,oftryingnevertowriteanythingwithoutshowinghowitisused.AndImustback
upfurtherandthankthefolksatTraxCorporationinLynchburg,Virginiafortheirinvitationtocome
Preface2
Preface
workforsevenmonthswiththemin1992onpowerplantsimulators.Ilearnedlotsaboutsteampower
plantsandhowtheyrecontrolledfromthisexperienceatTrax.
SincemyarrivalatCalPolyin1998Ihavebeeninvolvedincontrolsasoftenaspossible.Thecourse
therewashandedofftomebyMikeIanci,EdGarner,andEdBaker.Theyhadbuiltaverypractical,
handsonlab.Thoughwevereplacedmuchoftheequipmentinit,someisstillleftfromthosedays,
andmuchofwhatwasaddedcanbeviewedasrefinementsandimprovementsofwhatthey
bequeathedtous.HereIhavethepleasureofworkingwithverypractical,handonpeoplelikemyself
JohnRidgely,CharlesBirdsong,BillMurray,andXiWu.Allhavecontributedonewayoranothertoour
workinmakingthislaboratorymorepracticalandhandson.Somehavehadeventodealwiththe
consequencesofwhatIregardedasagoodideaatthetime,thatrequiredalotofworkontheirpartsto
implement,toworkthebugsout.Throughtheireffortswehaveatopnotchcontrolslab.Ihaveseena
betteronenowhere,neitherinAmericanorinEurope.Itwastheirsweatthatmadethislabthegreat
teachingtoolthatithasbecome.
MytwosojournsinGermanywereimportantcontributorstothisbook.Ihadthepleasureofworking
withseveralaccomplishedcontrolsengineersthere.Twostandout.ManfredSchusterattheMunich
UniversityofAppliedScienceswelcomedmeintohislabandgavemeaveryconcisescripttoteachout
of.Hisscriptis,infact,amodelformine.AttheKarlsruheUniversityofAppliedSciencesIhadthe
pleasureofworkingwithHelmutScherf,acommittedcontrolsnerd.Helmutisarare,rareexampleofa
practicalcontrolsengineer.HehaspublishedagreatbookinGermanofSimulinkmodelsofvery
common,practicalsystems.Hehasbuiltandisstillbuildingpractical,lowcostsystemsforhiscontrols
labthatserveasusefulplatformsforturningonthecontrolslightinstudentsheads.Manyofhis
perceptive,cuttothequickmethodsofthinkingaboutcontrolstopicshavebeenincorporatedintothis
script.
Sothatsthestoryinbriefofhowthisbookcameabout.Ihopethatyouenjoyitandfindituseful.
FrankOwen
SanLuisObispo,California,U.S.A.
May2012
Preface3
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems
Goals
Thepurposeofthischapteristogiveyouanoverviewofthetopicofcontrolsystemsandtointroduce
youtothebasicconceptsthatyouneedtogoforward.Presentedare
Basiccontrolloopanatomy,thepartsandpiecesofcontrolloopsandhowtheyareconfigured
Positionersvs.regulators,thetwobasictypesofcontrolloops
Aflybywiresystemvs.acruisecontrolsystem,iconicexamplesofthepositionerandthe
regulator
Abeginningdiscussionofblockdiagrams
PIDcontrollers,themostcommonlyusedcontrollersinindustry
Examplesofcontrolsystemsusedinindustry
Controltheoryisarelativelynewfieldinengineeringwhencomparedwithcoretopics,suchasstatics,
dynamics,thermodynamics,etc.Earlyexamplesofcontrolsystemsweredevelopedactuallybeforethe
sciencewasfullyunderstood.ForexampletheflyballgovernordevelopedbyJamesWatttocontrol
overspeedofhissteamenginewasdevelopedoutofnecessity,longbeforethescienceofcontrolscame
intobeing.Figure1.1showsanexampleofthiscontroller.Theflyballsaremountedonashaftthat
turnsandisdrivenbytheenginethroughthepulleyshown.Astheenginespeedsup,theflyballsare
flungoutwardbytheircentrifugalforce.Thisoutwardmovementpullstheleverarmdown,whichraises
itsotherend.Thisistiedtothesteaminletvalve,whichclosesastheflyballweightsmovefurther
outward.Soiftheenginetriestorunaway,theinletsteamvalvewillclose,shuttingoffthefluiddriving
theengine.
Figure1.1Flyballgovernor
ManysaythatthedevelopmentoftheairplanebytheWrightbrotherswasenabledbytheir
understandingofcontrolsthatandthedevelopmentofalightweightenginepowerfulenoughto
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propeltheirmachineintotheair.Theirdevelopmentofwingwarpingenabledthemtosteertheir
airplane,somethingthathadbeenimpossibleuptothatpoint.Anditiscertainlytruethatmuchof
controltheorygrewupwiththeairplane,asairplanesweredevelopedduringthetwoworldwarsand
alsothroughoutthe20thcenturyforcivilianpurposes.Asjetenginesweredevelopedandairplanes
becamebigger,itbecameevermoreproblematictopilotanaircraftwithjustmechanicalconnections
betweenthepilotscontrolsinthecockpitandthesurfaceselsewhereontheairplanethatsteerit
throughtheair.Thustheflybywiresystemwasdeveloped,whichcutthisdirectconnectionbetween
thecockpitcontrolsandthecontrolsurfacesontheairplane.Inaflybywiresystem,themovementsof
thestickoryokeandtherudderpedalsinthecockpitaremerelysensedbysensors.Electricalsignals
arethensenttoactuatorsdrivingtheappropriatesurfaces,andthenthesemovetheailerons,the
elevator,ortheruddertosteertheplaneaccordingtothecontrolinputsmadebythepilot.Ofcourse
theforceappliedbytheactuatoronthecontrolsurfacecanbemanytimeswhatahumancouldapply
directly.Andtheforcecanbeappliedatanactuatorfardistantfromthepilot.Soflybywirebrings
withittheadvantageofforceamplificationandremotecontrol.
Inindustryonefindscontrolsystemsofmanytypes.Inarefinery,chemicalplant,foodprocessingplant,
orapowergenerationfacilityonefindscontrolloopsforcontrollingtanklevels,pressuresoffluidsat
variousplacesinaplant,poweroutput,valveposition,pump,fan,orturbinespeed.Moderndayfighter
jetsactuallyaredesignedtobeunstable.Thisallowsthemtomaneuverquickly.Theycanonlyfly
becauseacontrolsystemstabilizestheirflight,makingcorrectionsataspeedthatnopilotcouldmatch.
Ifoneoftheseplanescontrolsystemfailedinflight,theplanewouldbeunflyableandwouldcrash.
Therehasbeenatremendousgrowthofcontrolsystemuseinthemodernautomobile.Thereareeven
nowdrivebywireandbrakebywiresystems,where,likeintheairplane,thedirectmechanicalor
hydraulicconnectionbetweeninputdevicesandwhattheycontrolhasbeencutandreplacedbywish
sensingdevicesandthentransmissionofanelectricalsignaltoanactuatortoturnthewheelsorto
applythebrakes.Likethecontroloftheunstableairplane,skiddetectionandcontroltakeadvantageof
anautomaticcontrolsystemsspeed.Adriverwholosescontrolofhis/hercarmaybesavedbysucha
system.Itspringsautomaticallyintoactionupondetectingaskidsituationandappliesthecorrect
brakingforcestorescuethecarfromtheskidanditdoesthisbeforethedriverisevenawarethata
problemexists.
Besidestheseapplications,controltheoryisusefulevenforanalyzingmanuallycontrolledsystems.A
humanoperatorisinthiscaseactuallyplayingtheroleofthecontroller.Ahumanssensingofand
reactingtoinputswhilemanuallycontrollinganindustrialsystemoravehicleisactuallyastudyin
controls.Hisorherreactiontimes,theforcefeedbackortheangulartravelofasteeringwheeloran
operatinglever,suchhumanmachineissuesarewithintherealmofcontroltheory.Mathematical
modelsofthehumancontrollerhaveevenbeendeveloped,sothatadynamicmodelofamanually
operatedsystemcanbecompletedandstudied.
Muchofwhathasbeendiscussedherecanbeillustratedwiththeexampleofapilotinanairplane.
Takethecaseofanairplanewithoutaflybywiresystem,withdirectconnectionsviacablesandpulleys
betweenthecockpitcontrolsandthecontrolsurfaces,asonefindsinasmall,generalaviationairplane.
Acontrolsexpertmightstudytheeffectofahumancontrollerduringsomeflightmaneuverorcritical
12
situation.Thissystemispurelymechanicalwithahumancontrollerintheloop.Butsomesmallplanes
alsohaveautopilots,soacontrolsengineerhadtodesignasystemthatwouldsenseflightconditions
andoperatethecontrolswithoutinterventionbythepilot.Evenmorecomplicatedisthecaseofa
largerairplanewithaflybywiresystem.Controlsengineersdesignedthesensingandreactionlink
betweenthecockpitcontrolsandthecorrespondingmotionofthecontrolsurfaces.Evenwhenthe
planeisbeingflowninmanualmode,asophisticatedcontrolsystemisengagedsimplytosensethe
pilotsmovementoftheinputcontrolleversandpedalsandtransmitthecommandedmotionto
actuatorsthatwillbringitabout.Nowconsiderthecaseofaflybywiresystemwithanactiveautopilot.
Thecontrolsystemsensesflightconditionsaltitude,heading,andspeedandautomaticallyoperates
theproperactuatorselevator,aileronsandrudder,andthrottletomaintaindesiredvalues.Thus
thesefourvariantsofdoingthesametaskflyinganairplaneshowincreasinglycomplexexamplesof
moderncontrolsystems.
Basiccontrolsystemanatomy
ClassicalcontrolsystemsareSISOsystems,singleinputsingleoutput,asopposedtoMIMOsystems,
multipleinputmultipleoutput,whicharemorecomplicated.Foracontrolsystemtheinputisthe
desiredvalue,andtheoutputistheactualvalue(SeeFigure1.2).
Figure1.2SISOcontrolsystem
Agoodexampleisacruisecontrolsystemforanautomobile.Theuserinputsadesiredvalue,say65
mph.Usuallyonedoesnottypethisin.Onedrivesthecaruptothisspeedmanually,thenpushesa
button.Thespeedometersensesthespeed,storesthisinanonboardcomputer,andthenitisthejob
ofthecruisecontroltokeeptheautomobileatthisspeed.
Thus,wheneverythingisworkingasitshould,theactualvalueisequaltothedesiredvalue.InGerman
thesevariablesareknownastheSollwert,theshouldvalue,andtheIstwert,theisvalue.Incontrolsit
isalwaysgoodtobringthingsdowntoearth,becausecontrolscangetsotheoretical,onequicklyloses
sightofwhatisgoingonorwhyoneisdoingwhatoneisdoing.Iliketorefertothesetwovaluesas
whatyouwantversuswhatyouvegot.Whenwhatyouvegotisntwhatyouwant,then
somethingswrong.WhenSollwertIstwert0,thenthecontrolloopisnotdoingitsjob,and
somethingisbrokenorsomethingneedstobechangedtomakethisdifference0.
Actuallythisdifferencehasaname,theerror.Thatsnoterrorinthesenseofamistake.Ratherits
errorinthesenseofdeviation.Inaperfectlyfunctioningcontrolsystem,theerrorshouldbe0,and
whatyouvegotshouldbewhatyouwant.
Letslookinsidethecontrolloop,attheanatomyofacontrolloop.Almostallcontrolloopsarethe
same.Theyareallmadeupoffivecomponentsarrangedalwaysthesame.Sometimesitisnoteasyto
13
recognizetheseelementsinanactualsystem.Butitsalwaysagoodideatotry.Thisstructureis
fundamentaltocontroltheoryandrepresentstheunderlyingfunctionsthatareneededtomake
feedbackcontrolwork.Asyouprobablyhavealreadyconcluded,thebasicstructureofafeedback
controlsystemisaloop(seeFigure1.3).
Figure1.3Basiccontrolloopanatomy
Thefiveelementsare:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
thecomparator
thecontroller
theactuator
theplant
thesensor
Letsdiscussthesecomponentsonebyone.Illpresentthemintheorderthatseasiesttouseto
identifytheminarealsystem.Usuallytheeasiestelementtoidentifyisthesensor.Foracruisecontrol
system,thesensoristhespeedometer.Thesensoralwaysmeasurestheactualvalueandthenfeedsit
backtothecomparatortocomparewiththedesiredvalue.Thecomparatorisjustthesummingblock
thattakesasinputthedesiredvalueandthemeasuredvalue.Thatsthenatureoffeedbackcontrol,
andthatswhyitscalledfeedbackcontrol:theactualvalueisfedbacktothedesiredvalueand
compared.Anothercommonexampleisthethermostatinyourhouse.Athermometerinyourhouse
measurestheinteriortemperatureandthencomparesthatwiththedesiredtemperatureyouhave
somehowenteredonthefaceplateofthethermostat.
Theerrorsignalistheoutputofthecomparator.Itisalsotheinputtothecontroller.Asyoucansee,all
oftheseblocksintheblockdiagramofFigure2areSISOblocks,andeachoutputbecomestheinputof
anotherblock.Thecontrollertakestheinputfromthecomparator,theerror,anddecideshowthe
systemshouldrespond.Iftheerroris0,thenwhatyouvegot=whatyouwant,andthesystemshould
donothing.Iftheerrorisnot0,thenthecontrollershouldtakesomeaction.
14
Nowadays,withdigitalcontrols,thecontrollerisusuallyjustapieceofsoftwarerunninginacomputer
somewhere.Foracruisecontrol,thereisacomputeralgorithmrunninginanonboardcomputerthat
performsthistask.Soifsomeoneaskedyoutopointtothecontrollerinthecruisecontrolloop,youd
haveahardtimedoingthatwithouttalkingwiththeengineersthatdesignedit.Oryoucouldjustpoint
atablackboxinthecarandsay,Thereitis,andmostpeoplewouldhaveahardtimedisputingthis.
Iftheerrorisnot0,thenthecontrollerneedstotakeaction.Eventuallyitwantstoinfluencetheplant.
Thisisafunnytermforthethingthatweactuallywanttocontrol.Butcontroltheorygrewupin
industrialplants,sothatiswhythisblockhasthisname.Theplantcanbehardtoidentify.One
identifiesitoftenbyasking,Whatarewetryingtocontrol?andthentheplantisthethingthatthat
valueisapropertyof.Forexampleinacruisecontrolloop,thespeediswhatwearetryingtocontrol.
Andthespeedisapropertyofthecar.Sothecaristheplantinacruisecontrolloop.
Oftentheactuatoristhehardestcomponenttoidentify,sooftenweleaveitforlast.Oftenitishardto
drawalinebetweentheactuatorandtheplant.Oftenitshardtoanswerthequestion,Wheredoes
theactuatorendandtheplantbegin?Youllseethisdilemmawithexperience.Sogoodquestionsto
askareWhatdoesthecontrollertalkto?orWheredoesthecontrollersenditssignal?orBywhat
meansdoesthecontrollerinfluencetheplant?.Inacruisecontrolsystemtheplantisthecar.The
actuatoristhethrottle.Ormaybeitstheengine.Itsthethingthatcausesthecarsspeedtoincrease
whenthecontrollernotesthatthecarisgoingtooslowandneedstospeedup.Whatyouhaveisless
thanwhatyouwant,sodosomething.
Thusthesefivelogicalcomponentsarealwayspresentinaclassicalcontrolloop.Thoughitmaybe
hard,itisalwaysofvaluetotrytoidentifythephysicalcomponentsthatcorrespondtothelogical
components.
NotealsoinFigure2thatthesignalsbetweentheblocksalsohavenames:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
rdesiredvalue(rstandsforreferencevalue;thisisalsoknownasthecontrollersetpoint)
eerror
ucommand
fforce
cactualvalue(cstandsforcontrolledvalue)
bmeasuredvalue
Thesevariablenamesarenotstandardbyanymeans,butoneseesthemoften.Youshouldbeaware
thatoftenvariationsofthemareused.Butweneednamesforthemsothatwecanrefertothemwhen
talkingaboutwhatsgoingonintheloop.
Twotypesofcontrolloops:positionerandregulator
Controlloopscomeintwoflavorspositioners(alsoknownatrackers)andregulators.Botharemade
upofthesamecomponentspresentedabove.Whatdifferentiatesthemisactuallyhowtheyareused,
whattheirpurposeis.ThecontrolloopshowninFigure1.3isapositioner.Thisloopcanbemodifiedto
15
configurearegulator,asshowninFigure1.4.Notethatthedifferenceistheadditionofthedisturbance
betweentheactuatorandtheplant.Thishintsatthedifferencebetweenthetwoloops.Apositioner
hasadesiredvaluethatchangesoften.Auserisoperatingaplantthroughthecontrolsystem.Itisthe
jobofthecontrolsystemtosensetheoperatorswishesanddrivetheplanttothepointthattheuser
desires.Incontrast,inaregulatorsystem,theuserwantsnormallythattheactualvaluestayatsome
preselectedlevel,eventhoughexternalinfluencesareworkingtodrivethesystemoffofthepreselected
level.Agoodexampleisthecruisecontrolsystemofacar.Yousetthedesiredspeedtoafixedvalue.
Butupwardanddownwardgradestendtomakethespeeddeviatefromitsdesiredvalue.Itisthejobof
thecontrolsystemtokeepthesystematapreselectedspeedinthefaceofdisturbancesthattendto
deflecttheactualspeedfromthiswishedforspeed.
Figure1.4Regulatorloop
Itiscommontoarrangecontrolloopssothattheinputisonthelefthandsideandtheoutputisonthe
righthandside.Witharegulatorloop,whenthedesiredoperatinglevelischosen,theloopselectsthis
levelasthereferencelevelandconsidersittobe0.Theloopworksindeviationsfromthisoperating
level.Weshallseelaterhowthisisdone.Atpresentitsufficestonotethatthedesiredvalueisthe0
referencevalue,sotherinputcanbeeliminated.TheloopcanbereconfiguredasshowninFigure1.5.
Heretheinputisthedisturbance,andtheoutputisstillthesamevariableofinterest,c.Thereworking
ofloopsasshowninthisexampleiscommonlydoneincontrolsandisknownasblockdiagramalgebra.
Weshallseemanymoreexamplesofthisinthematerialtocome.
16
Figure1.5Reworkedregulatorloop
PIDcontrollers,theworkhorseoftheindustry
PID(ProportionalIntegralDerivative)controllersarebyfarthemostcommoncontrollersusedin
industry.Thenamereferstothreedifferentactionsthatthecontrollermakesinrespondingtoanon
zeroinput,theerror,aswehaveseenabove.Thuswespeakofproportionalaction,integralaction,and
derivativeaction.Thethreeactionsoccursimultaneously.Theconfigurationofthecontrollerisa
parallelconfiguration,asisdemonstratedinFigure1.6.
Figure1.6PIDcontrollerconfiguration
Noteinthefigurethattheinputsignal,theerror,isfirsttreatedonewayoranotherandthenmultiplied
byaconstant.Thetoppathistheproportionalpath.Heretheoutputisproportionaltotheerror,
hencethename.Thereisnoactiontakenontheinputsignal.ItisjustmultipliedbyKPandthenpassed
ondownstreamtotheoutput.Theintegralactionisthesecondpath.Notethattheerror(theinput)is
firstintegrated.Theoutputoftheintegratorblockistheintegraloftheerror.Thusifyouplottedthe
errorcurvevs.time,thissignalwouldrepresentthenetareaunderthiserrorcurvethroughtime.Thisis
thenmultipliedbyKIandbecomestheintegralaction.Thederivativeactionisthethirdpath.Notethat
theerrorisfirstdifferentiated.Theoutputofthederivativeblockisthennottheerrorbuttherateof
changeoftheerroratthecurrenttime.ThischangerateisthenmultipliedbyKDtobecomethe
derivativeaction.AllthreeactionsareaddedtogetherinthesummingblocktobecomethetotalPID
controlleraction.
17
Whyonewoulddothisisatthispointnotclearatall.Butasweshallsee,eachoftheseactionshasa
specificuseorjustificationandusuallyimprovesthecontrolresponse.ThethreeconstantsKP,KI,and
KDarecalledthecontrollergains.KPistheproportionalgain,KIistheintegralgain,andKDisthe
derivativegain.Itisalsooftenthecasethatoneoftheactionsisnotpresent.Asweshallsee,the
proportionalactionisbyfarthemostsensibleandusefulaction.OftencontrollershaveonlyPaction
thatisKIandKD=0.WecallthesePonlyorjustPcontrollers.AcontrollerwithnoDactioniscalledaPI
controller.OnewithnoIactionisaPDcontroller.SoweencounterP,PI,PD,andPIDcontrollers.Note
thatallofthesehavePaction.TheremaybeanoddballcasewithoutPaction,butthatiswhatitis,an
oddballcase.
Problems
1.1
Makeaconceptualmodelofabrakebywiresystem.Theforceonthebrakepedalissensedasa
desiredbrakingforce.Thegreaterthepedalforce,thegreatertheforceappliedbythebrakepads
tothebrakediscs.Thismeasuredpedalforceissensedbyaloadcell,whichproducesavoltage
proportionaltothisforce.Thisvoltageisdeliveredtoaninterfaceboard,whichconvertsitintoa
digitalnumberinamicroprocessor.Thecontrollerrunninginthemicroprocessorproducesan
outputsignalthatisthenconvertedintoavoltagethatdrivesanelectromechanicalactuator.This
drivesapiston,themastercylinder,andproducesapressure.Thepressureworksonthebrake
pistonthatappliesthebrakingforcetothediscpads.Thebrakingforceismeasuredusingactually
apressuresensor.Knowingthesizeofthebrakepads,thebrakingforcecanbedetermined.The
forceappliedtothebrakepadsisnotnecessarilythesameforceappliedtothepedal,buttheyare
proportionallyrelated.Makeablockdiagramofthissystem,showinghowallthecomponentsfit
togethertocomposethesystem.Eachblockshouldallcontainthenameofasystemcomponent.
Eachlinebetweentheblocksshouldshowthetypeofsignalbeingtransmittedbetweenblocks.
1.2 Thefigurebelowshowsapartoftheelectricalpowergenerationsysteminaconventionalsteam
powerplant.Fuel(gas,oil,orcoal)issuppliedonthelefthandsidetotheboiler.Therewateris
heatedintosteamandstoredinasteamdrum.Fromtherethesteamflowsthroughacontrol
valveintotheturbine,whichturnstheplantsgenerator.Thegeneratorproduceselectricpower.
ThereareseveralSISOloopsinplayhere.Oneloadsthegeneratorbyincreasingordecreasingits
electricfield.Ofcoursewhenmoreelectricityisneeded,morefuelwillbeneededtosupportthis.
Buttheconnectionbetweenfuelinandelectricityoutisnotdirect.Thethreelollipopsshown
representmeasuredquantities.Thinkaboutwhatthesemightbe.Thenwriteintheblocksthe
quantitiesthataremeasured.Drawdashedlinesfromtheselollipopstotheactuatorsthatcontrol
them.Itisachainofeventsthatleadfrommorepowerrequiredtomorefuelsupplied.Consider
thecaseofadesiredincreaseinpowerout.Writeoutinwordsthesequenceofcauseandeffect
eventsthatwillleadthesteamplanttoanew,higherlevelofoperation.Makeacopyofthe
completeddiagramtocompletethedeliverableforthisproblem.
18
1.3 Sometimesaplantisatwopartplant,andadisturbanceenterstheplantmidwaybetweenthese
twoparts.Drawaregulatorloopforsuchaplantwithanegativedisturbanceenteringbetween
Plant1andplant2.Letthedisturbancebetheinputtotheloop.
1.4 CreateaSimulinkmodelofaPIDcontroller.Forthisyouwillneedtousegainblocksforthethree
controllergains.Useanintegratorblockandadifferentiatorblockfortheintegralactionandthe
derivativeaction.Atfirstjustsetallgainstoavalueof1.Asinput,useaconstantblockandset
itsvalueto0.Allthreecontrolactionsaresummedwithasumblock.Useascopeblockatthe
outputofthesumblocktocapturewhatoutputthecontrollerdeliversovertime.Alsoplace
scopeblocksonallthreecontrolactionstoseehowtheybehave.Ofcourseintherealworldthe
controllerwouldbehookedintoasystemandreceivethesystemerrorasitsinput.Itsoutput
wouldbefeddownstreamtoanactuator.With0asasteadyinput,youhavemodeledthecaseof
acontrolloopwheretheactualvalueisequaltothedesiredvalue.Whatshouldthecontrollerdo
andwhatdoesitdo?Nowmaketheinput1.Whatdoesthecontrollerdonow?
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Chapter9DesigningandtuningPIDcontrollers
Goals
ProvideapracticallookatthePID,athowitisthoughtofandunderstoodbypractitionersin
industry
DescribeseveralheuristictuningmethodsforPIDcontrollers
InChapters7and8wehavealreadygottenagoodlookatthePIDcontroller.Inthecontextofroot
locusandfrequencyresponsedesignprocedureswehaveundertakenthedesignofPIDcontrollersfor
variouscommonsystems.Inawaytheseapproachesgiveoneafalseimpression.Theyimplythatone
musthaveasystemmodeltotuneaPIDcontroller.Thatisnot,however,commonpracticeinmany,if
notmost,industrialapplications.Forexampleatanklevelcontrollerneedstobeimplemented.One
purchasesacommercialPIDcontrollerandputsitinserviceonthetank.Onethenfieldtunesthe
controller,startingwiththeproportionalgainandthenaddingintegralandderivativegaintoimprove
systemresponse.Allofthisisnormallydonewithoutasystemmodel.
Indeed,thenormalunderstandingofPIDcontrolbyacontrolstechnicianinanormalplantismuchmore
intuitiveanddowntoearththanwhatyouhavelearnedaboutPIDdesignandtuningviarootlocusand
frequencyresponse.Thosetwotechnicsarepowerfuldesigntechniquesandoughttobeunderstoodby
controlstechniciansbutoftentheyarenot.Thusforthecontrolsengineer,itisimportantalsotogain
thisintuitivegraspofPIDcontrolsimplytobeabletocommunicateeffectivelywithplantcontrols
technicians.ThiscommonsenseunderstandingofPIDcontroloffersyetanotherperspectiveonthis
technology,andthiscomplementstheapproachestakenalreadywithrootlocusandfrequency
response.
ThereareanumberofacceptednonmodelbasedmethodsfortuningPIDcontrollersi.e.methods
usedforfieldtuning.ThemostwellknownoftheseisprobablytheZieglerNicholstuningmethod.That
andothersarediscussedinthischapter.
ThePIDcontrollerinterface
Figure9.1showsthefaceplateofatypicalPIDindustrialcontroller,thisoneusedfortemperature
controlinakilnorheattreatmentoven.
Figure9.1IndustrialPIDcontrollerfaceplate
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Theinterfaceissomewhatsparsebecauseoftentherearemanyofthesecontrollersgroupedtogether,
controllingvariouspartsofanindustrialprocess.
Theuserinputpanelforthiscontrollerconsistsofthefourbuttonsatthebottomofthefaceplate.The
firstbuttonisthemanual/automaticbutton,usedtoswitchbetweenthesetwomodesofoperation.
TheAUTOlightontheleftofthefaceplateindicateswhetherthecontrollerisinautomaticmode.In
manualmodethecontrolfunctionisdeactivated.Theusercandrivetheprocessinmanualmodeby
usingtheupanddownarrowsonthecentertwobuttons.Thisadjuststheoutputfromthecontroller
directly.Thisoutputfromthecontrollerissome(settable)range.Oftenthecontroloutputiscalculated
anddisplayedaspercentageofthisrange,asisshownaboveintheOUTwindow.Inmanualmode,
whenoneclickstheuparrow,forexample,thepercentageoutputwouldincrease.Torunthecontroller
inautomaticmode,onemustsetthesetpoint(andmaybesomeotherparameters,likeKP,TI,andTD).
Todothis,onemustreadthedocumentationthatcomeswiththecontroller.Inthecaseabove,theSET
buttonisusedtoenteraparametersettingproceduretosetthecontrollerparametersforautomatic
operation.
Inbothmanualandautomaticoperation,thedisplayofthePV(processvariable)showstheoutput
comingfromthesensorofthevariablethatistheoutputfromtheloop,thevariabletobecontrolled.
SP(setpoint)isthedesiredvalueofthisoutputvariable.Thisistheinputtothecontrolloop.Inthe
aboveexample,thecontrollerisinautomaticmode(theAUTOlightislit).Theactualvalueofthe
controlledprocessis316F,andthedesiredvalueis325F.Thecontrollerisputtingout12%ofits
outputrangetobringtheactualtemperatureuptothedesiredvalue.
TheALMlightisanalarmlight.Thiscanbesettoindicatethattheactualvalueisoutsideacertainrange
aroundthedesiredvalue.Oftenalarmscanbesetattwolevels,awarninglevelandaseverelevel.The
warninglevelwillhavethelightburnamber.Theseverelevelwillhaveitburnred.IftheAUTOlightis
green,thisgreenyellowredcolorschemeforthelightswillallowanoperatortoscanagroupofthese
modulesquicklyanddetermine
1. whichloopsareinautomaticoperation
2. whetherthereareanywarninglevelalarmsactive
3. whetherthereareanyseverelevelalarmsactive
Quartercycledamping
Controllersaredesignedtoimprovesystemresponseortoachieveadesired,prescribedresponse.
Variousaimsarepossible:
Limitastepresponsetoaspecifiedovershoot.Recallthattheovershootisafunctionsolely
of %
100% .At=1thereisnoovershoot.Butbyspecifyingno
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overshoot,onemustsettleforalongerresponse,alongertimetoreachanewsetpoint.So
oftenacompromiseismadeandalittleovershootisacceptedforfasterreactionspeed.
Specifyaspecificfrequencyofoscillation.Notethatincreasingthisfrequencydecreasesthe
systemsspeedofresponse,sincetheresponseisoftenjustthefirsthalftothreequarter
wavecycleoftheresponsesinusoid.
Limitoreliminatesteadystateerror.
Acombinationofsuchspecifications.
Tomeettheseneedsitisveryhelpfultorememberthegeometryespeciallyofcomplexpolesandthe
meaningofvariousdistancesonthisplot.Figure9.2showsthisgeometryagain.
Figure9.2Geometryofcomplex(oscillating)poles
Sobyspecifyingacertainovershoot,oneislimitingthedominantclosedlooppolepairtoarayleading
fromtheoriginatacertainangle(=arccos)fromthenegativerealaxis.Asexplainedabove,oftena
controllerissettogivealittleovershoot(510%)inordertohavethesystemrespondfaster.
Alternativelythereisaconceptcalledquartercycledamping,wherebyeachoscillationis1/4the
amplitudeofthepreviousoscillation(seeFigure9.3).Forquartercycledamping,turnsouttobe
0.2155.Thisleadstoshorterresponsetimesbutmoreovershoot.Whichtopickdependsonthe
applicationandtheabilitytotolerateovershoot.Iftheoscillationfrequencyisspecified,thenthe
verticaldistancefromtherealaxis,d,isknown.Ifboththedesiredortolerableovershootandthe
dampingratioareknown,thenthedesiredlocationofthedominantclosedlooppolepairisfixed.
Steadystateerrorisnotreadilyseenontheplot,sonosuchstatementscanbemaderegardingitandits
placementofpolesontheplotabove.
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Figure9.3Quartercycledamping
ThePIDcontroller
AsexplainedinChapter1thePIDcontrolleristheworkhorseofindustry.Most,indeedalmostall,
controlloopsinindustryareSISOloopswithPIDcontrollers.Sotobeactiveasacontrolengineerin
industryonemusthaveagoodunderstandingofPIDcontrollers.Andbythesametoken,withagood
understandingofPIDcontrollers,onecandoalmostanythingonewantsinindustry.Evenintherare
casethatoneneedssomethingotherthanaPIDcontroller,agoodunderstandingofthisworkhorse
controllerwillstandoneingoodsteadtocompareanexoticcontrollerwithaconventionalPID
controller.
BeforebeginningwiththeexplanationofaPIDcontroller,itisfirstusefultorecallwherethecontroller
isplacedinthecontrolloopandwhatitsinputandoutputare.Thecontrollerisjustafterthe
comparator,thesummingblockthattakesthedifferencebetweenthedesiredvalueandtheactual
value.Thustheinputtothecontrolleristheerrorsignal.Thecontrolleroperatesonthiserrorsignal
andproducesacommandthatisthensentdownstreamtotheactuator.Thepurposeofthecontrol
loopistodrivetheerrorto0,sothattheactualvalue=thedesiredvalue.Ifeverythingisworkingasit
should,ewillbe0andthecontrollerwilltakenoaction.Itwillsimplyput0ontheoutput,theinputto
theactuator.Thisisacommandtotheactuatortodonothing.Whentheactualvalueisnotequalto
thedesiredvalue,thecontrollertakesactionandproducesanonzerocommandfortheactuator.
PID,ofcourse,standsforproportionintegralderivative.APIDcontrollerhasaparallelstructurewith
thesethreeactions(seeFigure9.4).ThethreecontrollerconstantsKP,KI,andKDcanbetunedto
adjusttherelativestrengthofeachaction.Theproportionalactionisthemainaction,andtheother
twoactionsareaddonstoimprovethecontrol.OftenoneseesaPonlycontroller,i.e.acontrollerwith
onlyKP0.O enonseesaPIDcontrollerwithoneac onintegralorderivativeturnedoff.Thusthe
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mostcommonvariantsareaPcontroller,aPIcontroller,aPDcontroller,orthefullblownPID
controller.
Figure9.4PIDcontrollerstructure
Ofcourseonemightask,howdidanyoneevercomeupwiththisstructure?Theanswerliesinthe
developmentofthecontroller.ItwasdevelopedbyaRussianAmericanengineerNicholasMinorsky.
HewasworkingonanautosteeringsystemforshipsfortheU.S.Navy.Minorskyobservedhelmsmen
steeringshipsandnoticedthattheyactednotonlyontheerroritselfbutalsoontherateatwhichthe
errorwasdevelopingandonthehistoryofthepasterror.ThePIDstructurewasdevelopedfromthese
observations.(SeetheWikipediaarticleonPIDcontrollers.)
Proportionalaction
Asstateabove,Pactionisthemainaction.OnealmostneverseesaPIDcontrollerwithoutPaction.P
actionmakesalotofsense.Thecontrollerseestheerrorasinput.Iftheerrorissmall,thecontroller
shouldsuggestasmallaction,anudge,totheactuatortogettheplantbackontrackandreducethe
errorto0.Iftheerrorislarge,thatmeansthattheactualvaluehasdriftedfarawayfromthedesired
value.Thecontrollerneedstosuggestalargeactiontotheactuatortobringtheplantinlinewiththe
desiredvalue.Suchastrategymeansthecontrolleractionshouldbeproportionaltotheerror,i.e.P
action.
Theproportionalgain,KP,canalsoberegardedasthesensitivityofthecontroller,howgreatanactionit
willsuggestforagivendeviationofactualfromdesired.IfKPishigh,thecontrollerwilltakealarge
actionforasmalldeviationofactualfromdesired.Thecontrollerisverysensitive.IfKPissmall,the
reactionofthecontrollertoadeviationofactualfromdesiredisgentle.Averycommonsense,seatof
thepantsmethodfortuningKPisthefollowing.Onelooksattheactuatorandasks,Howmuchcanthe
actuatorgive?Forexample,takeatanklevelloopwiththecontrollinginletvalveoperatingata75%
valveopeningatdesignsteadystate.(SeeChapter3forthetanklevelsystemdescription.)Thevalve
has25%yettogiveifthelevelstartssinking,75%toclosedownifthelevelstartstorise.Onewould
pickthesituationthathadthemostdireconsequencestocontinueeitheranoverflowingtankoran
emptytankandthenposethequestion,HowfarawayfromdesignsteadystatedoIwanttogo
beforethevalveisgivingallitsgottobringthesituationundercontrol?Ifthemostcriticalsituationis
theoverflowingtankandonedecidestoallowthetankleveltorisethreeinchesbeforehavingthevalve
giveitsfull75%topreventafurtherrise,thenonehastheproportionalgain.Ifthetanksactuallevel
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rises3inchesabovethedesiredsteadystate,thene=3inches.Thedesignerhasdecidedthatatthis
deviationthevalveshouldhaveclosedits75%,sothecontrolleroutputshouldbe75%(recallthatsuch
loopsoperateondeviationsfromdesignsteadystate).SoKP=25%valveopening/inch.Thisisa
commonsensewaytoselectKPandoftenagoodwaytopickaninitialKP.RegardlessofhowKPis
selected,itisgoodpracticealwaystoperformacommonsensecheckonit,toseehowmuchofa
deviationwilldrivetheactuatortosaturation(seebelow).
Proportionalactionisbaseduponthecurrentvalueoferror.Thusitisbaseduponthepresent.Aswe
shallseebelow,integralactionisbasedonthepast,andderivativeactiononthefuture.
Integralaction
Integralactionisusedtogetridofsteadystateerror.Asystemstypeisnotgreatenough,sooneusesa
PIcontrollertoaddafreeintegratortotheopenlooptransferfunction.Otherwiseexpressed,wehave
seeninChapter6thatPonlycontrolleadsnaturallytosteadystateerrorinmanycases.Theintegral
termactsnotontheerroritselfbutratherontheintegraloftheerrorthatis,ontheaccumulated
errorproducedovertime.
Figure9.4PIcontrolloop
Itisusefultolookatthisactionupclose.Figure9.4showsaPIcontrollerinaloopwithafirstorder
actuator+plant.Aunitstepisgiventotheinput.Ofcourse,withoutintegralcontrol,theoutputwould
notgoto1,thecommandedvalue.Therewouldbesteadystateerror.(TrythisbysettingKI=0inthe
modelabove.)Noticethetwoactionsovertime.Whenthestepisinputatt=1sec,theerror
immediatelygoestoKPe.Theintegralactionis0becausethisactionisbasedupontheareaunderthe
e(t)curve,andnotimehaspassedtoallowtheareaunderthecurvetoaccumulate.Astheclockticks,
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thisareadevelops,andtheIactionincreases.Astheplantmovesclosertothedesiredvalue,theP
actiondiminishes.Intheend,withtheplantatthedesiredvalue,thePactionis0andallnonzero
controlactionisprovidedbytheintegralcontrolaction.
Noteworthyisthattheintegralactionwillcontinuetoaccumulateuntiltheerroris0.Oncetheerroris
0,thereisnoproportionalaction.Notethatwithe=0,theintegralactionisnot0;itjustdoesnt
accumulateanymore.
Controlsengineersinthefieldoftenusethetermresettocharacterizethestrengthofintegralaction.
Resetisalsocalledintegraltime,TI.(Intheprocessindustry,thisvariableisoftenexpressedasR.Thisis
notthesameRusedfortheinputorreferencevalueinthestandardcontrolloop.)Thisisacomparison
ofintegralactionwithproportionalaction.IfaPIcontrollerweresubjectedtoasteadyinputsignal,the
resettimeisthetimeitwouldtakefortheintegralactiontoreachtheleveloftheproportionalaction.
Sowithaninputsignalof1,theproportionalactionwouldbeKP.Theintegralactionwouldbe
Att=TI,KP=KITI.SoTI=KP/KI.SinceTIisameasureofhowlongittakestheintegralactiontodevelop,
thehigherTIis,thelowerKIisandthemoregentletheintegralaction.
Sinceintegralactionaccumulatesovertime,whatisimportanttoitisthehistoryoferrorovertime.
Integralactionrememberswhathashappened,soitisanactionbaseduponpastexperience.
Derivativeaction
Derivativecontrolispredictiveinnature.Itoperatesontherateofchangeoferror,notontheerror
itself.Apracticalexampleillustratesthis.InFigure9.5asupplytankhasalevelcontrolleronit.Asthe
liquidinthetankisneeded,anoutletvalveopenstosupplymoretoadownstreamprocess.Ifthetank
startsoffatasteadystateandthenasuddendemandformoreliquiddownstreamoccurs,theoutlet
valveopensquickly,andthelevelinthetankstartstodrop.Thetroublewithproportionalcontrolis
thatitreallydoesnotreactuntiltheerrorhasdeveloped.Sothereisalagtimebeforetheproportional
actioncomesintoplay,sinceitcanonlyreacttocurrenterror,errorthathasalreadyoccurred.Thisis
unfortunate,because,withthevalveopenandtheerrordevelopingrapidly,itwasentirelypredictable
thattheerrorwoulddevelopbeforeitdiddevelop.Theideabehindderivativecontrolliesinthisphrase
withtheerrordevelopingrapidly.Therateofchangeoferrorishigh.Thatmeanstheerroris
developingrapidly,andthereisnoreasonwhythecontrollershouldntreacttothatbeforetheerror
develops.Soastrongderivativeactionatthestart,beforetheerrordevelops,ensuresthatlesserror
willactuallydevelop.
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Figure9.5Levelregulatorexperiencingsuddenincreaseindemand
Anotherscenariowouldbethefollowing.Youaredrivingacarinmanualspeedcontrol(thecruise
controlisnotengaged)atasteadyspeed.Youcometoasteepincline.Youautomaticallypushthe
acceleratoralittleharder,becauseyouknowthatifyoudont,thecarsspeedwilldecrease.Youhave
justappliedderivativecontrol.Throughvisualclues,thesteepincline,youknowthatthespeedwill
decrease,soyouhavetakenaproactivesteptopreventthespeedfromdecreasingbeforeitactually
decreased.Notdoingthis,usingonlyproportionalaction,wouldplayoutlikethis.Youaredrivingata
steadyspeed,encountertheincline,andatfirstdonothingdifferent.Youapplythesameconstant
forcetotheaccelerator.Afterafewmoments,younoticethatthespeedhasdecreased,soyoupush
theacceleratorhardertocompensateforthedecreasedspeed.Thefirstscenarioseemsentirely
plausible.Thesecondseemslikethedrivingstyleofaninexperienceddriverinmaintainingaconstant
speed.Soderivativecontrolisnotsomethingexoticorbizarre.Itfitsnaturallyintonormalhuman
behavior.
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Figure9.6ComparisonofPandPDcontrol
Figure9.6showsacomparisonofPandPDcontrolappliedtoanunderdampedsecondorder
plant+actuatorsubjectedtoaunitstepinput.Noticethatthesystem,underPcontrol,oscillatesmuch
morevigorouslythanitdoesunderPDcontrol.
Figure9.7showstheseparatecontrolactionsfromthissamesystem.Withaunitstepinput,theerror
immediatelygoesto1.SotheproportionalactiongoestoKP.Thesuddenincreaseinerrorgenerated
bythestepinputofcourseproducesaninfiniterateoferrorincrease.Sotheinitialderivativeactionis
verylarge.Thisisknowninindustryasaderivativekick.ThisisthelargespikeinFigure9.7.Also
noteworthyabouttheseactionsisthattheproportionalactionenduresbecauseoftheconstantsteady
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stateerror.Soeventhoughtheerrorisnonzeroattheend,itisnotchanging.Andsinceitisnot
changing,itsrateofchangeis0,sothederivativeactionis0.
Figure9.7Proportionalandderivativeactions
InasecondcommonformofthePIDcontroller,thevariableKDisnotused.Ratherthestrengthofthe
derivativeactionisexpressedbythederivativetime,TD(seebelow).Intheprocessindustry,thisPID
parameterisgiventhesymbolT.
ThefullblownPID
AfullblownPIDcontainsthethreeindividualelements.Thehighertheerror,thegreaterthe
proportionalaction.ButwehaveseeninChapter6thatsteadystateerrorissomethingthatoften
proportionalcontrolactionalonecannotgetridof.Integralactionisaddedtodothis.Itcontinuesto
actuntiltheerrorbecomes0.Derivativeactionallowsthecontrollertorespondinadvance.Itseesthe
errorcomingandactstostopthegrowthoferrorbeforeitoccurs.
Thisisthecommonsense,intuitiveunderstandingofPIDcontrolthatmostcontrolspractitionershave
whoworkupclose,handsonwithcontrolloops.Talkingtoaplantscontrolstechnicianintermsofroot
locusorBodeplotsisusuallynotveryproductive.Thatdoesnotmeanthatthesetechniquesshouldnot
beusedinaplant.Theyshouldbe.Theyarenotaswellknowninthefieldastheyshouldbe.They
enhanceonesknowledgeofsystemdynamicsandwhatisactuallyhappeninginsidecontrolloops.But
theunderstandingofcontrolstechnologyandthelanguageusedwhentalkingaboutitinthefieldis
moreintuitiveandhandsonthanitistheoretical.
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FormsofthePIDcontroller
ThePIDcontrolstructurecanbeexpressedinanumberofdifferentforms.Threecommonformsare
giveninTable9.1.Noticethateachcontrolstructurehasthreeparametersthatdescribeit.Thatmeans
thateachsetofparameterscanbeexpressedintermsofadifferentset.Noticethatinthefirstform,KP
isaseparateaction,withnoimpactontheothertwoactions.Inthesecondtwoforms,thegainKPIDisa
multiplierforallactions.TheKT1T2formistheformconvenienttouseforpolecancellation,wherethe
polestobecancelledareat1/T1and1/T2.
Form
Blockdiagram
Transferfunction
KPKIKD
KPIDTITD
KT1T2
Table9.1FormsofPIDcontroller
Actuatorsaturation
ApracticalproblemthatoftenisnotevidentintheworldofSimulinkmodelsisthatthesizeofaloops
actuatorislimited.Acontrollermaytellapoweramplifiertoputout40volts,butifthatamplifier
cannotputoutmorethan15volts,itwillsaturate.Thusallcommandsignalsfromthecontrollerthat
demandmorethan15voltswilleffectivelybechoppedoff.Onesolutiontosuchaproblemwouldbeto
buyandinstallamorepowerfulamplifierthatcouldputout40volts.Butthismaynotbethecorrect
solutiontothisproblem.Forexample,takeacruisecontrolforacar.Youmayhaveitsetat65mphand
engageitwhenyouaregoing40mph.Thiswillcausethecartoreactandtotryashardasitcantoget
to65mphasfastasitcan.Buttheenginecanonlyputoutalimitedamountofpower,soitmaytake
sometimeforthecartoreactandarriveatthedesiredspeed.Duringthisperiod,whenthecarsengine
isfullyengagedtoreach65mph,thespeedcontrolloopissaturated.Tofixthis,onecouldbuyacar
withamorepowerfulengine.Butthisisexpensive,andhowimportantisitanywaytohaveacar
acceleratefrom40mphto65mphveryquickly?Thecontrolloopwasdesignedtoholdthecarata
speedaround65mph,notasanaccelerationlooptogetacarfromtheentrancerampofafreeway
ontothefreeway.Sosaturation,eventhoughitisanonlinearphaenomenon,isnotbadinallcases.In
theexampleofthecruisecontrolforthecar,saturationwhengoingtodrivingspeedisnotbadandcan
betolerated.Butiftheengineofthecarweresopunythatitcouldnotmaintainthecarsspeedat
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relativelygentleincludes,thenonemustaskthequestionofwhetherthecarsenginewassized
properlyforthecar.
Theoperatingconditionsoftheloopmustbetakenintoaccountwhendesigningtheactuatorforthe
loop.Whatkindofloadwillcausetheactuatortosaturatemustbeconsidered,andtheactuatorshould
besizedaccordinglyfortheloopoperationconditions.Actuatorscanalsobesizedtoolarge.Takethe
tanklevelexamplethathasappearedthroughoutthistext.Iftheinputvalveistoolarge,ithastoobiga
gain.Ifthetankleveldropsslightlyandthisvalveopensalittle,itletsinafloodofliquidsothatthe
levelrisesquickly.Shuttingjustalittlecutsoffsomuchliquidthatthetankleveldropsquickly.Thusa
missized,oversizedvalveleadstoafluctuatingtanklevelandunstableormarginallystableoperationin
theprocessthatitisapartof.
Saturationdependsnotjustonthesizeoftheactuatorbutalsoonhowfartheactualvalueisawayfrom
thedesiredvalue.Thiswasseenabovewiththecruisecontrolexample.Thissamephaenomenon
appliesalsotomotioncontrolsystems.Theyarenormallydesignedforsomewhatfinecontrol,to
maintainpositionaroundanarrowrangeofdistance.ForgrossmotionsfrompointAtopointB,motion
actuatorsoftensaturate.
Figure9.8Saturationresponse
Figure9.8showswhatsaturationlookslikeonastepresponseplot.Thelong,straightclimbfrom0up
toanewvaluedoesnotseemtofitwiththeshapeofthecurvysinusoidaloscillationoncethesystem
getswithinanarrowrangeofthefinalvalue.
Aproblemwithintegralcontrolwindup
AhiddenproblemwithintegralcontrollurksintheblockdiagramofaPIDcontroller,inthatoneisnot
awarethatintegralactionhasassociatedwithitasortofstorehouseofrememberedpasterrorthatcan
continuetoact,evenaftertheloopreachesitsdesiredvalue.ConsidertheexampleinFigure9.8.Ifthis
systemwereunderintegralcontrol,inthesaturatedstate,betweent=0.1secandalittleafter0.3sec
thepersistenterrorwouldcauseanaccumulationofareaunderthee(t)curve.Asthesystemnearedits
goalandtheerrorbecamelessandless,theproportionaltermwouldstarttodecrease.Buttheintegral
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actionwouldcontinuetoactbecauseofthestorederrorundertheerrorcurve,eventhoughthenew
setpointhadbeenreached.Thustheintegraltermwoulddrivethesystempastthesetpoint.Infactthe
onlywayfortheintegraltermtosheditsaccumulatedpositiveerrorwouldbeforittoaccumulate
negativeerror.Andtheonlywayforittodothiswouldbetostayabovethesetpointuntilthenegative
accumulatederrorcancelledthepositiveaccumulatederror.Thistendencyoftheintegraltermto
accumulateerror,evenwhentheactuatorisdoingallitcantoreduceerror,iscalledintegralwindup.
Thesolutiontothisproblemissimple:dontlettheareaundertheerrorcurveaccumulate.Aswitchis
putintotheintegralbranchofthePIorPIDcontroller.Iftheactuatorissaturated,turnoffthe
integrationoftheerror.Sointheaboveexample,whiletheactuatorissaturatedbetween0.1secanda
littleover0.3sec,theintegraltermisturnedoff.Whenthesystemnearsitsdesiredvalueandthe
actuatorbecomesunsaturated,theintegraltermisonceagainturnedon.Thispreventsthe
overshootingcausedbyintegralwindupandallowsthesystemtoreachitsdesiredvaluewithless
fluctuationsenroute.
Figure9.9Integratorantiwindupimplementation
Figure9.9showsaSimulinkimplementationofanantiwindupscheme.Theinputandoutputsofthe
saturationblockarecompared.Iftheyareequal(orclose),thentheintegralisallowedtoaccumulate
error.Iftheyarenot,thentheactuatorissaturatedandintegralaccumulationisturnedoff.
Aproblemwithderivativecontrolnoise
Figure9.10showstheoutputfromapressuresensorinawatertank.Noticethateventhoughthetank
levelremainsconstantatabout17.5inches,thereisalotofnoiseinthesignal.Thispresentsaproblem
forderivativeactioninaPIDcontroller.Recallthatthederivativetermactsontherateofchangeof
error,notupontheerroritself.Withthesignalbelow,thetanklevel,andthustheerror,isnotchanging
inthebigpictureovertime.Butthesignalitself,whenconsideringthenoise,isconstantlychanging.
Thederivativeoftheerroristheslopeoftheerrorcurve.Sointhiscase,eveniftheerroris0,thenoise
isconstantlymakingtheslopeflipflopupanddown,oftenwithaseveremagnitude.Derivativeaction
appliedtosuchasignalcausestheactuatortoactfirstinonedirectionvigorously,thenatthenext
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momentintheotherdirectionvigorously.Themotororvalveorhydrauliccylinderthatisbeingdriven
bythiscontrollerisbeingexercisedbackandforthandfornogoodreason.
Figure9.10Noiseintanklevelsensor
Thesolutiontothisistocleanthesignalup.Thiscanbedonewitheitherahardwarefilter,asoftware
filter,orwithboth.ItiscommontoincludeafirstorderfilterinthederivativepathofaPIDcontroller
tocleanuptheerrorsignalbeforetakingitsderivative.Thetimeconstantofthisfilter,TF,isoftenbased
onTD,thederivativetime.AcommonvalueforTFisTF=TD/10.Figure9.11showssuchan
implementationofaPIDcontrollerwithfiltering.
Figure9.11PIDcontrollerwithderivativefiltering
TuningmethodsforPIDcontrollers
ThenextsectionsdealwithdifferentmethodsfortuningPIDcontrollers.Thesereflectdifferent
strategiesfortuningcontrollers.Mostofthemareheuristicorfieldtuningmethods.Thereareliterally
thousandsofschemeslikethis.Theonesillustratedherearesomeofthebetterknownschemes.
TuningmethodsReplacementofsystemsnaturaldynamicswithdesireddynamics
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TheKT1T2formofthePIDcontrollersuggestsaninterestingdesignstrategyforacontroller.Onecan
cancelthedynamicsoftwopolesofanopenloopsystemusingthetwozerosofthePIDandtheninstall
onesowndynamicswiththecontrollersremainingpoleattheoriginandwiththecontrollergain.
Figure9.12PIDpolecancellation
Figure9.12showsthisforasimpleopenloopsystemwithtworeal,stablepoles.WithaPonly
controllerthesystemwouldeventuallystartoscillatingasthegainisincreased.Ifonecancelsthepoles
ataandbbyaddingcontrollerzerosthere,theclosedloopsystembecomesasimplefirstorderthat
neveroscillatesasthegainisincreased.Thusonehascancelledtheoriginalsystemsbehaviorand
installedabehaviortoonesownliking.
Abigcaveattothisstrategyisthatthisreallyonlyworksasdescribedforsystemswhosemodels
perfectlyfitthesystem,andthatisvirtuallyneverthecase.Evenifoneisluckyorresourcefulenoughto
haveaperfectmodel,physicalsystemschangeovertimewithwear.Soasystemthathaspolesata
andbwillseethosepolesdriftovertime.Thusthepolesarenotquitecancelled,andthischangesthe
behaviorofthesystem.Thepolesarenotquitecancelled.Thisproblemisalwaysencounteredwith
zero/polecancellation.Itisoftenrecommendedtoplacethezerosnearthepolesinworkingwiththis
strategytobeexplicitaboutthefactthatthezeroswillnotalways(ever?)exactlycancelthepoles.
TuningmethodsZieglerNicholstuning
TheZieglerNicholstuningalgorithmwasdevelopedinthe1940sprimarilyforregulatorcontrolloopsin
theprocessindustry(powergenerationstation,chemicalplants,refineries,etc.).Asregulators,these
loopspurposeisdisturbancerejection,thatiskeepingadesiredquantityatacertainleveldespite
disturbinginfluencesthattrytochangeit.ZieglerNicholsisprobablythebestknownandmostwidely
usedoftheheuristictuningmethodsfortuningPIDcontrollers.Heuristicsimplymeansbasedon
experimentationorbasedontrialanderror.Suchmethodsdonotdependonthedevelopmentofa
systemmodel.Theyarefieldtuningmethods,inthatonecanapplythemtotherealsystemandtuneit
inplace.
InZieglerNicholstuning,tuningparametersKP,KI,andKDarebasedonKuandPu.Kuisthegainthat
causesasystemwithaPonlycontrollertobemarginallystable.("u"standsfor"ultimate".)Youcan
findtheultimategainbyatrialanderrorprocess.OnesetsKPtosomelowvalue(KIandKDare0atthis
stage).TestthesystemwiththisKPtoseeifitoscillatescontinuously(marginallystable).Ifthe
oscillationsdecay,keepincreasingKP.Iftheoscillationsincreaseinamplitude(unstablesystem),reduce
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KP.Dothisuntilthesystemismarginallystable.Whenyouarriveatthispoint,youhavefoundKu,the
gainthatgotyouthere.Puistheperiodofthenondecayingoscillationsatthispointofmarginal
stability.
Oftenyouwillnotbeabletoreachasystem'sultimategainbecausethesystemactuatorwillsaturate.
Thisisasituationwherethecontrollerdemandsmoreoftheactuatorthanitcanprovide.Remember
theactuatorgetsacommandinputfromthecontrollerandsendsa"force"signaltotheplant.The
actuatorislimitedintheamountof"force"itcansendtotheplant.Foravalve/tanklevelcontrol
system,thevalvecannotopenmorethan100%,norcanitclosemorethan0%.
Firststep:FindKu
FindKubyincreasingKPuntilthesystemoscillateswithoutadecay.Whileyouaremonitoringtheloop
output,monitortheactuatoratthesametimetoseewhetherornotitissaturating.Continueto
increaseKPuntilyoufindKuortheactuatorsaturates.
Iftheactuatorsaturates,youwillnotbeabletogetKu.InthiscaseuseanothermethodtogetKq("q"
standsforquarter).AdjustthePonlygainuntilyouhavequartercycledamping.Thisisameasurement
forasecondorder,underdampedsystem.Ontheresponseplotlookatthefirsttwohumps(thefirst
humpiswherethe%OSismeasured).KqisthevalueofKPthatmakestheheightofthesecondhump
1/4theheightofthefirsthump.Usethefinaloutputvalueasthereferenceformeasuringthehump
heights.NowKucanbedeterminedfromKq.Itis:Ku=2Kq.
Secondstep:FindPu
Puistheultimateperiodofoscillation.YoucanfindthisoutfromtheresponseplotwithKP=Ku,ifyou
wereabletofindit.IfyoufoundKufromKq,getPq.WeassumethatPu=Pq.Thisiscloseenough.
Thirdstep:Findcontrollergains
NowthesuggestedZieglerNicholssettingsforP,PI,andPIDcontrollersare:
P:KPID=0.5Ku
PI:KPID=0.45Ku;TI=1.2/Pu
PID:KPID=0.6Ku;TI=2/Pu;TD=Pu/8
TuningmethodsAstromHagglundrelaytuningmethodforZieglerNicholstuning
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OneoftheproblemswiththeZieglerNicholstuningmethodisthatoneturnsuptheproportionalgain
todrivethesystemtothevergeofinstability.Thiscanbeadangerousthingtodowitharealsystem.
ToavoidthisbutstillbeabletocalculateKuandPu,analternativemethodwasdevelopedbyAstromand
Hagglund.Inthismethodthecontrollerisreplacedwitharelayortwopointcontrollerthatputsouta
positiveconstantiftheerrorsignalisnegativeandanegativeconstantiftheerrorsignalispositive.This
controlleristhenalwayspushingthesystemtowardacentraloperatingpoint(seeFigure9.13).
Figure9.13RelaycontrollerofAstromHagglund
Astepintheloopsetpointisusedtoperturbtheloopfromastableoperatingstate.Kischosentogive
enoughofacontrolleroutputtogetaclearresponsebutnottodrivethesystemtoofarawayfromits
stableoperatingpoint.Forexample,ifthestephasasizeof1,theerrorwillsuddenlybecome+1.
Somethinglikea5%commandedchangefromwhatthecontrollercanproducebeforesaturatingthe
actuatorwouldbeappropriate.
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Figure9.14ImplementationofAstromHagglundrelaycontroller
Figure9.14showsthisrelaycontrollerimplementedinSimulink.Withthissystemithasbeen
determinedthataunitstepinputwouldsaturatetheactuatorwithacontrollergainof5.Therelay
controllerworksasfollows:Iftheactualoutputisbelowthedesiredlevel,theerrorwillbepositive,soa
constantpositivesignalwillbesentoutofthecontrollernudgingthesystemupward.Iftheactual
outputisabovethedesiredlevel,theerrorwillbenegative,andaconstantnegativesignalwillbesent
outtonudgethesystembackdown.Whatresultsisasawwavecomingoutofthecontrollerandan
oscillationfromthesystem.Threeparametersareneedfromtheseplots.Figure9.15showsthese
parameters.
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Figure9.15ResultofAstromHagglundrelaytuning
WithdandaonecancalculateKu.
4
ThisisthesameKuthatisusedinZieglerNicholstuning.
TuningmethodsChien,Hrones,Reswicktuning
Chien,Hrones,Reswicktuningwasdevelopedin1952asanalternativetoZieglerNicholstuning.Its
advantageisthatithasseparatesuggestionstomakeforcontrollergains,dependinguponwhethera
loopisaregulatororapositionerloop.Thetestneededtofindtheresponseparametersisalso
somewhatsaferthantheZieglerNicholstestinthatoneisnotdrivingthesystemuptothelimitsof
stability.
Anopenlooptestisperformedontheactuator+plant.Thisisnormallyasequenceoffirstorderorgain
elements.ThusthestepresponseappearsasshowninFigure9.16.
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Figure9.16Chien,Hrones,Reswicktuningopenloopstepresponse
Withthisstepresponse,oneidentifiestheinflectionpointintheresponse.Atangentlineisdrawn
throughthispointandextendeduntilitcrossesthehorizontalaxisandthefinaloutputlevel.Thisthen
definestheparametersTuandTg.AlsousedisKss,thesteadystategainoftheactuator+plant.These
threeparametersarethenusedinthefollowingtabletosettheparametersforaP,PI,orPIDcontroller.
Nonoscillatoryresponsewithshortest
timetogoal
Positioner
0.3
Regulator
0.3
PI
0.35
1.2
0.6
PID
0.6
0.5
0.6
2.4
0.42
20%overshootwithshortesttimeto
goal
Positioner
0.7
0.6
Regulator
0.7
0.7
2.3
0.6
1.35
0.47
0.6
2
0.42
TuningmethodsTietzeSchenktuningmethod
Thisisatuningmethodfromtheworldofelectricalengineering.Theprocedureisasfollows.
1. DrivethesystemwithaPonlycontroller.
2. RaiseKPIDuntilaweaklydampedoscillationisevident.Theoscillationshouldlastbutdoesdie
out.Thisshouldbeatabouta15phasemargin,so0.15,so%OS60%.
3. FindTS,theperiodofoscillation.
4. SetTD=TS/(2).
5. SetTI=10TD.
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Thisworksverywell,evenwithunstablesystems.Whydoesitwork?TheBodediagramliesattheroot
oftherationale.WeusetheKT1T2formofthePIDcontroller:
Soweareaddingagain,twofirstorderleads,andanintegrator.BysettingKPIDtoobtainroughly60%
overshootatdfortheclosedloopsystem,wehaveM15atdfortheopenloopsystem.Ifwe
placethesecondleadthere,thisaddsanadditional45tothephasemargintogiveM60,so%OS
10%.Thusthegainandoneleadhavebeenutilized.Remainingareanotherleadandtheintegrator.
Theintegratorisadded,asalways,tolimitoreliminatesteadystateerror.Butthenegativeeffectof
addingtheintegratorwillbetolowerthephaseangle90everywhere,i.e.forall.Topreservethe
phasemarginat60,thefirstleadisaddedonedecadebefored,soatd/10.Atthisbreak
frequencythephasecontributionofthefirstleadis45,butbyd,thebreakfrequencyofthe
secondlead,thephasecontributionofthefirstleadhasreached90,sothephaselossoftheintegrator
hasbeencompensated.
Summingup,
1
1
2
1
1
10
10
10
ConvertingtotheKPIDTITDformneededbymostcontrollers
1
Fromthesecondresult,
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Thus
10
2
11
2
So
2
11
Then
2
11
10
2
10
11 2
11
2
10
Ponlycontrolinaregulatorloop
InaregulatorloopitissometimesthecasethatjustPcontrolsufficesbecauseofauniquefeatureofthe
regulator.Theregulatorissetuptorunoffdeviationsfromadesignoperatingcondition,notfromtotal
amountsoftheloopvariables.Takethecommonexampleofatanklevelcontroller.Theloopissetup
asshowninFigure9.17.Forthisparticularexamplethetanksdesignsteadystateis18withtheinlet
valveopen70%.Iftheuserputsinasetpointof18,thesetpointsenttotheinnerloopis0.This
indicatesnotthattheuserwantsthetanktoemptybutratherthatheorshewantsthedeviationfrom
18tobe0.
Figure9.17RegulatorloopwithPonlycontroller
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Noticewhathappensatthisoperatinglevel.Theinnerloophas0comingin,andeverysignalinthe
innerloopis0,assumingthereisnodisturbance.Soatthisoperatinglevel,thedesignoperatinglevel,
thereisnosteadystateerror.Ifthesetpointischangedorifadisturbanceisinput,therewillbea
steadystateerror,sincethesystemisatype0systemwithonlyaproportionalcontroller.Ifapositive
disturbanceflowisadded,thetankwillrunalittlehigh.Ifanegativedisturbanceflowisadded,thetank
willrunalittlelow.Thisamountstodrainingmorefromthetankthanthenormaldesignsteadystate
flowrate.Theloadonthetankhasbeenincreased,sothetanklevelwilldroop.Butinnormal
operatingconditions,thetanklevelwillremainatthedesignlevelwithoutanysteadystateerror.
ThisisafeatureofPcontrolofatype0system.Itwillhavenosteadystateerroratoneoperatingpoint,
namelythepointwhereallthesignalsinthedeviationloopare0.Anothercommonexampleisacruise
controlonacar.Whenonesetsthedesiredspeedbyengagingthecontroller,oneisalsosettingthe
designoperatinglevelandsettingupthedeviationfromtheloop.IfthecontrollerinthisloopisaPonly
controller,whenoneencountersahill,theincreasedloadwillcausethespeedtodroopalittle.Thatis
thespeedwillremainafewmilesperhourbelowthesetdesiredspeed.Thisistolerable.Indeeditmay
evenbedesirable.BynotaggressivelyinsistingwithIcontrolthatthespeedexactlymatchthesetpoint
speed,oneoperatesthecarlessaggressivelyandsavesfuel.
Problems
9.1 TakethesystemofFigure9.7andworkoutitsclosedlooptransferfunction.DeterminenCLand
CL.WhatrlesdoKPandKDplayrespectivelyinnCLandCL?Thatis,ifKPincreases,whateffect
doesthathaverespectivelyonnCLandCL?IfKDincreases,whateffectdoesthathave
respectivelyonnCLandCL?
9.2 ItisoftensaidofderivativecontrolthatsomederivativecontrolallowsonetoturnupKPwithout
runningintothesameproblemsonewouldwithoutsomederivativecontrol.Theprimary
problemencounteredwithoutderivativecontrolisincreasedovershootandswingingwithan
inputstep.Toseeifthisadageisso,takethesystemofFigure9.6andincreaseKP.Doubleit,for
example,andcomparetheresultwiththatofthesamesystemwithhalfthegainandnoKD.What
effectonsystemresponsedoesturningKPuphave?Thatis,withthisabilitytoturnupKPwithout
itsnormal,negativeconsequences,whatisgained?
9.3 GivenKP,KI,andKD,whatareKPID,TI,andTDtheparametersofthesecondformofthePIDin
termsoftheparametersofthefirstform?
9.4 Bypolecancellation,youhavefoundoutthevaluesthatyouneedofK,T1,andT2ofthethirdform
ofthePIDcontroller.Thecontrolleryouareusing,however,needsthethreeparametersofthe
secondform.DetermineexpressionsforKP,TI,andTDofthesecondformintermsofK,T1,andT2
ofthethirdform.
9.5 SetupaPIcontrolloopforafirstorderplantwithunitysteadystategainandatimeconstantof
80seconds.UseKP=0.6andarepeattimeof3minutes.
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9.6 Anunityfeedback,openloopsystemhaspolesats=6and10.Ithasasteadystategainof16.
a. Designacontrollertocancelthissystemsdynamicsandreplacethemwithafirstorderwitha
timeconstantof1second.
b. Overtime,theoriginalsystemundergoeswearandtearandtheopenlooppolesdriftto5.5
and9,andthegaindriftsto15.Howwillthisaffecttheclosedloopsystemsbehavior?Give
theclosedlooptransferfunctionofboththeoriginalandthewornsystems.UsingMatlab,
plotonthesameplottheoriginalsystemsbehavior(unitstepresponse)andthenthe
behaviorofthewornsystem.
c. Plottherootlociofeachsystem,showingoneachdiagramthelocationoftheclosedloop
pole.
9.7 Theactuator+plantwiththetransferfunction
1040
16
208
istobeoutfittedwithaPIDcontrollerinaunityfeedbackloop.UsetheZieglerNicholstuning
methodtotunecontrollersforthissystem.InstallaKPIDTITDformatcontrollerinaSimulink
model.OnceyouhavefiguredoutKUandPUforthissystem,copythesystemsothatthereare
threecopiesofitinasingleSimulinkmodel.SetupinthelooprespectivelyaP,aPI,andaPID
controller.RuntheoutputfromeachloopintoaMUXblockandthentoascope,sothattheunit
responsetoeachloopcanbecomparedagainsttheothertwo.
Tohandin:Showallcalculations,reportKuandPuclearly.PrintoutapictureoftheSimulink
model.Printoutthescopeoutputthatcomparesthethreedifferentcontrollers.
9.8 ThesystemofthepreviousexamplewasusedtoillustratetheAstromHagglundrelaycontroller,
usedtocalculateKuandPu.Findthevaluesofthesetwoparametersfromtheplotsgiveninthe
textandcomparethemwithwhatyoufoundinthepreviousproblem.
9.9 Takethesystemshownbelow
UsetheChien,Hrones,ReswicktuningmethodtodesignaPIDcontrollerforthissystemtoreject
aunitstepdisturbance.Showyourwork.Designacontrollerfornoovershootandthenonefor
20%overshoot.Givecontrollergainsforeachcase.Demonstratethereactionofbothloopstoa
unitstepdisturbance.
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9.10 Takethesystem
30
0.005
0.23
1
1 0.53
1 0.055
UsetheTietzeSchenktuningmethodwithaSimulinkmodeltodesignaPIDcontrollerforthis
system.GivethevaluesofKPID,TI,andTDthatresultfromTietzeSchenk.PrintoutyourSimulink
modelandaunitstepresponseofthetunedsystem.
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