TRANSMISSION od. LINE? |?‘Transmission Line Structures Copyright © 1990 by McGraw-Hill Book Co., Singapore. All rights reserved. No part of this publi- cation may be reproriuced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 1234567890 KHLSSG 943210 ISBN 0-07-099156-1 The editor of his book was Jenny Goh. This book teas set in Century Schoolbook 9/11 pt Typeset by Superskit! Graphics Pee Led. Cover design by Allison Cheng. Printed by Kim Hup Leé Printing Co Pte Ltd Printed in SingaporeContents FOREWORD (vii) PREFACE (viii) . INTRODUCTION 1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES, CLEARANCES AND TOWER CONFIGURATIONS 18 Material properties 18 Design span lengths 23 Tower configurations 26 ‘Types of towers 29 Insulator swings and clearances 46 . FACTORS OF SAFETY AND LOADS 58 Factors of safety 59 Permissible deflections 59 Loads 59 Loadings and losd combinations 77 SAG-TENSION CALCULATIONS AND CHARTS 92 Calculations using parabolic formula 92 Catenary formula for long spans 94 Caleulations for unequal support levels 98 Co-ordination of sags 97 Behaviour of composite conductors 98 ‘Varney's graphic method of sag-tension calculations 100 Stringing charts 104 |. ANALYSIS OF FORCES AND DEFLECTIONS 108 Idealisation Plane truss analysis 109 ‘Manual method of analysis — graphical and analytical 170 Matrix method of analysis 119 Analysis for three-dimensional behaviour 136 Comparison of various types of analysis 137 Estimation of forces and deflections 138 ™) 6. TOWER DESIGN 143 Bracing Systems 142 Determination of member sizes’, 144 ‘Tension members 145 Compression members 145 Manual method of design 153 Computer-aided design 153 Computer software packages 162 Structural steel connections 164 Tower accessories 179 1. TRSTING OF TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS 179 Scope of tasts 179 Requirements of tower testing stations 179 Major tower testing stations 150 Model tower testing 183 ‘Tower testing procedures 184 ‘Tower materials in destruction tests 187 Analysis of causes of failure 188 8. CORROSION PROTECTION OF TOWER STEEL 192 Mechanism of corrosion 192 Preventive measures 195 Repair techniques 201 9, TOWER FOUNDATIONS 204 ‘Loads, safety factors and settlements 204 Classification and properties of soils 206 Data for foundation design 207 Classification and types of foundations 208 Analysis and design concepts 212 Anchors 222 Structural design of foundations 224 Examples in foundation design 224 Earthing 231 10. TOWER FABRICATION AND LINE, CONSTRUCTION 236 ‘Tower fabrication 236 Line surveys 248M1. Sag template 256 Line construction 268 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 265 Improvements in materials 265 Reliability-based design 266 Limit analysis for forces in tower members 270 Limit load concept 271 Trends in the development of optimal structures 273 Improvements in testing methods 28! Modularity and standardisation 284 Impact on environment 287 ™) Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Index 339 Indian Standard Specifications and Codes of Practice 297 Design of a 132 kV Double-circuit Tangent Tower 300 Optimal Computer-aided Design of a typical 220 kV Double-Circuit Tangent Tower 317 ‘Summary of IEC Standard on Testing of Transmission Line Towers 327 Overhead Line Support Loadings (IEC Approach) 329Foreword To the layman, the supports of overhead power transmission and distribution lines today appear to call for very little fresh studies since, for more than half a century, there has truly been no tech- nological innovation which has brought about any significant change in their external appearance. ‘However, the introduction of data-processing systems — computers and in particular, micro- computers — and better knowledge of the princi- pal physical phenomena governing the electrical insulation of structures and also of meteorological phenomena, have led to the development of struc- tures which are vastly different from those de- signed a few decades ago. ‘The authors must be complimented for bring- ing out this book which, through their thorough treatment of the subject matter, would enable the transmission line project engineers to make a proper evaluation of technical and techno- economic choices leading to the most appropriate designs in different situations. One particular feature of the book is that it serves a dual purpose as some chapters are in- structional in character for advanced students while others relate to practical applications for professional engineers, There is thus a happy blend of theory and practice meeting the neods of students and practising engineers alike. ‘The main focus of the authors has been: ‘+ To bring together all the theoretical and practical knowledge, acquired up to date, in the domain of design and fabrication of overhead line supports and foundations and construction of lines. To give sound examples to enable a good understanding of various aspects by using vil) ferent calculation methods adapted to the tools available, * Torefer to internationally approved meth- ods and give illustrative examples of their application. Lam convinced that this book will attract the attention of students as well as engineers and will, enable the designers of transmission line struc- tures to have a better understanding of various kinds of stresses which are impressed upon a high voltage or an extra high voltage power line. There are numerous publications issued by scientificbodies like the CIGRE (Conference Inter- nationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques) or Electrotechnical Commission which bring to light the latest technical developments in transmission line engineering, but the application of the recom- mendations contained therein is often incompat- ible with the actual situation. This book enables a better appreciation of the evolution of knowledge {in transmission line engineering so that the proj- ect planning engineer could take into account the most advanced techniques and adapt them to suit his needs. could elaborate this Foreword, but my inten- tion is not to give a resume of this comprehensive book, but to give an insight into the wealth of its contents and thus create an interest in the reader. Y. PORCHERON Transmission Design and Construction Department ELECTRICITE DE FRANCE Chairman of CIGRE Study Committee 22: Overhead LinesPreface ‘Tho combination of a power system engineer and 2 structural engineer in writing a book seems somewhat unusual. What prompted us in under- taking this work was that here was an area where the two — the power system engineer or more precisely the transmission line engineer, and the structural engineer — could jointly build up an. understanding to mutual advantage. In many countries, until recently, the electrical engineer concerned with transmission line engineering was Gealing with the structural aspects also based on the knowledge and experience available in his organisation and outside sources and the strue- tural engineer was only occasionally consulted, if at all. In reality, however, given the constraints from the electrical point of view such as clearances from safety considerations, the structural designs fall within the ambit of the structurel engineer to whom a transmission line support is a compara- tively simple structure. In our collaborative endeavour, we have realised that the many ad- vanced approaches available in structural engi- neering have not made significant impact in the design of transmission line structures; likewise, certain advances made in transmission line engi- neering are not within the common knowledge of structural engineers. Secondly, while power constitutes a very important infrastructure, and transmission and distribution overhead lines, particularly supports, constitute a sizeable portion of the outlay there (via) does not seem to be any book available on trans- mission line towers and foundations. This lacuna has also prompted us to attempt this work. ‘Through our joint working we have tried to combine the theoretical and practieal aspects, drawn from our respective experionce in the power supply industry and the academic institutions, and wo trust that this publication will serve the needs of practising engineers and students alike. We wish to record our sincere thanks to Dr. P. Purushothaman, Professor, Structural Engineering, Anna University, for reviewing this work and giving us the benefit of his valuable comments and suggestions. Our grateful thanks are due to Mr. Y. Porch- eron, Head, Engineering Research, Transmission Design and Construction Department, Blectricité de France, who is also the present chairman of the GIGRE (Conference Internationale des Grands Réseaux Electriques & Haute Tension ~ Interna- tional Conference on Large High-Voltage Electric Systems) Committee No. 22 : Overhead Power Lines, for going through the manuscript patiently and giving us the benefit of his constructive sug- gestions and comments, and also writing a Foreword to the book. Finally, we sincerely acknowledge the keen interest evinced by Dr. V.C. Kulandaiswamy, Vice-Chancellor of the Anna University, in this project and in including the book under the Text- book Promotion Scheme of the university. S.S. MURTHY AR, SANTHAKUMAR1 Introduction N EVERY country, developed and develop- ing, the electric power consumption has con tinued to rise, the rate of growth being greater in the developing countries on account of the comparatively low base. This in turn has led to the increase in the number of power stations and their capacities and consequent increase in power transmission lines from the generating stations to the load centres, Intereonnections between sys- tems are also increasing to enhance reliability and economy. ‘The transmission voltage, while dependent on the quantum of power transmitted, should fit in with the long-term eystern require- ment as well as provide flexibility in system operation. It should also conform to the national and international standard voltage levels. In the planning and design of a transmission line, a number of requirements have to be met. From the electrical point of view, the most impor- tant roquirement is insulation and safe clear- ances to earthed parts. These, together with the cross-section of conductors, the spacing between conductors, and the relative location of ground wires with respect to the conductors, influence the design of towers and foundations. The con- ductors, ground wires, insulation, towers and foundations constitute the major components of a transmission line. ‘This book deals with the twin aspects: of towers and foundations and attempts to bring out the various theoretical and praetical considera. tions involved in evolving economical and reliable designs, The book comprises eleven chapters and five appendices. Chapter 1 gives an overview of the growth of power generation and transmission networks in India and highlights the importance of evolving a long-term generation-transmission perspective taking into account the ecological and environ- mental constraints. It also emphasizes the rote of power transmission In general and transmission Line structures in. particular. Chapters 2 and 3 cover the basic criteria governing the design of transmission line strue- tures: Chapter 2 dealing with properties of steel used in these structures, tower configurations and types, and insulator swings under various operat- ing conditions and the corresponding clearances to tower; and Chapter 8 dealing with estimation of loads on towers and conduetors, broken-wire conditions, load combinations prescribed by vari- ous codes of practice, and factors of safety assumed in the designs Chapter 4 deals with sag-tension calcula tions using the catenary and the parabolic meth- ‘ods, coordination of sags of conductor and ground wire from the lightning protection point of view, and preparation of eag-tension charts for applica» tion in the field Chapter 5 gives the various methods of analysis of forces and their comparison, While graphical and conventional analytical methods have been adequately described, the matrix method of analysis has been covered in sufficient datail to enable the designars to switch over to computer analysis and design. The use of mini- computers for analysis of tower idealised as a plane trass and of main frame computer for the solution of towor idealised as a three-dimensional space truss has also been covered in this chapter. Chapter 6 deals with the actual design aspects relating to tower members, connections and accessories. The tower designs which are cur- rently based on codes of practice are generally conservative, but computer-aided designs can lead to weight optimization and henee significant Transmission Line Structures 1economy. Modern principles of optimization con sidering member sizes and geometry as variables have been covered in some detail. In this context one computer-optimization programme has been elaborated. ‘The transmission tower is a highly indeter. minate structure and it is generally analysed and designed on the basis of simplifying assumptions gnd approximations. The tower is subjected to variety of forces and environmental exposure. It has a large number of joints and fabriea- tion errors are not uncommon. It has been cus+ tomary for the power utilities to specify proto- type tests on a certain number of towers in any project. Testing of transmission towers is described in Chapter 7 and after a brief review of a few major tower testing facilities in the world, tower testing stations in India are described and illustrated. ‘Tho importance of interpreting the prototype and model test results are dealt with and a unified approach in regard to tower tosting procedure is emphasized. A review of test failures and their probable causes is also presented, which provides an insight to the designers on the behaviour of towers under a variety of loads and combinations thereof. Chapter 8 deals with corrosion protection, and tho various processes, tests and associated Indian standards are described to aid the fabrica- tion and maintenance engineers, Chapter 9 on tower foundations covers soil types and parameters, various types of founda- tions and analysis and design of foundations in- cluding improved design methods. Examples are given illustrating the application of the improved design methods. The chapter also includes a de- scription of a modern earthing practice. Chapter 10 deals with tower fabrication and line construction practices and stresses the need for modernising the practices in the context of the heavy transmission programme coming up in the county. ‘Transmission line structures require a multi- disciplinary approach in their evolution and there is considerable scope for team research. Chapter 11 deals with the scope for research and development in the use of new materials, optimi- zation. techniques, concopts of limit load to sc- count for uncertainties of load and the choice of rational safety factors with respect to strengths of materials, new types of foundations, modular coordination and standardisation, etc, all with a View to realising all possible economies consis- 2 Transmission Line Structures tent with reliability taking into account the land use and environmental aspects ascociated with power lines, The five appendices to the text cover the following + A list of Indian Standard Specifications and Codes of Praetice + A detailed design ofa typical 192 kV double cireuit tangent tower along with founda- tion using manual methods of analysis and, design + A typicel optimal computer-aided design of a 220 kV double-circuit tangent tower * Tower loading tests prescribed by the TEC Standard * Recommendations of the [EC for the cal- culation of various tower loadings. Power perspectives and role of transmission General Electric power is today playing an increasingly important role in the life of the community and development of various sectors of economy. De- veloping countries like India are therefore giving a high priority to power development program- mes. In fact, the economy is becoming increas- ingly dependent on electricity as a basic input, ‘Soon after Independence (1947), the economic importance of electricity was recognised and leg islation was enacted for creation of the requisite organisational base — Central Electricity Author- ity at the national level and Electricity Boards at the State level — for implementing a planned dovelopment programme framed under the sue- cessive plans beginning with the first Five-Year Plan which was launched in 1950-51 While in absolute terms the level of electrical energy consumption in India is far below the lev- els obtaining in the developed countries, the per capita consumption has increased from 14.8 kWh in 1950 to 191 kWh in 1986-87 (cf: USA ~ 18070, West Germany ~ 9000, USSR — 7500, Japan - 7425 in 1985). The installed generating capacity and the transmission and distribution networks to carry power from the generating stations to the load centres and from thereon to the ultimate consumers have increased manifold. As in other countries, the growth of trans- mission networks in India is dopondent on the historic growth of electrical energy consumption and its forecast for the next few decades. As loads grow and individual systems and interconnectionsbetween systems develop, the transmission eapa- bility must correspond to the system capability. ‘Transmission facilities provide the maans of connecting the generating capacities to the load centres. Interconnections of adequate capacities between individual systems enable interconnected ‘operation of these systems whieh provide the key to various benefits such as use of large, low-cost, generating units, capacity savings due to load diversity, minimization of reserves, emergency assistance to individual systems, and efficient utilisation of tho generation and transmission facilities available in the area as a whole. Ac a background to the development of power transmission networks in India and the impor- tance of transmission line structures in relation thereto, it is proposed to review briefly the energy seene and the growth of the power supply indus- try and give a broad perspective into the future. Growth of generation and transmission in India The progress of power development in India since Independence has been significant. The total installed capacity which was only 2,800MW in 1950 rose to 47,260MW at the end of 1984-85 and is expected to go up to about 72,000MW by the end of 1989-90. The successive Plans with large outlays on power development have seen the addition of lange generating capacity and the development of a basic transmission and distribution system. The unit sizes of thermal plant have gone up from 9OMW in 1960 to SOOMW in 1985. Similarly, the transmission voltage has increased from 110 kV around 1945 to 400 kV in 1978, Table 1.1 Growth of installed generating capacity in India Year Utilities Non-utilities Total (nw) i) MA lend) 1947 1,362 = 1,362 fend) 1950 1,713 588. 2.301 lena) 1955 2695723 3.418 EndilPlan 1960-61 4653 1,00) 5,654 End Ill Plan 1965-66 9.027 1,146 10,173 End Annual 1966-69 12,957 1,339 14,296 Plans End IV Plan 1973-74 16,663 1,793 18,456 EndV Flan 1978-79 26,680 2.618 29.298 End VI Plan 1984-85 42,585 4,678 47,263 End Vil Plan 1989-90 64,736 7,281 72,017 (Antkipated) ‘The growth of the installed generating eapa- city (Table 1.1.) and the corresponding growth of the aggregate system peak demand during the past three decades are shown in Figure 1.1 The growth of the transmission networks at different voltages over the period from 1950 to 1984-85 together with the anticipated increase up to 1989-80 (end of the Seventh Plan period) is given in Table 1.2 and shown in Figure 1.2 Table 1.2 Growth of transmission network in Indi Length of transmission tines constructed fercutimn) Pano 400K 220K H10/32KY BOY Tow! 2.708 7.431 10,139 7376 7.798 15,174 12.802 14,702 28,603 End 1950 7 End 1955 = = Endofl = = 1,099 Flea (1960-61) End ofl = Plan (1965-66) Endof An - nual Plans (1968-69) Engoty = Plan, (1973-73) End of v 78 Plan (1978-79), End ori Plan (1984-85), End of vil Pian (1989-90) [Anceipatedy ‘lode 910 km of 2500 WV VEC 3,772, 24,718 17,544 46,034 10.225 34,056 21,239 65,520 13,932, 45,041 24,252 $3,225 719% 54,186 26,594 108,694 6022 45,297 73,137 31,037 155,493 21787" 64,323 85,187 34,137 205,434 Inis significant that the higher voltage lines at 220KV and 400 kV with higher transmission capa- bilities have experienced a much higher rate of growth. This trend is expected to continue for some years in view of the large pithead thermal stations and nuclear stations coming up in the various regions of the country to serve the regional needs rather than the individual area needs. ‘The grid development in the country has fol- lowed the logical sequence of unification of power aystems within a State, interconnection of neigh- bouring State systems, and linking of systems between the regions. Transmission Line Structures 3Total (Utilities + Nonutilities) Total ( Utilities) - 2[400 kv AND 3[¢500 kV HVDC 90 YEARS Figure 1.2 Growth of transmission network in India 4 Transmission Line StructuresInvestment on power ‘The overall perspectives for economic develop- ment envisaged in the national Five-Year Plans have recognised the vital infrastructural role that power plays. The power supply industry is highly capital intensive and has necessitated substantial increase in the outlays for the power sector in the successive Plans. The Planwise investment in power sector and its share in the overall Plan outlay are shown in Table 1.3. Theoutlay on power since 1978 has been larger than the outlay on any other sector, ‘Shortfalls in capacity creation and transmis- sion projects have been experienced in practically every Plan period. Table 1.4 shows the shortfallsin generation and Table 1.5 shows the shortfalls in 220 kV and 400 kV transmission projects in the Sixth Plan (1980-85). ‘These shortfalls have resulted in power short- ages and are essentially due to time overruns. Tho time overruns combined with inflation have con- tributed to cost overruns also. The cost overruns have varied very widely ranging from about 70 percent to over 300 percent in the ease of hydro- electric projects, 13 percent to over 100 percent in the ease of thermal projects, and 65 percent to 115 percent in the case of nuclear projects. Table 1.3 Planwise investment in power sector and its share in the plan outlay ‘Outlay in the power sector (Public utilities onty) Asa share in an Period (Rs. crores} the total Plan outiey (96) 1 195156 260 133 fh 1956-61 460 98 ol 1961-66 1.252 Me Annual Plans 196669 1.223 1a. v 1969-74 2.932 186 Vv 1974-78 5244 178 Draft vi 197883 15.112 213 M 198085 19,265 19.7 vi 1995-90 34.273 19.0 Itis seen from Table 1.5 that the shortfalls in transmission at 220 kV and 400 kV levels during the Sixth Pian period were about 50 percent and 70 Percent respectively, which are indeed high, Due to non-completion of some transmission lines and substations, the beneficiary States have not been Table 1.4 Shortfalls in capacity creation {inclusive of non-utilities) Pan Panned Actual Shortfall wy MW] Secona 3.500 2.250 357 Tes 7040 $715 330 Fourth 9,260 4527 Sit Fith (Up to1977-78) 12.500 7593 39.3 Sixth 19,666 14.266 275 able to get their shares from the units already commissioned in some of the Central power stations. In the past and up till now, the power trans. mission (and distribution) programme has lagged very much behind the generation programme with the result that evacuation of power from power plants has become difficult and the reliability of supply has been low. The transmission and distri- bution losses have also increased over the years standing at 21.50 percent in 1986-87 (Table 1.6).' ‘The loss figures in countries like France, Italy, West Germany, the U.K., the US.S.R., theU S.A. and Japan vary from about 5.25 to 9.64 percent, ‘Thus the system losses in India are disproportion- ately high, calling for serious efforts to bring them down to reasonable levels. This situation has arisen essentially for two reasons, The investments on transmission and distribution (T and D) have been incommensurate with those on generation and adequate attention has not been given to long-term planning. ‘A broad study indicates that, as between generation, and transmission and distribution including rural electrification, the investment should be in the ratio of 1:1. Over the years, however, the actual investment on T and D has fallen far short of this. Notwithstanding the all- round realisation that the outlays should be in- creased substantially, the allocations in the Sixth and Seventh Plans have remained low (Table 1.7), Table 1.5 Transmission lines in Sixth Plan (1980-85) Programmed and completed (circuit - km) Voltage Programmed Constructed Shortfall 220 kV 29.400 14,800 49.65% 400 kV. 12,900 4,000, 69.00% Transmission Line Structures 5It would no doubt be necessary for the outlays onTand D toexceed the investment on generation for some years in future, if the backlog is to be covered and the reliability and quality of supply is to reach acceptable levels Table 1.6 Transmission and distribution losses Year T & D losses as percentage Dec. 1950 15.83 1960-61 15.80 1970-71 1750 1980-81 20.56 1986-37 21.50 Table 1.7 Outlays on power in the Sixth and Seventh Plan periods (Rs. n cores} Pan Generaton T&O RE Sit Pan 11,814 5.421 1,577 453 19.265 $9.23 (194085) Seventh 23,649 9,243 2,108 — 35,000 48.00 Pan 1198590) ‘The need for according ahigh priority totrans- mission projects and providing the necessary flow of funds well in advance in the interest of evacu- ation of power from the generating stations (which are being created in various regions for the benefit of the constituent States in each region) and satis- factory functioning of grid systems is obvious. Evolution of power scenarios and transmission perspectives ‘The generation capacity planning must be fully integrated with the transmission planning so that ‘both could be optimised as a system. Such an op- ‘timised programmecan be developed only ifa long- term perspective is evolved so that different types of projects with varying gestation periods can be incorporated into the plan in a manner which best meets the demand forecasts. Certain long-term assumptions regarding funding are of course essential, however tentative they ma ‘The planning process must explicitly recog- nize uncertainty and deal with it by scenario and sensitivity analysis so that the power systems are 6 Transmission Line Structures planned with sufficient flexibility to effectively cope with unforeseen events. Power production mix ‘The power production mix in any system largely pends on the energy sources available, the rela tive costs of generation, and the time element within which the generation programmes can be realised, and varies from country to country and from time to time within the same country, ‘Taking the case of France, for example, the mix has changed drastically from 1977 to 1987 as will be seen from the figures of production (TWH) given in Table 1.8. The nuclear component has risen sharply from 8.5 percent of the total energy produced to 70 percent in 10 years. Table 1.8 Power production mix in France my 1977 1987 1990 Anticipated 37.0 (10%) 796 Thermal 109.6 (54.0%) Nuclear 17.0 (8.5%) 251.3 (70%) 76% Hydeo 76.0 (37.5%) 716 (20%) 17% Tota) 2026 3599) In India too, the mix has changed over the last 30-86 years and the proportion of hydro energy is, decreasing while that of thermal energy isincreas- ing as shown in Table 19. Further, within the regions the mix is vastly different (Table 1.10). In view of the varying degrees of the hydel potential in the various regions, efforts should be made to make an optimal use of the available sources of power in each region. There are severe imbalances at the State level in each region and therefore the objective should be to meet the demands through integrated operationof the state systems in the regions so that the hydel component is made use of in the best possible manner in view of its several advantages over thermal and nuclear power. ‘There are always certain uncertainties to reckon with in any long-term exercise. The un- certainties relate essentially to demand growth, location of generation sites and impact of new technologies. The time span may therefore go up to certain multiple of the base year figure; that is, the target year may correspond to two to three times the base year consumption of energy, so that in the continuous exercise of planning, the short-term, the medium-term and the long-term strate- gies are satisfactorily dovetailed into one another. ‘Such an approach has been adopted in France where, in long-term planning exercises, the target condition was assumed as 600TWH of consump- tion, the initial power system being 285TWH (1981). The 600TWH condition may possibly cor- respond to the year 2000. The peak demands cor responding to 285TWH year and GOUTWH year are 46,6GW (actual) and 110-120 GW respectively. ‘The studies showed that up to 1990, there were technical and political constraints in regard to the choice of generation sites. This could be anticipated in view of the time horizon being short Table 1.9 Generation mix in Ins over relative to 1981. But beyond 1990, there was more freedom in the choice from a list of possible sites, the main criterion being the minimisation of the transmission and the interconnection system The studies also showed that the capacity of the transmission and interconnected power sys- tom increased more rapidly between 1981 (objec- tive: 285TWH) and the year 500TWH than between 1081 and the year 600TWH. This was mainly due to the constraints in regard to genera- tion sites imposed during the first years of the study period. A long-term perspective onsimilarlines should be attempted so that a certain number of likely the period from December 1950 to 1986-87 [Utilities only) (own) December 196061 197071 198081 198687" 1950 Hydro 2,520 7,837 25,248 46,592 53,851 (49.3%) (46.3%) (45.2%) (42.0%) (28.7%) Thermal (Steam, Gas 2,587 9,100 28,162 61,301 128.926 and Diesel) (50.7%) (53.79%) (50.5%) (55.3%) (68.6%) Nuclear = =» 2418. 3,001 5,022 (4.3%), (2.756), (2.79) Total 5,107 16,937 $5,828 110,844 187,799 * Prewional Table 1.10 Generation mix in various regions in India in 1986-87" utilities in Gu Region Hycro Thermal Nuclear Total Northern 21.989 29,818 1,324 53,131 (41.4%) (56.196) (2,5) Western 6191 54.632 2,000 ° 62,823 (9.8%) (87.0%) (3.2%) Southern 21,070 24,108 1,698 46,876 (45.0%) (51.4%) (3.6%) Eastern 3,666 19,309 - 22,975 (16.0%) (64.0%) North-Eastern 935 1,059 = 1,994 (46.9%) (53.196) + Provseral Transmission Une Structures 7scenarios could be visualised and the structure and consistency of the power system as a whole determined for the ultimate year. [t would then be possible to place certain intermediate decisions concerning the reinforcements of the system in the long-term perspective. Anappreciation of the magnitude of the power system likely to emerge in the long-term perspec- tive would be possible if'a broad assessment of the power requirements and resources, together with the ecological and environmental constraintscould be made. These aspects are dealt with in the following sub-sections, Power requirements and resources The per capita consumption of commercial energy (coal, oil and electricity) in India in 1980-81 was of _the order of 200 kgce (kilograms of coal equivalent) per annum, which is about one-tenth of the world average, about one-fiftisth of the USA and one- twentieth of Japan. The consumption of commer- cial energy and non-commercial fuels (firewood, animal dung, and agro-waste) over the period 1953-54 to 1985-86 is shown in Table 1.11 from which it will be seen that the consumption of com- mercial energy has grown much faster than non- commercial energy, and that, within the commer cial energy, the consumption of electricity has grown much faster than coal or oil. Eeonomy is thus becoming increasingly dependent on electrie- ity as a basie input. Long-term forecasts of electrical energy Long-term forecasting (say, 20-30 years ahead) of electrical energy consumption is an indispensable preliminary operation in any generation-trans- mission planning study. There are several meth- ods of forecasting. ranging from very simple meth- ods based on extrapolation to sophisticated econ- ometric models involving a number of variables. Each forecasting method has certain strengths and weaknesses as well as resource requirements. including data, time, cost and technical capabili- ties. There is no single best method, the methods are generally complementary to one another and therefore the various methods should be integrated to develop the electricity demand fore- casting. The Annual Power Surveys" carried out by the Power Survey Committee, constituted by the Government of India, from time to time with the Secretariat of the Committee provided by the Central Electricity Authority haveattempted long- term forecasts using certain very simple methods. ‘These forecasts have generally been on the opti mistic side. Table 1.12 hows how the forecasts have varied from the actuals. It will be observed that the deviation from the forecast has ranged from 3,000 to 10,000MW and from 15,000 to 55,000MKWh. The 12th Annual Survey Report (March 1985)* has introduced an element of econometric model. However, it is necessary to develop more sophisti- cated techniques for long-term forecasting which would take into consideration the total energy demand and growth rates of the various sectors of economy. They should also take into aecount the underlying economic forces and constraints which are inevitable in a developing economy; only then will the planning of generation and transmission to mect the needs be realistic. The rates of growth of energy consumption and economy are closely interrelated. The social progress is dependent on the growth of the gross domestic product (GDP) and the latter is largely Table 1.11 Consumption of energy in India (1953-54 to 1985-86) in millon tonnes of coal replacement) Conmercat Ereray Non-commercal Pescent sheve of ye EE energy (2ung, TON commercial CoN ON Eleewieny Tort — frewsod and energy agronnoite) i9s3s4 28773878 (OO 1591860 323 190061 404 439 169 101214552467 410 196546 518 646 309 «470157 KOSH 17071 $14 972 as 18721494 534 197596 710 78 Get 2527198 HATS 199081 1069 1795 897 3741 2078 SEIT 198586 1540 216 179-5825 2182, T8NT 8 Transmission Line StructuresTable 1.12 Comparison of forecasts with actuals (utilities only) conditioned by the rate of growth of energy consumption. The relationship between the growth of econ. omy and the growth of energy consumption has been the subject-matter of detailed studies for a long time. However, since only the commercial forms of energy (coal, petroleum products, natural gas and electricity) are generally accounted for, there is distortion in the relationship between energy and GDP. Forexample, in India, during the period 1959-54 to 1970-71. the non-commercial energy accounted for more than 65 percent of the total energy in the initial years and around 50 percent in later years, although there is significant downward trend in subsequent years (Table 1.11). ‘This situation obtains in the majority of the coun- tries of the world. Table 1.11 also shows that, while the supply of commercial energy has been growing much faster than that of non-commercial energy, the growth of electricity has been faster than that of coal or oil. During the 27-year period from 1960-81 to 1987-88, the consumption of electrical energy has shown an overall growth rate of 9 percent per annum whereas the economy has grown at a rate of 3.5 percent only. Table 1.13 shows the annual percentage rates of growth of electricity consump- tion and economy. and the electricity-GDP ratio."* ‘The ratio has varied from 2.67 in 1951-56 to 1.73 in 1980-85 (ignoring the high figure of 4.88 in 1961- 66), While there is adiscernibledownward trend in. the ratios in the last 10-15 years, it would be useful to compare these figures with those in two other developing countries, Brazil and Mexico, where the ratio was 1,21 and 1.53 respectively. The emphasis should therefore be on achieving reduc- tion in energy consumption relative to economic growth. It would be useful to carry out the exercises of perspective power planning relative to the anticipated growth rates of economy with refer- ence to the electricity-GDP ratios observed in the past by judicious variation of the ratio around the minimum, The generation and transmission program- mes for the Seventh Plan period ending 1989-90 have been set and are under implementation. Efforts should now be made to build the program- mes thereafter into a long-term perspective. An attempt is made here to make a broad assessment of the electrical energy consumption for the next 20 years and the corresponding installed gene- rating capacity required so that the importance of taking a long-term view on transmission network development including possibly the introduction of a higher voltage than 400 kV, if necessary, multicireuiting, HVDC transmission, ete. may be readily appreciated Table 1.13 Growth of electricity consumption and GDP Arcus compound Annual compound Bact Pence Goumme ot | Growin rate et GOP: — ‘economy tersumpton Fest Plan (1951-5696 36 267 Second Plan 1956-61) 10.6 40 265 Third Plan (1961-66) 122 25 488 Three Annual Pars (1966-69) 11.0 ar 208 Fourth Pen, (1969-74563 35 1.80 Fan Pen (1974-79) 89 52 un Actual Plan (1979-80) 13 “47 ie Saath Per (1980-85, a8 5 173 ‘everth Pian 03 yoars (1985-83; a8 42 210 } 34 1970-11 prices up to 1980-81 and at 1960-61 prices thereafter 2 The growth ratehas been worked out for the last four years of the Plan because the base year estimates for 1980-81 of thi ‘comparable with the 1979-80 estimates of the ea Ww series are not 1970-71 series. Transmission Line Structures 91400 1200 1000 800 600 ENERGY CONSUMPTION TWH 400 200 50 6070 Select Exponential 90 7000 2010 YEARS Figure 1.3 Forecast of energy consumption using different regression models and tapered growth model ‘Thewoll-known techniques ofstatistical analy- sis assuming the power and exponential regres- sion models could be applied to the forecasting of energy consumption. The equations used for these models are: Power model: ye AeB ce ap Exponential model: Bx (gy nergy consumption in GWH, ime in years, and A and B are constants which will depend on the statistical study of available data from, say, 1970-71 to 1987-88, Figure 1.3 shows the forecast of electrical energy consumption corresponding to the above two models up to the year 2009-10. Historically, the rate of growth of electricity ‘consumption which averaged 12.78 pereent per annum compounded during the decade 1950 to 1960-61 and 12.19 porcont during the decade 1960- 10 Transmission Line Structures 61 to 1970-71 came down drastically to 6.54 per- cent during the next decade 1970-71 to 1980-81 essentially due to widespread power shortages on account of delays in implementation of generation ‘and transmission projects. During the next five years from 1980-81 to 1985-36, the rate of growth improved to 8.37 percent. The growth rate during the Seventh Plan period (1984-85 to 1989-80) is likely to be around 9 percent. A reasonable pro- jection for the next two decades for broad plan- ning purposes could be on the basis of a growth rate of 9 percent gradually tapered down, as the base increases, to 7.5 percent, over a period of 15 years ending 2010 and remaining at that level for ‘some years thereafter, before it starts to decline. ‘The growth rate of 7.5 percent corresponds to the doubling ofenergy consumption in 10 years, which generally obtains in many systems after experi- encing higher growth rates in the early years of development. Figure 1.3 shows the projection based on the tapered growth alongside the power and exponential models. ‘Table 1.14 gives the forecast of energy con- sumption on this basis and the corresponding installed generating capacity using appropriate900 800 700 = = Energy consumption © spo & = E300 Fa Installed generating capocity © 100 ~ g 2 & 300 200 100 1950 76 80 iw) GENERATING CAPACITY/PEAK DEMAND 90 2000-2010 _ YEARS Figure 1.4 Growth pattern of energy consumption, installed generating capacity and system peak demand oad factors and ratiosof peak power availability to installed eapscity, the anticipated system peak demand and the system losses. Figure 1.4 shows the growth pattern of energy consumption, in- stalled generating capacity and the system peak demand from 1950 onwards to 1987-88 and the possible future pattern up to the year 2010. It will be seen that the installed generating capacity in the utilities by 2010 would have in- creased toeboutfour times the figure of 65,000MW likely tobe reached by 1989-90. Thus the additions to generating capacity over the next 20 years would indeed be large, which at once emphasises the need for evolving a long-term transmission perspective. Power resources Coal The country’s total coal reserves, including thin- ner seams of thickness of 0.5 to 1.2 metres and depths up to 1,200 metres are 108,619 million tonnes (Table 1.15). These include proved, inferred and indicated reserves. Oiland gas reserves ‘The total reserves at the commencement of 1981 are tentatively placed at 2,735 million tonnes of oil and 944 billion cubie metros of gas, although the recoverable reserves are much less at the present level of technology.’ Thus the initial recoverable reserves of oil are placed at 589 million tonnes (whieh correspond toan average oil recovery factor of about 22 percent only) and 441 billion cubic metros of gas. ‘The energy policy of the country envisages that the use of oil and gas would be confined to the essential sectors of economy in which Substitution of these fuels by other forms ofenergy would either not be possible or would be lesa efficient and uneconomic. Further, costs of power generation Transmission Line Structures 11Table 1.14 Growth pattern of electrical energy consumption, installed generating capacity and system peak demand — historical and projected Ingtalies —_Overatt system Year consumption generetrg peak demand ws} cepaciy nw) inn Dec 1950 4.157 L713 1.205 1960-61 138a1 4.653 3.551 1970-71 43.724 14,709 9.743 1975-76 60.246 20.117 13,583 isgog! 82367 30.214 19,121 1981-82 90215 32.345 20.126 1982-83, 95.610 35,363 20,544 1983-84 102.281 39.339 23,005 1964-85 114148 42.585 23.681 1985-86 123.106 46,769 26,248 1986-67 136.129 49.266 28.820 1987-88 = 146.085 54,195 32.240 1989-90 175.840 64,736 38,840 1994-95 266.850 95,190 57.590 1999-2000 395.730 136,030 82,980 2004-05 573420 190.070 116,890 2009-10 823.430 260,240 162.650 based on prevailing prices of oil and gas are sub- stantially higher than those from other sources. For these reasons. oil and gas would not play a significant role in future power development. Hydro potential ‘The hydro-electric potentialistentatively assessed a8 75,400MW at 60 percent load factor, of which 13 to 14 percent has been exploited so far. The region- ‘wiso potential together with the extent of develop- mentisgiven in Table 1.16, Besides, itis estimated that an annual energy generation of about 25TWH could be obtained economically through mini and micro hydels, canal drops and other possible low head development. Hydro power, being a renew- able source of energy, should undoubtedly receive a high priority in the country’s energy develop- ment, programme. Nuclear energy The commercially exploitable uranium reserves are about 49,000 tonnes anda further potential of 7,800 tonnes is available from copper tailings. After providing for losses during mining, milling, processing and fuel fabrication, these reserves are 12. Transmission Line: Structures Table 1.15 Coal reserves of India {in milion tonnes) Quality Total reserves Coking coal 24.796 Non-coking coal 81,798 lignite 2,025 Total 108,619 Table 1.16 Hydro-electric potential — assessed and developed ‘Annual energy Extent of development Region potential (1978 of potential ‘assessment] (March 1987) (WH (iw Northern 147.3 21,99 Western 377 619 Southern 68.2 21.07 Eastern 37.6 3.66 Nonh£astern 108.5 0.98 Total 396.3 53.85 expected toyield about 38,000tonnes.A10,000MWe nuclear power programme would require about 87,000 tonnes over the 25-year life of the reactors. With the fast breeder technology gaining ground and use of the Thorium-U 233 eycle, the resource position may be said to be comfortable in view of, the estimated deposit of 350,000 tonnes of thorium located in the coastal areas of Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Table 1.17 shows the estimated depend- able deposits of thorium in the world according to Table 1.17 Estimated deposits of thorium Thorium deposits Estimated ‘Country {1,000 tonnes} supplementary Fesources {1,000 tonnes) Canada 90 90 USA 60 300 South Africa 20 = Egypt 20 320. Brazil 5 35 India 350Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Devel- opment (OECD) sources.* In the country’s future power development programmes, the extent to which nuclear energy will play an important role in supplementing the nation’s fossil and hydel resources will require detailed consideration from various angles. ‘Three nuclear power stations — at Tarapur, Rawatbhata and Kalpakkam — with a total in- stalled capacity of 1,330MW (including dereting of ‘Tarapur units) are now in operation; two stations with an installed capacity of 470MW each at Na- yora and Kakrapara are under construction. With the first unit at Narora going critical in March 1989, the total nuclear eapacity at the end of the * Seventh Plan period (1989-90) will be 1,565MW. ‘The Atomic Energy Commission's 12-vear programme envisages the addition of 8 more reac- tors of the standardised 235MWe type, 6 reactors of 500MWe capacity and 2 reactors of 1,000MWe capacity bringing the total nuclear capacity to 9,050MWe by the turn of the century. While ade- quate capability to manufacture almost all the nuclear station equipment now exists within the country and, in fact, the Kalpakkam plant has about 90 percent indigenous components, @ pro- gramme of this magnitude looks somewhat ambi- tious considering the serious time overruns that have taken place in the case of the existing plants and those under construction. Another important consideration which has not received sufficient attention in the past is the transmission system required to evacuate the power from these stations and the associated interconnection facilities between power stations and load centres for en- suring stable operation of the plants as well as the grid system. Further, it is necessary to con- sider both power system stability and the plant protection system when studying fault analysis and stability improvement of a power system con- taining a nuclear power plant. Such studies call for botter organised and more systematic efforts than in the past. As regards the relative economics, the OECD study report published in 1984, covering a number of countries in Western Europe, Japan, Canada and the United States, has shown that except in the United States, in all other countries, nuclear power is cheaper than coal by 30 to 70 percent. Nuclear power is also cheaper in the US on the West Coast and the East Coast, but in the mid- West where there is a lot of strip-mining coal, which they can mine with the big bulldozer ma- chines at low cost, coal-based power is cheaper. In India, the nuclear power is cheaper than thermal power at smaller stations like Raichur situated at about 500km from Singareni coal field and about the same as at pit-head super-thermal stations like Ramagundam and Neyveli. It is esti- mated that, in the nineties, nuclear power would cost about 85 paise per kWh while thermal power at pithead about 91 paise. Considering that in the last ten years, coal cost has been going up at 15 percent per annum compounded, nuclear power will tend to become cheaper than thermal power even at the pit heads. Renewable sources of energy The development of new and renewable sources of energy is attracting interest the world over. In the long run, the world economy will inevitably move from the era of cheap fossil fuels toa pattern of life based on renewable sources of energy. For India, solar and wind energy and the use of biomass fuels are generally agreed to be most relevant, as the potential for geothermal energy, tidal energy. etc., is limited. However, considering the increasingly larger energy inputs required to sustain a reason- able rate of growth, and given the limited scope for energy conservation and the limited contribution which new energy technologies could make in the next two decades, dependence will continue heav- ily on conventional fuels. Ecology and environment The ecological and environmental aspects relating to various types of power stations and also trans- mission lines have to receive full consideration before a long-term power perspective is evolved. Such a study presupposes the availability of a system for investigation of alternative locations of generation, determination of an appropriate order of priorities for their construction and relative costs, identification of demand centres and the possible routings of transmission and interconnec- tion facilities, over a given time frame Environmental restrictions orcompliance costs can lead to options other than those indicated by traditional engineering approaches. Public safety has never before been so politicized nor have inter- pretation of what is safe and what is unsafe varied sowidely, both within and outside the engineering community. Thus influences external to the elec trie utility have now come to dominate the system planning activity. Therefore, a broader set of quatli- fications for the planning engineer has been added for dealing with the expanded aspects of the plan- ning function. Transmission Line Structures 13Therefore, in meeting the fumre energy de- mand much importance should be placed on elec- tricity generation from the three types of primary energy, namely, hydro, ecal and nuclearin the best technical, economic and environmental conditions. OF these three sources, even after allowing for hydro-electric development and expansion of nu- clear power capacity, there will have to besubstan- tial amount of new capacity provided from coal. It would be useful to highlight the environ- mental and other constraints in regard to hydro, thermal and nuclear stations and transmission lines Hydro-electrie stations In the case of hydroelectric projects, while the polluting effects of fossil fuel or nuclear plants are avoided, they have a considerable impact on the ecology of the region, The environmental impacts can be broadly classified under three types: phys- icochemical, biological and social.® The physico- chemical type has effects on reservoir and sur- rounding areas in the form of earthquakes (e.g., Koyna, India), sedimentation (e.g., Bhakra, In- dia), loss of water (e.g., Volga, USSR), and changes in water chemistry (e.g., Colarado, USA); the downstream effects are: dam failure, water log- ging, salinity and receding of deltas and estuaries, Similarly, the biological type has effeets on reser- voir and surrounding areas in the form of water Weeds, fisheries and diseases (malaria, fluorosis, ete.) and causes drop in fish harvest downstream. ‘The social impacts of hydro projects are consider- able: large requirements of lend, submergence of invaluable forests, displacement of people and the trauma suffered by them, ete. There are, however, examples of large hydro projects like the James Bay Project in Northern Canada that have incor- porated adequate environmental safeguards, ‘Thermal power stations ‘Thermal stations cause many environmental prob- Jemsin the formofairand water pollution. Sulphur- dioxide emission and flyash emission are serious hazards. Also, the water supply source is affected by the temperature rise and ash carried in theform ofslurry from the plants, with all theirdetrimental effects. Many of the adverse impacts can be fore seen and minimized through judicions siting, prepa: ration of detailed environmental impact assess- ments for the chosen site and finally through effective environmental management ai the oper- ating plant. 14 Transmission Line Structures Nuclear power stations Nuclear power creates a set of environmental and safety concerns that is unique among energy systems. Nuclear power faces practically the same obstacles in most-countries: protests from environ- mental groups, public fears aboutsafety, and prob- Jems with waste disposal. Yet, nuclear power is already a major component in world energy. Ofall the countries, France has forged farthest in nu- clear power and occupies a pre-eminent position in the world today. By 1990, the country would produce about 75 percent of electric power from reactors. In fact, the installed capacity of nuclear plants all over the world would then be about 400,000MWe of which 18 percent or 60,000MWe would be in France, second only to the USA with an installed eapacity of 112,000MWe. Further, the availability of nuclear plants to meet the system demand in France has been more than 80 percent since 1984 (ef: 60-65 pereent in the USA and 70-75, percent in Japan). The world’s biggest nuclear reactor and the first commercial breeder reactor, Super-Phenix, of 1,200MW capacity, went into operation in 1984. This reactor produces 60 times asmuch energy from agiven amountofuranium as the present: generation of reactors. The environmental issues surrounding nu- clear power stations can be classified into three categories as follows in order of increasing risk (eaving the proliferation of nuclear weapons): * Routine omissions (releases of radioactive material that are allowable by present national and international regulations and standards); +, Disposal of high-level nuclear wastes; + Accidents at operating nuclear power sta- tions, Routine emissions from the nuclear power fuel cycle are relatively safe, in fact much less harmful than those from fuel cycles such as coal. Low-level waste disposal which in most coun- tries means shallow land burial presents a low risk. High level waste (fission products and tran- suranium isotopes) poses a different kind of haz- ard. The bulk of worldwide research and develop- ment effort is concentrated on deep land-based burials in stable geological formations. The suita- bility of particular sites sometimes becomes the focus of public concern. In recent years, however, ‘two major changes have come about in the parcep- tion of nuclear waste." First; chemical wasteshave also become a major problem. Indeed, the volume, life time, and taxicity of chemical wastes exceed those of nuclear waste. Second, the han- dling, processing and transport of the waste proba- bly entail more risk than waste disposal itself. On the question of nuclear wastes, a epecial issue of Recue Générale Nucléaire, February 1980," authorised for publication by the Public Relations Committee of the French Institution of Nuclear Energy, concludes, after adetailed examination of various aspects, that the solutions presontly adopted in France for the management of radioac- tive wastos are entirely satisfactory from the point of view of protection and economically acceptable; that solutions are available for long-term storage of waste and their applications are under study with a view to adopting them at the appropriate time, and that there is np technical or economic ob- stacle to the management of wastes wholly com- patible with the respect for human life of today and its future descendents, In regard to nuclear accidents, the Three Milo Island (TMD in the United States in 1979 provided the first experience ofa major reactor accidentand the Chernobyl accident in the USSR. in April 1986, the worst of its kind, The TMI accident created such consternation that, although no ene was killed andnot much radiation escaped, no order for a new nuclear plant has been placed sineo any- where in the USA.” It should be mentioned that there ere 400 nuclear power plants operating in the world today, of which ebout one-quarter is located in the USA. The 100th nuclear 1,205MW reactor in the USA went into operation in March 1986, The 100 US plants ropresent the world’s largest national nuclear programme, totalling 86,418MW. As a result of the Chernobyl accident, it is reported that nuclear reactor projects are being abandoned in a number of Western European countries including Yugoslavia, Sweden, Denmark and the Netherlands. ‘The Chernobyl accident has brought about a new awakening on the safety aspects of nuclear power. Theneed has arisen todevelop urgently the capability for disaster managment in this area, A better international cooperation on nuclear safety also seems possible and certain global measures to maximise nuclear safety are likely to be taken. The first prececupation in any international meet in this connection would be on how to provide for a system of prompt warning and information in the event of accidents and faults at nuclear power stations. In all these activities, the International Atomic Energy Agency is likely to play an impor- tant role. There are two extreme positions obtaining today on the development of nuclear power. Swe- den. which produces 40 percent of the country’s electricity from nuclear power stations, has taken a parliamentary deeision to limit the building of nuclear power to twelve units and to phase them out within 30 yearsin view of the strong resistance to nuclear power being encountered in that coun try. A public resistance to high voltage power lines has also grown up about the injurious effeets of electromagnetic fields, Consequently, the plans finalised by the Swedish Power Board snd the Jeading power companies for the construction ofan 800 kV system in the context of « large nuclear power programme then envisaged have also been practically abandoned. On the othor hand, France expects to have about 60,000MW nuclear capacity (about 75 percent of the total power capacity) by the end of the century, with big fast breeder reactor programme; nuclear safety in that country is considered a model for other industries and in 1988 the French Government issued a six-level severity seale of nuclearaccidents, whichhas led to f@ better understanding between experts, media and the public. All other countries come in between the two extreme positions taken by Sweden and France, What position India and similar develop- ing countries have to take would be dependent on number offactors, the mostimportant of which is, the publie opinion at any given point of time, Transmission lines In planning new tranemission lines, land encum- brance, environmental interferences and visual impact are factors which are receiving increasing importance. These factors are discussed in some detail in Chapter 11 — Research and Develop- ment. A new rational approach is to design a line on a system of gradual penalization involving reductions in the value of the land crossed by the line due to each type of interference. Thus the overall cost to be optimised for a given line in- cludes, in addition to the construction and opera tion costs, also an environmental cost associated with the physical, social and economicdegradation of the territory concerned with the line. The various ecological and environmental aspects concerning thesiting ofpowerstationsand routing of EHV and UHV transmission lines are discussed in some detail, Sufficient appreciation of these aspects should be built into the onganisa- tions so that the time overruns and cost overruns Transmission Line Structures 15Table 1.18 Costs of overhead EHV lines related to cross-section In West Germany and India wes Germeny 1. Semee votag w Ho 2 Concuctors No. of conductor bundles GAL St No. of conductors in bundte/ 230/40 area of each bundle 3. Auminium crosssection mn i440 owl SF. Productive costs 4. Conductors. Aluminium ® 100 Unproductive costs 5. Foundavons 6 55 6. Towers 6 66 7 Earn wie % 1B 8 Fittings, mneutcors, % 40 steel Component of conductors 9. Adetttonal cose, % oF including earring, damage to ‘cutization, land rental 16. Sum of unproductive costs © 238 11, Totel costs % 338 12. Per km leypica DM 76,000 13, Per kin and per rem? ba 53 aluminium crosssection DAWRs sam mm? 400 400 400. £500 HVDC oxAlst eA‘ GxAI St DAS 3x380/50 4528/63 «23528708 4x6 89/36 6840 3.170 6.342, 5518 100 100 100 100 32 36 a3 24 56 93 109 45 4 4 2 2 48 22 21 6 a 49 7 31 178 208 202 vw 7+ 304 302 zn DM 245,000 Rs. 1,054.500 Rs.2,104,841 Rs:1,458,000 BM 36 5.333, Rs 332 s'300 Source Semens Review, No.9 Serrare ia, Setemser 1962 which have plagued the projects in the past are avoided. Experience of a number of countries goes to show that, in all power development projects — whether hydro, thermal or nuclear stations or transmission lines — the public at large should be given as much advance information as possible because it has been found that early knowledge and involvement produces etter cooperation from the individuals and groups concerned. In the Indian situation, if a long-term pers pective were developed with reference to a base year of 1751 WH corresponding to 1989-90 and a target year of, say, 570TWH (corresponding to 2004-05 — Table 1.14) which represents a little more than three times the base level and certain scenarios with possible generation facilities evolved, a clear picture would emerge of the possible gen- eration-transmission growth. The 570TWH year might possibly correspond to a peak demand of about 117,000MW end an installed generating capacity of around 190,000MW. An inerease of 125,000 MW in installed capacity over a period of 15 years is thus visualised which is indeed large in comparison with the base figure of about 16 Transmission Line Structures 65,000MW. ‘This, together with the long-term transmission perspective which wouldemerge side by side and would also be of a large magnitude, would greatly assist the planners and the industry in mobilising the resources required in a phased manner. Only through the development of such a porspective followed by implementation of a coherent programme, will the power systems evolve satisfactorily. Importance of transmission line structures The structures of overhead transmission lines, comprising essentially the supports and founda~ tions, havethe role of keeping theconduetors at the necessary distance from one another and from earth, with the specified factors of safety, and from the point of power transmission, are unproductive ‘The cost per kilometre of line related to the eross- section (in mm?) of all line conductors may there- fore be taken as a criterion for the economy of the line. An example of breakdown of line costs of typieal overhead lines in two distinetly different countries — West Germany and India — related to conductor cross-section is given in Table 1.18.Table 1.19 Transmission line tower production in India Ye Production Year Production in tonnes in tonnes 1975 81,000 1982 110,000 1976 92,000 1983 113,000 1977 95,400 1984 118,000 1978 100,800 1985 120.000 1979 96,900 1986 129,000 1980 102,000 1987 130,900 1981 98,000 1988 135,000 ‘The breakdown of costs in Table 1.18 clearly indicates that the ‘unproductive’ costs are much higher than the ‘productive costs per kmn-mni? of aluminium cross-section and that the towers and foundations constitute the major components of the ‘unproductive’ costs. This underlines the importance of effecting all possible economies in towers and foundations from the design stage through erection, tis also seen from Table 1.18 that the per unit productive costs in India are substantially higher than those in West Germany.” This is due mainly to the fact that the transmission lines in India are much longer and the line loadings are substan- tially lower than those in West Germany ‘Table 1.2 showing the growth of the transmis- sion network in India indicates that, on an aver- age, the growth has been. around 3,000 circuit-km per year from the commencement of the first Plan (1950-51) up to the end of the third Plan (1965-66), about 5,000 circuit-km per year thereafter up to the end of the fifth Plan (1978-79) and around 7,800 cireuit-km per year from 1978-79 to 1984-85 (end of Sixth Plan). ‘The anticipated growth during the Seventh Plan period is about 10,000 circuit-km per year. This corresponds to an annual expenditure of approximately Rs.2,500 million (1986 price level) on transmission line supports. The present installed capacity of transmission line tower manufacturersin the organised sectoris around 200,000 tonnes per annum. The small fabricators and the captive units of some State Electricity Boards together have an installed capacity of about 51,300 tonnes per annum. However, the production during the 14-year period from 1974 to 1988 has ranged between 63,000 tonnes and 135.000 tonnes only (Table 1.19), These figures include export orders also to the tune of 25,000 tonnes per year. With the anticipated growth of transmission network and inerease in exports, itis expected that a production capacity of 200,000 tonnes perannum would be required, pointing to the need for inereas: ing the tower fabricating capacity during the Eighth Plan period. Thus, the transmission programme in the country i likely to get accolerated in future and the need foreffecting all possibleeconomies through improved designson the one hand and implement ing the transmission projects on schedule on the other, need hardly to be emphesised. References 1. Central Electricity: Authority, Highlights of Power Supply industry in India, New Delhi, 1988. 2. Merlin, Andre and Santucci, Gerard, Applications des models probabilistes a a: planification & long terme des reseaus electriques THT d’EDF, Revue Generate d Bleciricits, Vol. 88, Paris, February 1980. 3. Central Electricity Authority, Tenth Annual Blec tric Power Survey of India, New Delhi, 1977 Central Electricity Authority, Twelfth Blectric Power Survey of india, New Delhi, March 1985, Ministry of Energy, Department of Power, Report of the Coramitiee on Power, Government of India, Now Delhi, 1980, 6. Ministry of Finance, Economie Division, Beonomie Survey 1988-89, Government of India. Satishichandran, TR, " Prospects for Energy Self- Sufficiency”, Righteenth Mysore Engineers Astocta: tion Commemoration Lecture, The Institution of Engineers (India), Bangalore, December 1981 8, Revue Générale Nucléaire, Lenergie en questions, Paris, October 1978, ©, Ahuja, Dilip, Social and Environmental Effects of Hydro-electric Stations, TERI, New Delhi, 1985, 10, Smith, Kirk R., Nuclear Power and the Environ: ment, Bast-West Center, Honolulu, 1985. 11, Revue Générale Nacléaire, Les déchets nucléaires en questions, Numero Speciat, Paris, February 1980, 12, TIME, The Weekly News Magazine, Vol. 133, No. 7 New York, February 18, 1964 13, Walter, Buckner, “Designing Overhead-line Steuc- tures Eccnomicsily", Siemens Review. tember 1962, 6 ransmission Line Structures 172 Material properties, clearances and tower configurations Material properties Classification of steel ‘quality of steel is to specify the use of steel manufactured by the open-hearth process for tower members, although some authorities have instead specified the use of steel manufac tured by either the open-hearth or electric furnace process, The usual standards specified are ASTM ‘4-7, BSS 15, and German Stee] Standard St 37, IS : 226-1976, Specification for Structural Steel (Revised), is currently adopted in India. In s0 far as standard structural steel is con: corned, reference to 1S:226-1975 shows that TT general practice with reference to the Steel manufactured by the open-hearth, electric, ‘hasic oxygen or « combination of the processes is acceptable for structural use and that in easo any ‘other process is employed, prior approval of the purehaser should be obtained. In addition to standard structural steel (sym- bol A), high tensile steel conforming to IS : 961- 1975 may be used for transmission line towers for greater economy. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of steel covered by IS : 226- 1975 for structural steel and IS : 961-1975 for high tonsile stool are shown in Tables 2.1 to 2.4 Suitability for welding ‘The standard structural mild stea! is suitable for welding, provided the thickness of the material does not exceed 20mm, When the thickness ex coeds 20mm, special prerautions such as double Vee shaping and cover plates may be required, St 58-HT is intended for use in structures where fabrication is done by methods other than 18. Transmission. Line Structures welding. St 55-HTw is used where wolding is employed for fabrication. In the past, transmission line structures in India were supplied by firms like Blaw Knox, British Insulated Callender Cables (BICC), etc. from the United Kingdom. Later, towers trom SAB, Italy, were employed for some of the trans- mission lines under the Damodar Valley Corpora- tion, In recent times, steel from the USSR and somo other East European countries wore partly used in the transmission line industry. Currently, stool conforming to IS: 961 and IS :236 andmanu- factured in thecountry arealmost exclusively used for towers, ‘A comparison of mechanical properties of standard and high tensile steels conforming to national standards of the countries mentioned above is given in Table 2.5. Properties of structural steel A typical stress-strain curve of mild steel is shown in Figure 2.1. Steels for structural use are classi- fied as: standard quality, high strength low carbon steel and alloy steel. The various properties of steel will now be briefly discussed. Behaviour up to elastic limit Up to a well-defined point, steel behaves as a perfectly elastic material. Removal of stress at levels below the yield stress causes the material to regain its unstressed dimension. Figure 2.2.shows typical stress-strain curves for mild steel andhigh- tensile steal, Mild steel has a definite yield point unlike the high-tensile steel; in the latter case, the yield point is determined by using 0.2 percent offketTable 2.1 Chemical composition Percent (Max) Constituent Mild steel High tensile steel St SBHT St SSHTw Carbon for thickness/dia 0.23 } 20 mm and below } 0.27 0.20 for thickness/dia over 20mm — 0.25 Sulphur 0.055 0.055, 0.055 Phosphorous 0.055 0.055 0.055 Source: indian Standara Specification for Structural Stee Standard Quality) 1s» 226- 1975. Incian Stencara Speciiceion for Stuctural Stee) Hign Tense §: 961-1975, Table 2.2 Mechanical properties of mild steel Nominal thickness/ Tensile Yel Percentage Class of steel product diameter strength stress, Min, elongation mm kaf/mm? kaf/mm? Min. Plates, sections 6sxs20 4254 26.0 23 (angles, tees, beams, channels, etc, and flats - 20<%<40 4254 24.0 23 40 OOF JO SUO!SUOUNP 49M03 [[eI9A0 pul Ap2ede2 Burfise> 19MEd Jo UORN[OAT ZZ"Z 2unB14 I I I Guan) oor az I ez I e@ Bh rh l 80 ‘eouwuuoped jeuols | 1 | -voiwip samor ouoeds of weenie, =! oe oe oz I se (uw) Buigeds sojonpuos 01 so}anpVOD'TeILOZLOH, I | I 8 ep aw se se se se (w) 1uBrey obaioay I ! I 0087 oe osie =| ose osat 035 (YAW) pounusuen | d somod wnwDey | I | | akeus ! azsooroury | tgp oooury 2 | ozs cowry 2! ozs aru 2 I Il | 1969719 HSOV Z bby HsoW 2 sopnpuog z z i b t t SUNDA Jo reqUINNY Binoqneon, oly [eyo yuo, wu ! jejwozu0}} I I I I ! I I I | | | paca I I uoddns ey) jo euenoyis I | | | t | get isz61 |_seswozer | ozsiso6t 0261/0961 UoHONASUOD 19 186A 996 1/086) Transmission Line Structures 431951-1956 1956-1959 1838km line 10dakm line 1958-1965 19589-1986 1956km line 5108km line Figure 2.23 Principal 400 kV tower types and their total line lengths and years of commissioning in Sweden ‘Source: Extra High Voltage Transmicsion in Sweden, Swodich State Power Board 44 Transmission Line StructuresTon TOO KR MT 4.0. 3.0: 20° eee Toes 1950-59 1950-65 vee fear Figure 2.24 Tower steel weight per 100 Km-MW between 1951 and 1986 123m Figure 2.25 Dimensions of straight line tower in Hydro Quebec's 735 kV transmission line ‘Soujce: From the journal ELTEKNIK, Stockholm = 16. Transmission Line Structures 45the weight of steel per km-line was reduced al- though the transmission capacity of the lines was increased (Figure 2.24). The first 785 KV single circuit tangent tower used on the Hydro Quebec's transmission line in Canada is given in Figure 2.25." In Italy, a 1050 kV project was launched in 1971 having as its aim the design, construetion and operation of a 1080 kV prototype installation having all themain componentsof the future UHV transmission system." Italy has a well-developed 400 kV system and the type of support considered for initial operation at 400 kV (double circuit) and eventual operation at 1050 kV (single circuit) is shown in Figure 2.26. The support designed with insulating catenary for a 1050 kV line is shown in Figure 2.27 (a). A typical six-conductor bundle used for the line is shown in Figure 2.27 (b).. ‘The silhouettes of the various supports eon- sidered for a 1050 kV line together with the salient features, are given in Figure 2.28, Insulator swings and clearances For reckoning clearances to tower steel work, the present praetice in India is that the insulator swings are specified without reference to the wind pressure regions in which tho line is to be erected, and this has resulted in the adoption of the same swings in widely varying wind pressure rogions. ‘The swings and the corresponding clearances usually adopted at, present for various transmis- sion lines, from 66 kV to 400 kV, are given in Table 2.9.7 Tris usual to specify two sets of swing angles and corresponding clearances in the case of tan- gent towers, In one case, the clearance is based on power frequency flashover considerations corre- sponding to the swing that would theoretically occur with maximum wind, and in the other, the clearanceis based on impulse flashover (lightning) considerations corresponding to 80° swing under a steady wind condition, Taking, for example, the case of'a 132 kV line, two swings, 80° and 60°, are specified with the corresponding clearances of 1,525mm and 1,070mm. At the smaller swing angle, the air clearance corresponds to animpulse fleshover value 10percent higher than thatof the string, and at the larger swing angle, the air clearance corresponds toa power frequency wet flashover value slightly greater than that of the string. The practices regarding the swing values of jumper used on tension strings vary widely from 110° fo 40° for various voltage lines. The jumpers 46 Transmission Line Structures Figure 2.26 400 kV Double circuit line convertible to a 1050 kV single circuit line Source: Extract from CIGRE (International Conference ‘on Large High Voltage Electric Systems) Paper No, 22-12, 1978. Alidimensions in mets Figure 2.27 (a) Support with an insulating caternary for a 1050 kV line ‘Source: Extracts trom CIGRE (Intornational Conference ‘on Largo High Voltage Electric Systems) Papar No. 22-12, 1978.ALL DIMENSIONS IN CENTIMETRES Figure 2.27 (b) Six-conductor bundle used for 1050 kV line are short in length and are too rigid to be deflected to the same extent as the conductor. Therefore, it is difficult to evaluate the swing in view of the vari- ‘ous uncertainties involved, such as the jumper length, its dip, the wind pressure assumed, etc. ‘The jumper swings and clearances generally adopted for transmission lines at various voltages in the country are given in Table 2.107 ‘The length of the tower cross-arm is deter- mined by drawing the clearance diagrams corra- sponding to the swing angle and the minimum air clearance required from conductor point to tower steel, The clearance diagrams drawn for a typical 66 kV tangent tower with suspension insulators and 15° tower with strain insulators are shown in Figure 2.29 and 2.30. While lower air clearances will adversely af- fect the full utilisation of the line insulation pro- vided, too large air clearances will mean longer eross-arms and correspondingly heavier towers, thereby adding to the cost. The various factors governing the swing of the suspension insulator strings and air clearances and correlating the two under different operating systems and climatic conditions aro now discussed, Table 2.9 Angles and air clearances for various line voltages Assumed value of Minimum line swing ofsuspension clearance volage KV) stfing from vertical specified (degress| rem) 66 30 760 45 (or 60) 610 132 30 1,525 60 1.070 220 20 1,980 35 1,400 300 22 3,000 45 1,860 Source: “Manual on Transmission Line Towers’, Technical Report No. 9, Central Board oF Iigation and Power, Maren 1977, Table 2.10 Jumper swings and clearances Assumed value Minimum Voltage of swing of clearance KV Jumaer from specified vénical (degrees) (nm) 66 10 760 132 10 1,525 30 1,070 220 15 1,980 30 1,400 400 18 3,000 36 1,860 Source: "Manual on Transmission Line Towers’, Technical Regart No.9, Central Board of get and Pose, Merch 19 A rational approach to swings and clearances ‘Under the effect of wind on conductors and insula- tors, the insulator string swings from the normal position. The angle of swing depends upon: 1, the wind velocity in the transverse direc. tion, 2. the diameter of the conductor, 3, the weight of the conductor, and 4, the angie of line deviation and conductor tension corresponding to the wind pressure assumed on the conductor. Transmission Line Steictures 47j 3A | aa | 46.00 86.00 1.80 SUPPORTHEIGHT | 51.60 | 42.70 30.70 30.70 90.70 | CONDUCTOR HEIGHT | 30.70 90.70 | i) = 16.09 11.00 ah 14.00 | 1.80 19.90 24.00 1280 | INTERPHASE DISTANCE | 12.50 12.40 | | Hm) | 76.00 61.00 | 49.60 RIGHT OF WAY 49.50 52.00 | (m) | 14.00 15.80 23.00 BASE WIDTH 35.00 31.00 b(m) | | 21.00 21.00 30.00 | SUPPORTWEIGHT | 28.00 9.10 | | I | ‘Supports 3A and 38, steel weights are for supports with guys: ‘Theoretical weights Right-of way eveluated at mid-span Figure 2.28 Supports devised for a 1050 KV line ‘Source: Reproduced from CIGRE (international Conference on Large High Voltage Elecine Systems| Paper No 22-12, 1978, 48° Transmission Line Structuress40qe|nsur ures YIM 192103 SL s103einsul uorsuadsns yum somo2 3uaBuer #199 & 10) umesp uresBeIp aouese2/> OE-Z 2unBIa A199 & 105 umvsp usesBeIp a2ue19/9 6Z"Z 2nBIa af ra wise soo Transmission Line Structures 49Figure 2.31 shows the insulator string under normal conditions and after a swing. Let 6 = Angleofinsulatorswing from the vertics! T = Maximum conductor tension (in kg) cor- responding to the wind pressure and temperature conditions assumed for the swing 0 = Angle of line deviation H = Horizontal span or wind span (which is half the sum of adjacent spans) V-= Vertical span or weight span (which is the distance between the lowest: conduc- tor points in adjacent spans) W, = Weight per unit length (m) of conductor W, = Weight of the insulator string W, = Wind load per unit length (m) of con- ductor Horizontal component of loadings at O = HW, +2Tsin £ + } (windload onstring) Vertical component of loadings at O = vw, + BW, ‘The swing angle is expressed by the relationship: Horizontal component ‘Tan = “Vertical component. ata fH. on i ttre i vw,+ BW, (21D. As regards the jumper swing, the general practice is to specify one angle of deflection for the Jumper and the corresponding electrical clearance, Air clearances Airclearance refers to theminimum distance which must be maintained between the live conductor and the earthed metal parts of the support to avoid a flashover between them. The minimum airclear- ance has to be maintained even under the condi- tions of system over-voltages with tho insulator stringsin thedeflected position dueto the action of wind pressure. Like insulator strings, thecirepace between the live conductor and earthed metal workisalsosubjected tothe various voltage stresses under different system conditions, Jn extra high voltage systems, three types of overvoltages are likely to occur: 1, Overvoltages due to direct strokes of light- ning, 50 Transmission Line Structures 2, Overvoltages due to switching surges, and 3. Powor-froqueney overvoltages. Overvoltages dueto switching surgesareofan internal origin and are caused by the following switching operations: energising oftransmission lines on no load, . switching off of long lines on no load, clearances of short circuits, and interruption of transformer magnetising currents. ape Power frequency overvoltages occur 1, when @ long loaded line is interrupted at one end, 2, whenan open line is suddenly connected to the source, 3. onthe occurrence ofa single phase to earth feult or two phases to earth fault, and 4, atthefreeendofaline connected at oneend only due to Ferranti effect, It is therefore necessary to specify three dif ferent clearances corresponding to three different types of overvoltages mentioned above, with the insulator string in the deflected position. Choice of insulation level for transmission lines ‘The number of insulators, swing angle, effects of weather, phase spacing, and clearance to tower and to ground wires affect tower dimensions and costs as well as the outage rate, Economy and practicability of design demand that the insulation strength be kept to a minimum and should afford reasonably adequate protection. One hes to strike an economic balance between the chances of fail- ure and the cost of greater insulation strength. Lightning overvoltages ‘The severity of the lightning surge depends on the maximum stroke current and tower-footing resis- tance. Detailed observations made on power sys- tems in a number of countries have shown that tower currents produced by lightning are gener- ally of the order of 10,000 amps. to 50,000 amps., the latter figure representing about 5 percent of the strokes, which means that currents exceeding 50,000 amps. are rarely encountered. Therefore, for purposes of fixing air gap insulation from the consideration of lightning, it appears quite safe to proceed on the basis of a maximum stroke current, of 50,000 amps. The tower-foating resistance eco- nomically permissible is 10-15 ohms for 66 kV lines, 15-20 ohms for 132 kV lines, and 20-30 ohmsKilovolts 2100 2600} 2400 2200 2000] 1400] «600 1200] ‘oe! 00) teo) 400) Cross-arm Insulator string Conductor a) Normal condition 4 Wind toad on string / 22 Wind load on string b) After swing Figure 2.31 Insulator string under normal conditions and after swing Impulse ‘Dry Wet Se BOSSI ee Number of insulator dises Note: Barometer 76cm, temperature 25 degrees Centigrade, vapour pressure 15.5mm Figure 2,32 Flashover values of suspension insulators with 254mm diameter and 146mm spacing Transmission Line Structures 51for 220 kV lines, and 30-55 ohms for 400 kV lines. Where tower-footing conditions are poor and can- not be corrected economically, the performance of the lines would, of course, be different and it may became necessary to provide increased insulation. In oder to take advantage of the full line insula- tion provided, it is necessary to ensure that the minimum air clearance between the live conduetor andthe nearest earthed metal part is such that its impalse flashover value is not less than the corre- sponding impulse flashover value of the insulator string. If the insulator string is provided with arcing devices, the impulse flashover value of the complete string should be considered for the co- ordination of the gap. ‘The number of insulator discs normally adopted in the country for voltages at 66 kV and above, along with the corresponding impulse flashover values as evaluated from the impulse flashover curve of suspension insulators (Figure 2,32) are given in Table 2.11.1" Table 2.11 Number of insulator discs and impulse flashover values for various line voltages ‘No. of 254 x 148 mm Impulse (15 40 Vonage 0 es imcro-seccre}Nashover wr suspension sting value of srg, posite ‘wave 56 5 525 132 9 260 220 4 1,265 400 23 2,000 Internal overvoltages — criterion for line insulation level Ithas long been recognised that, as higher system. voltagelevels areadopted with attendant increases in impulse insulation strength, internal overvelt- ages, rather than lightning overvoltages, would be the governing criterion. It does not, however, fol- low that lightning overveltages can be ignored. If tower-footing resistances are acceptably low and ground wires are properly located, the insulation which is adequate for internal overvoltages pro- vides satisfactory lightning protection also. Multiplying factors The string insulation must be sufficient to prevent, a flashover from the stationary overvoltages and the switching surges, taking into account all the local unfavourable circumstances (rain, dust, in- 52. Transmission Line Structures sulator pollution, fog, etc.) which decrease the flashover voltage. Some additional multiplying factors are therefore allowed to account for con- taminated, non-standard atmospheric conditions, polluted insulation surface, ete. These fectors in- fluence the value of normal frequency flashover voltages more than that of impulse flashover volt- age. Further, it is the usual practice to allow for some safety margin for unforeseen or unpredict- able conditions. The various overvoltage factors slong with their values normally applicable to EHV lines are given in Tables 2.12 and 2.13." Ttis a good practice to make an allowance for one or two more insulator discs to take care of the possibility of an insulator unit in the string becom. ing defective and also for hot-line maintenance, over and above those required to withstand the above overvoltages. Accordingly, for lines up to 220 kV, one extra insulator disc, and for 400 kV, two extra insulator dises may be provided. In the light of the foregoing discussion, the number of insulator dises of 264 x 146mm size required to withstand the switching surge and the power froquency overvoltages for lines at 66 kV to 400 kY is given in Table 2.14. In general, it ean be stated that lightning overveltages determine the insulation level of installations at 66 kV and internal overvoltages determine the insulation level at higher voltages. At 400 kV and above, the power frequency over- voltages are the governingcriteria for determining the insulation level. Corresponding to the power frequency over- voltages computed in Table 2.14, the required air clearances are evaluated with reference to the power frequency wet flashover curve of rod gaps (Figure 2.33). Similarly, corresponding to the posi- tive impulse withstand voltages (switching surges), the air clearances are determined from the critical positive impulse flashover curve of rod gaps (Fig- ure 2.32). The air clearances corresponding to lightning overvoltages are also evaluated from the same impulse flashover curve of rod gaps. ‘Keeping in view the above requirements, the air clearances under various system operating conditions for voltages at 66 kV and above are given in Table 2.15, ‘The number of insulator diecs given in Table 2.14 applies to regions with clean atmosphere. The specification of the required insulation in polluted conditions, however, calls for a careful study. The LE.C. Roport entitled “Cuide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions”* gives simple general rules that: would assist in choosingTable 2.12 Switching surges — overvoltage factors Maximum operating voltage 1.10 for 220 kv 105 for 400 Ky cents 14i¢ severing surges, 25 for 220 2.0 for $00 V Impulse fesnover valtagerswitching urge strength 1s imputse withstand vorage/impulse ‘lasnover vatiage 115) Contaminated surface, non-stenderd aimasphere, etc, Jal Overat safey margin 1s Postive impulse withstand voltage crest 1/50 microsec.) \s VX LX LANE 62.5 1.15 115 11 1S = 65 V,, for lines at 220 KV ang Vy X 105% 1414 2.03% 11881 ISK TTR LIS = 510, for lines at 400 KV where V,, 1s pheseto-neutral vokage Source: The Institution of Engineers {inca}. extracts from roceecings ofthe Seminar on "High Vottage Tecnngues — ver voltagesandinsulation Coordination n Power Systems, Srrgnore September 1971, nthe cape oyS3 Munhy and anna Table 2.13 Power frequency (50 Hz) — evervoltage factors Maximum operating voltage 1,10 for 220 kV 11.05 tor 400 kv Qvervotage factor 1.3 for 2204 15 for 400 hv \Wenstana/tashover vottage 1s Non-standard atmosphere, contaminated surfece, et 1.20 Overall safesy margin 1.50 50 Hz wet withstand voltage {rms} is VX IDLER NISH 12% 15 DY, for ines at 220 kV Vp 1.05 1.5% 115% 131.5 3 V, for ines at 400 KV wnere Vif phasetoneutral vokage. Source’ The Institution of Engineers (india) extiacts fiom Proceedings of ine Seminar on “High Vollege Technigues Sher vollegesar-dinsuleion Coorcination nower Systems, Bergson Sepiernper 1921. ne pape by S§ urn and the insulator which should give satisfactory per formance under polluted conditions. The guide defines qualitatively fourlevels of pollution : Light, Medium, Heavy, and Very heavy, giving a descrip- tion of some typical corresponding environments and gives a method of insulator selection by choos- ing insulator dimensions with regard to the spe cific nominal ‘minimum creepage distance’ (rm KV) corresponding to each of the pollution levels (Table 2.16). Coordination of air clearances and ewing angles ‘The air clearances between the conductor and the earthed steel work corresponding to the three types of overvoltages have therefore to be coordi- nated with the corresponding deflected position of the insulator string. The problem, therefore, lies in foresceing, as far as possible, realistic atmospheric conditions and the simultaneous occurrence of system overvoltages. It would, however, be more appropriate if the system overvoltages could be correlated with wind velocity (whieh is the quantity actually recorded) rather than wind pressure Table 2.17 summarises thonature of overvolt- ages and the corresponding climatic conditions assumed according to the practice followed in the USSR (and with some variations in a few other countries), Example An example of calculating swings for a typical 220 KV line under power frequency, switching overvoltage and lightning overvoltage conditions is given below. Conductor particulars 1, Conductor size: 30/4.27mm Al+7/27mm St, "Deer" , Ultimate tensile strength = 18,230kg Overall diameter of conductor = 29,89mm, , Area of cross-section = 5.3em? Weight of conductorim,W = 1.977kg. Modulus of Elasticity, £ = 0.787 x 10°ke/ em? 7. Coefficient of linear expansion, «= 17.73 x 10rC 8. We. of conductorim/em® cross-section, 8 = ast 12H = o.87akg oon Climatic condition 1, Wind velocity of the region = 100kra/hr Transmission Line Structures 532. Temperature variation: Max. = 40+ 17 = 57°C Min. = 10°C Swing under power frequency overvoltage condition Basic wind velocity of the region, V, = 100km/hr Design wind velocity, V, = Vk, hy ky (hy ky Ry are coefficients which take care of variables such as risk factor, terrain and height, ete., which are explained in detail in Chapter 3) 100 1x 1x 1= 100km/hr Design wind pressure is given by: P, = 0.0047 V,? = 47 kgm? ‘Total wind load on conductors P=C,A, P, x space factor where G, is force coefficient = 1.2, A_ is the effective frontal area of conductor 5° x1 mm length = 0.02989 mi/m length, and space factor is in the range 0.5 - 0.85 3000 2800] 2600| 2400) 2200) 2000} 1800) 1600 ee = 1200 1000} 800) 600) 400] 200 ° ‘Therefore, P= 1.2 x 0.02989 x 47 x 0.7kg (assuming a space factor of 0.7) = L18kg a= yew *. Span! = 350m * The estimation of g, and the formation of the Sag- tension Cubie Equatlin are explained in Chapters S and 4. AES2°C, no wind Assume factor of safety (fo.s,) at 32°C and no wind as 4. 18,230 Therefore f,= 18232 = 860 kelem* Alf, cae) = PERE Substituting the values and simplifying, we get K= 411. impulse Wet (0 BS SO 7S 100 125 150 TS 2028S B50 71S 300 325 350 378400425 490 475 SCO Gap spacing in em Note: Barometer 76cm temperature 25 degrees Centigrade vapour pressure 15.5mm Figure 2.33 Flashover values of standard rod gaps 54 Transmission Line StructuresTable 2.14 Insulation level for EHV lines Nomwat Phaseto Pose Naot Power Noof No.of 254x146 mm gies sytem newtal impuse lessor frequency sizer vonage vokage wrsione ees overvonages ass ‘Recommencea Employed Ve vonage requies (S0H2 meu requred at present omnerng (2581 S5eyry (254 « 13600) w nv surges) from Fg 225) (hom Fig. 2.29) 66 38 38x65=257 2 38x 3— 114 3 5 5 132, 7 76x65=498 5 76 x3= 228 3 Sele 9 220127 127% 65 = 825 9 127 x 3m 381 10 Oelatl 1314 400231231 5.0=1,155 3 2343.32 762 20 242222 23 |. from ightrang evervokage considerations. Table 2.15 Air clearances under different system ‘operating conditions SI.No. ‘System condition Minimum air clearance in'em. at aitferent transmission voltages O6RV 132K Z20KV «400K 1 Under power frequency 38 70 114 > 228 overvokages 2. Under switching 33 76 133 188 overvoltages 3 Under tightning 90 150 210 290 overvoltages Table 2.16 Minimum nominal specific epage distance corresponding to each pollution level Minimum nominal Pollution level specific creepage disance (arn/XV) | Light 16 I Medium 20 Ml Heavy 25 IV Very heavy 31 Table 2.17 Nature of overvoltages and corresponding climatic conditions Climatic conation Nature of overvotages (wind velocity) Vmax Highest operating voltage 0.6V max Switching overvoltage 0.4V max Atmospheric overvoliage At minimum temperature and ‘maximum wind Lege (i, -Kl= Substituting and simplifying, woget f= 1,070 kgiemt T, = 1,070x5.3=567lkg 18.250 5671 ‘That is, the maximum conductor tension T corre- sponding to maximum wind pressure and mini- mum temperature = 5,671kg. fos.= = 3.21 >2.5; hence safe. Wind load on insulator string Length of suspension insulator string for 220 kV = 265em Diameter of each dise = 25.5em Wind load on insulator string = C, A,P, Force coefficient, C,, corresponding to a Solidity Ratio of 0,5 = 2.1 — from the Table 3.5 — Overall forse coefficient for towers. (The effect of wind on insulators which have a typical shape has to be accounted for by Force Coefficient C,. A detailed Transmission Line Structures 55discussion on this coefficients givenin the section, Wind Pressures, in Chapter 3.) Wind load on insulator string 2.1 x (0.5 x 2.65 x 0.255) x 47kg = 83.25kg Substituting the values in equation(2.11), wehave 2 L 25671 8in 3 4 a50% 1.18 + § x30.25 Tan a S. sox twits x22 = 0.8332 from which 9 = 40° Swing under switching overvoltage condition ‘Wind velocity of the region = 0.6 V, ).6 x 100 = 60 kin/ar P, = 0.0047 x 60? = L7kg/m? Wind load on conductor/m length, P = 0.62% 1,18 = 0.424kg - (Ee . [Cai . ter 1977 mica At minimum temperature and maximum wind Pq 98 RG-K= yb PEG, ~ 411) = 1.02288 x 559 x LO from which /,= 1,000k¢/em? {000 x 6.3 = 5,300kg ttos.= 18239 _ 3.44 >2.0;honce safe, 5,300 Maximum conductor tension corresponding to switching overvoltage condition = 5,300kg Wind load on insulator string = 83.35 x 3 2.06kg 25,80 18+ 950x0.405% } «1206 Tan d= ae 0.4511 from which ¢= 24° Swing under lightning overvoltage condition Wind velocity = 0.4 V, 0.4.x 100 = 40kmn/ar 0.0047 404 = 7.5 kg/m? P, 56 Transmission Line Structures Wind load on conductor per m, P = 0.42 118 = 0.1888ke At minimum temperature and maximum wind F2 Uf -R) = 1.0045? x 559 x 10° F2 Uf, ALL) = 564 x 10° f, = 990 kg/em? T =990x5.: 8.230 S287 Maximum conductor tension corresponding to lightning overvoltage = 5,247kg Wind load on insulator string = 33.85 x 43 5,247kg. 47 > 2.0; hence safe, fos, = 5.32kg a xs2étican 114860503868» 3832 Tan¢ = Tene = 0.3341 from which @ = 19° Summarising, the insulator swing angles and clearances corresponding to the power-frequency overvoltages, switching overvoltages, and light- ning overvoltages for a typical 220 kV transmis- sion line tangent tower (0-2°) in the wind velocity region of 100 km/hour are given in Table 2.18, Table 2.18 Air gap clearance for the various overvoltages Swing angle _-Argap cearare fem Powersrequercy overvotages 40° M4 Syutching overvoltages 24 133 Lightning overvotages 1 210 Insulation Configuration ‘The application of V-string designs is becoming inereasingly common, particularly at the higher voltage levels and in areas of restricted right-of way. The reduction in the right-of-way require- ments results from the eliminetion of insulator swing. Saving in tower steel can also result by reducing clearance requirements. This permits redueed phase spacing and a corresponding de- crease of inductive reactance which increases the power transfer capability of the line. However, the Mashover strength is signifi- cantly reduced for a V-string in the centre phasedue to proximity effects and therefore a greater number of insulators is required. Inareas with mild or no contamination, use of Vor single strings is based primarily on economic considerations. In areas of heavy contamination, “strings function better than vertical strings since they self-clean more effectively than vertical strings because both sides of each insulator shed are somewhat exposed to rain, References 1. Charles G., Salmon and Jchn E., Johnson, Steel Structures - Design and Behaviour, Harper and Row, New York, 1880. 2. Knowles, Peter, Design of Structural Steelwork, Surrey University Press, London, 1977. 3. Biggs, W.D., Brittle Fracture of Steel, MacDonald and Evans, London, 1960. 4, SAIL-MA, The New Generation High-Strength ii. sro Alley Steels, Stool Authority of India Ltd, Cal- outta, 1081. 5. Gracey, G.C,, Overhead Bleetrie Power Lines, Ernest Penn Limited, London, 1963, 6. The British Aluminium Company, Overhead Trans: mission Lines, London, 1937. 7. Khanna, RL, “Manual on transmission line tow- ers", Technical Report No. 9, Central Board of Irri« gation and Power, New Delhi, March 1977, 10. un 12, 13, Mu 16. 16. a7, Ryle, P.., ‘Steel tower economics”, Journal of IEE. Part 2, 1946, Gopalan. T-V., Suseendran, R., Krishnamurthy. P. Raghunatha. T., Afsar Ahmed, Estimation of To Weight for Tender Design, CPRI, Bangalore. 1976, Ghannoum. E., Tupula. F. Rao, SS. “The Design of 500kV HVDC Rihand-Dethi transmission line”. Pro- eoodinge of International Conference on Trends 1” Tranamission Line Technology, ALEL, New Delhi, 1985. i “Gittermaste fir Hochopannungeleitunge Merkblatt Stahl 989, Beratungostelle fir Stahlver: wendung, Dusseldort, 2, Auflage, 1973. CERT Service Btudes, Synopsis des Lignes Electri- ques. Electricité de France. Swedish State Power Board, Extra High Voltage Transmission in Sweden, 1985. Janeke, Gannar, Developments in the Field of Exira High Voltages, Eiteknik, June 1966. Cauzillo, BA. Nicolini, P., Paoli, P., Carpena, A, “Mechanical Design Critoria and Construction of Now UHV Linos’, Paper No, 22-12, CIGRE, 1978 Murthy, S.S, and Khanna, RL, "Oyervoltages and Insulation Coordination in EHV Systems”, Proceed- ings of the Seminar on High Voliage Teciiniques ~ Qverveltages and Insulation Coordination in Power ‘Systems, Bangalore, September 1971. “Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions’, International Electrotechnical Commission Report, Publication 815, First edition, 1986, ; Transmission Line Structures 573 Factors of safety and loads Factors of safety Factors of safety of conduetors and ground wires ‘ground wire) is the ratio of the ultimate strength of the conductor (or ground wire) to the load imposed under assumed loading condi- tions, Rule 76 (1)(e) of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956," stipulates as follows: TT: factor of safety (f.0.8.) of a conductor (or ‘The minimum factor of safety for conductors shall be two, based on their ultimate tensile strength, In addition, the conductor wension at 82°C with: ‘out external load shall not exceed the following percentages of the ultimate tensile strength of the conductor: Initial unloaded tension 35 percent Final unloaded tension 25 percent ‘The rule does not specify the loading condi- tions to which the minimum factor of safety should correspond, Generally, these loading conditions are taken as the minimum temperature and the maximum wind in the area concerned, However, meteorological data show that minimum tempera- tares occur during the winter when, in general, weather isnot disturbed and gales and storms are rare. It therefore appears that the probability of the occurrence of maximum wind pressures, which are associated with gales and stormy winds and provail for appreciable periods of hours at a time, simultaneously with the time of occurrence of the lowest minimum temperatures is small, with the result that the conductors may be subjected rarely, if at all, to loading conditions of the minimum temperature and the maximum wind. However, no data are available for the various combinations of temperatures and wind condi- tions, for the purpose of assessing the worst load- ing conditions in verious parts of the country. The problem is also complicated by the fact that the combination of temperature and wind to produce the worst loading conditions varies with the size and material of the conductor. Furthermore, it is found that in a number of cases the governing condition is the factor of safety required under everyday’ condition (or the average condition of 82°C, with a little or no wind to which the condue- tor is subjected for most of the time) rather than the factor of safety under the worst loading condi- tions as illustrated in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Factors of safety under various conditions a st As As As Conauctorsee 30/304 7/3 90mm 30/2594 712.59 mm BIZ EIS? mm 30/3.71 9 3.71 mm anther Wor og & Wind pressure 75 kgisam 75 kafsam 75 ka/sqm 150 kg/sqrm Temp. range S-00re S-00°C 5-60C 560°C Span 335 m Sm 245m 300 m Factor of sefewy Under the worst loading condition 2.75 2.56 228 2.29 ner everyclay conaivon 4.00 408 4.02 #00 58. Transmission Line StructuresFactors of safety of towers ‘The factors of safety adopted in the designs havea great besring on the cost of structures and they have to be chosen so that the structures prove economical as well as safe and reliable. Rule 76 1)(a) of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956, specifies the following factors of safety, tobe adopted in the design of steel transmission line towers 1. under normal conditions 2.0 2. under broken-wire conditions 1.5 It is interesting to compare this practice with that followed in the USSR. In the USSR, while for normal conditions the f.o,3. is 1.5, that for the broken-wire condition is 1.2 for suspension tawers, and 1.33 for anchor towers. Inthe case of transmis- sion lines at 500 kV and above, in addition to these factors of safety, an impact condition is also im- posed. When the conductor breaks, there is a sud- den impact on the tower occurring for 0.4 to 0.6 second. The impact factor is assumed as 1.3 in the case of suspension towers with rigid clamps and 1.2 in the case of anchor towers, and the loads acting on the tower are increased correspondingly. ‘Thus, the final force in the case of suspension towors is increased by a factor 1.3 x 1.1 and in the case of anchor towers by 1.2 x 1.2. The correspond- ing factors of safoty assumed under the impact conditions are 1,1 and 1.2. Permissible deflections Sufficient data are not available with regard to the permissible limits ofdeflection of towers, as speci- fied by the various authorities. However, one prac- tive given below? is followed in the USSR: Assuming that there is no shifting of the founda- tion, the deflection of the top of the support in the longitudinal direction from the vertical should not exceed the following limits: For dead-end heavy-angle structures (1/120) Hf For simall angle and straight line structures with strain insulators (1/100) Hf For supports with heights exceeding 180m and intended to be used at crossing locations (vito) HE Where i is the height of the tower. ‘The above limits of defection are applicable to supports having a ratio of base width to height less than 1/12. For suspension supports with hhcights up to 60m, no limit of de(lection of the tower top from the vertical is specified. Asregards the cross-arms, the followinglimitsofdeflection the vertical plane under normal working cond tions are stipulated: 1, For dead-ends and supports with etrain ineu- ators and also for suspension supports at ‘epecial orossings: fs. for tho portion of the erocs-arms lying beyond the tower leg (70) , for the portion of the cross-arm lying between a pair oflegs (1/200) L 2. For suspension supports which are not in- tended to be used at crossing locations: fa. for the portion of the eross-arm ying beyond the tower leg, (1/50) b. for the portion of the exoss-arm ying betiveen a pair of tovrer legs ais L. where A= length of the cross-arm lying be yond the tower leg, and L = length of the cross-arm lying ba tween the two tower legs (Figure By EA eh —— | ——r} Figure 3.1 Limits of deflection {USSR practice} Loads ‘The various factors such as wind pressures, tem- perature variations and broken-wire conditions, on the basis of which the tower loadings are deter mined, are discussed in this section, Wind pressures ‘The wind load constitutes an important and major ‘component of the total loading on towers and so a basic understanding of the computation of wind pressures is useful. Wind pressures are expressed in terms of @ basic pressure ‘p’, which is an oquivalent static pressure in the windward direction. In choosing the appropriate wind velocity for the purposes of determining the basic wind pres- sure, due consideration should be given to the degree of exposure appropriate to the location and also to the local meteorological data. Transmission Line Structures 59The India Meteorological Department pro vides the basic date relating to the wind velocity obtained at their observatory stations, as well as some other observations, recorded or estimated from the damage caused, ete. The observatory sta- tions are equipped with anemometerseye reading instruments) and a comparatively small number of anemographs (self-recording instruments), in- stalled atheights generally varying from 10metres to 25 metres above ground level. The dials of anemometers are so graduated as to give directly the actual total run of the wind during any speci- fied interval of time (from which the actual velocity is obtained). The anemographs give a continuous record of the wind, gusts, lulls, ete, on a chart. The wind velocitios recorded in any location are extremely variable and, in addition to the steady wind at any time, there are the effects of gusts which may last for only # short period. These gusts cause increases in air pressure, but their effect on the stability of the structure may not be quite important. However, certain structures like transmission line towers respond to gusts (winds in which the maximum speed is attained suddenly. and last for a fow minutes only), Therefore, squalls which generally last up to five minutes should be taken into account in the designs. Variation of wind speed with height Atground level, thewindintensity is lower and the air flow is turbulent because of friction with the rough surfaces of the ground, At a certain height, called the gradient height H,,, the frictional influ- ence of the ground becomes negligible and the air ‘moves only under the influence of pressure gradi- ents, This is called the gradient speed V,. Depend- ing upon the effect of roughnoss, the wind speed varies with height according to power law. The concept of power law governing the wind speed profile with respect to gradient wind was origi- nally suggested by Devenport in the equation;* Vy Vo (AY (a) where V, is the wind speed at a height H above ground. ‘The greater the ground roughness, the lower the wind speed and thestronger the turbulence, as shown in Figure 3.2." ‘There is also another way of defining the variation of speed with height, which is called the classical approach. Instead of the gradient parameters V,, and H7,, the classical approach uses the parameter V,, which is the speed recorded at 10m height. In this case the velocity profile with 60 Transmission Line Structures Free atmospheric flow Turbulent boundary Height above ground layer flow Wind velocity Figure 3.2 Variation of mean wind speed profile with terrain roughness {after Devenport) ‘Source: Dan Ghiacel, Dan Lungu: Wind, Snow and ‘Temperature Etfecis on Structure based on Probability, Abacus Pross. height is defined by the exponentisl law: HSE Vu = Yoo (40) (3.2) Various wind speed profiles corresponding to different values of ¢ used in the past are shawn in Figure 3.3." ‘The formula presently used in India for the variation of wind speed with height, for heights above 30 metres, is given by Venn where V, = wind speed at height A. The value of 1/10 lies between the 1/7 power law generally used and 1/12 power law derived by Deacon for maximum wind speeds. Dynamic wind pressure Bernoulli's law for ideal liquid yields the following ‘equations: dovitsat= bp ve+ay 33) where V, and q, are the velocity and pres sure respectively before wind reachesthe obstaclé (bluff body), and V,and g, are the air velocity and prescure re- spectively on the body. For the centre of a surface, where the flow is entirely obstructed (V, = 0), the following relation- ship is obtained after substituting for the air density, p: a= 4 elm? ea) a 3 £ = ae Wu=Veelsg) British Meteorological Office - old formula ‘The dynamic pressures 9,5, 9 and qo corre- sponding to V,,, V, and V,, are defined by: # . = ag, = <2 (3.5) Go Gp tam 7 8) ‘Thus the dynamic pressures are proportional to the square of wind speed. The variation of wind pressure with height is thus obtained by squaring the velocity profiles given in Equations 3.1 and 3.2 as under: & oF H Van Malas) Shelland Vy = Vip (0.2397[+2.81 log(Hs4. Hellman Hy? V2 Volqg) Thom 50 an Wwe Vala) 10; 0 05 1.0 1 wy Yio Figure 3.3 Various wind speed profiles including 1/7 power law Source: Dan Ghiacel, Dan Lungu: Wind, Snow and Temperature Effects on Structure basod on Probability. Abacus Press, Transmission Line Structures 61Devenport’s approach qy=a5 (ZE)" (a6) Classical approach gy =, (45) (8.7) The exponent 2c ranges from 2/7 to 2/12 Regles NV.65 (French practice) gives @ sim- plified expression for variation of pressure with height, namely, HG (255435) (3.8) in which H is in metres. The basic formula for pressure on the surface ofastructure incorporating variables suchas shape of the structure, gust effect, etc., is given by the equation: 2 (Hy 1 0,0, 20V) OF) where C, = gust coefficient dependingon thesize of the structure and type of terrain, Cy = shape coofficient or factor, , = an amplification factor due to pos- sibleorographic orfunnellingeffects, air density, velocity at height h, height of the structure, and anexponent for velocity increase with hoight detormined by the surface roughness in the vicinity of the site, Shape factor ‘The shape factor C, is not entirely independent of velocity. The interrelation of shape factor and volocity can be determined by performinga dimen- sional analysis ofallthe variables concerned. These variables are: the air density p, viscosity 1, velocity V, and the diameter or width of the structure D. ‘Such an analysis shows that (eee Ve ‘The square of the diameter, D*, is proportional to the area; so the projected area A of the struc- ture can be substituted, Replacing the terms V2p V? by a. ‘ (oupy® Wind force « ag (2?) Wind force = $p VD? Incorporating the term (°¥? "into the propor- tionality constant, the shape factor C, is defined Wind force = C,Ag (8.10) 62 Transmission Line Structures We thus sce that C, is dependent upon wind conditions, coupled with a nominal structural dimensionD. The dimensionlessratio “P iseaited tho Reynolds number (R,) and has a definite physi- cal significance. Itis the ratio of the wind’s inertia, foree on a structure, pV'D¥, to its viscous drag, DY. This ratio determines the preponderance of one or the other of these forces, At very low veloci= ties (subscritical flow) the viseous drags compara- tively large, even on blunt or sharp-edged bodies, and the inertia force is small. However, for normal wind velocities (super-critieal flow), the Reynolds number is much larger, between 10° and 108 or higher, so that the inertia foree is significantly renter than the viscous drag. From this dependence on the inertia fore, or 4, one infers that C, will have little dependence on Roynolds number in thet range, and thisis indeed thecase for bluntorsemi-aerodynamicshapes. For aorofoils, or streamlined bodies, where the viseous drag remains predominant, C,. does not remain constant with change of Reynolds number. ‘The detarmination of C, has historically been undertaken by wind tunnel tests on models of the full-size structure and e library of shape factors is now available Wind velocities are measured in a horizontal plane, although a definite vertical gust component exists, The duration of the maximum gust is two to three seconds for all present-day instruments, Where the ‘run-ofwind? is measured, a direct conversion can be made to the mean gust speed. All reaclings are corrected to a eommoa hoight: of 10 metres above ground level. Gust factor Short-term mean wind speeds are given over a number of time periods, varying from one hour to the instantaneous gust. In order to interpolate between mean-hourly and gust speeds, a eorrela- tion is required for intermediate speeds, hased on these twospeeds. The ratio of instantancous (three seconds) gust speed to mean-hourly speed is called the gust factor, and varies between 1.3 and 2.5 depending on the terrain (surface roughness). The lower factor is typical of wind near sea surfaces, where the level of gustiness is low, while the gust factor for cities varies between 1.8 and 2.5 due to their intense irregularity. Gust factors decrease with height until they approach the value of Where no gust records are available, gust factors may be used in conjunction with mean-hourly readings for the appropriate terrain, to determine peak wind speeds et a height of 10 metres above ground level. ‘The formula given in equation (3.9) may be expressed aa: p=RY;! for structure heights up to h.where k is a coefficient, the value of which depends on a number of factors such 2s the wind speed, the type, proportion and shape of structure, and the tem- perature of air. Corresponding to metric units, avalue 0.006is obtained when a shape factor of 1.3 is adopted, swhich is the practice inthe USA anda value 0,0057 shen a shape factor of 1.2 is adopted according to the old practice in the UK. In India, the basic wind pressure is calculated from the formula: p= 0.006 V2 aap where p = basic wind pressure in kg/m’, and V,= the design wind velocity in kra/hr in- lusive of gust applicable to height h. Based on this formula, the country has been divided into three zones of low, medium and heavy wind pressures, corresponding to wind pressures of 130kgi/m?, 195kg6'm?, and 260kgi/m?, which are adopted in I8:802 (Part 1-1977 (Second Revision): Code of Practice for Use of Structural Steel in Overhead Transmission Line Towers. The Stan- dard gives also the baste wind pressure map of India, prepared by the India Meteorological De- partment, dividing the country into three zones a3 mentioned above, and the wind pressures to be assumed on conductors and ground wires (Table 32). Table 3.2 Wind pressure on towers and conductors Wind pressure on towers Wind pressure on lrcensty of (upto 30m anove mean conducts an pressure fetarcing suece| ‘ground wes aft ketim? ght 130 8 Mecium 195 6 Heauy 260 32 Source. indlan Strand Code of Practice or Use of Sxuctral Siew! vetheod Trarargon Une Towers Bar| = Loads ana ermissbie sresses S802 Pare F977 P deromed te be acto on me ful projected sees The pressures indicated in the map are the maximum ever likely to occur in the respective areas under fully exposed conditions. They are applicable up to aheight of 0 metres aboveground level, irrespeetive of the height of the place above the sea level. The altitude of the country traversed may, therefore, be ignored in so far as the maxi- mum wind pressure on supports, conductors and ground wires is concerned, In high mountainous regions, where surface wind (for short as well as long periods) may vary very much depending on the characteristics of the local terrain, the values should be modified according to the local eondi- tions. Corresponding to the three basie wind pres. sures, the wind pressures at different heights of towers, as given in IS:802 (Part I)-1977, are repro: duced in Table 3.3, Table 3.3 Varlation of wind pressure with height intersiy of Pressure {in kgivin?| on towers pressure ata height 30-35m = 35-40m = 40-45m Light 185) 1a 140 Medium 203206210 Heavy 270274280 Source: inion Standard Cece af race for Use ef Sct Stel in Stemeaa tarsmason ure Towers Porc Loges ad Perms Sess 18802 (an }.1977 According to the practice followed in the USSR, for sections of overhead lines which are located in situations exposed to strong winds, such as high river banks, bills dominating the surrounding areas, coastal regions of big lakes, reservoirs, ete., the wind pressure is increased by 20 percent if no reliable data of the region are available, A new approach During the past two decades, extensive live load surveys have been carried out in a number of countries with a view to arriving at realistic live loads, based onactual determination of loadingsin different occupancies. Also developments in the ficld of wind engineering have been significant. Accorrect estimation of wind force on towers is important, as the stresses created due to this force decide the member sizes. The standardisation of wind load on structures is a difficult task and gonerally involves three stages: 1. analysis of meteorological data 2. simulation of wind effects in wind tunnels 3, synthesis of meteorological and wind tun- nel test results. Transmission Line Structures 63The overall load exerted by wind pressure, p, on structures can be expressed by the resultant veetor of all aerodynamic forces acting on the exposed surfaces. The direction of this resultant can be different from the direction of wind. The resultant force acting on the structure is divided into three components as shown in Figure 3.4°: Figure 3.4 Components of wind force ona structure 1, a horizontal component in the direction of wind called drag force F,, 2. a horizontal component normal to the di- rection of wind called horizontal lift force F, 3, aYertical component normal to the direc- tion of wind called the vertical lift force Fry Aerodynamic coefficient The aerodynamic coefficient C is defined as the ratio of the pressure exerted by wind at a point of the structure to the wind dynamie pressure, The aerodynamic coefficient is influenced by the Rey- nolds number R, the roughness of surface and the type of finish applied on the structurs. Thus both the structure and nature of wind (which depends on topography and terrain) influence the aerody- namic coofficient, C. For the three components of the wind overall foree, there are corresponding aerodynamic coaffi- cients, namely, 2 drag coofficient, a horizontal lift coefficient, and a vertical lift coefficient. Pressure and foree coefficients ‘There are two approaches to the practical assess- ment of wind forces, the first using pressure coef: ficients and the second using force coafficients. 64 Transmission Une Structures In the former case, the wind force is the resul- tant of the summation of the aerodynamic forces normal to the surface Each of these aerodynamic forces is the produet of wind pressure p multiplied by the mean pressure coefficient for the respective surface C, times the surface area A. Thus FeCpa (3.12) ‘This method is adopted for structures like tall chimneys which are subjected to considerable variation in pressure. In the second case, the wind force is the prod- uct of dynamic pressure ¢ multiplied by the overall force coefficient C, times the effective frontal area A, for structures. Thus Fa(G,a)A, ‘The second approach shown in Figure 3.5(a) is considered practical for transmission line towers.34 (3.13) Figure 3.5(a) Frontal area of a structure Source: Dan Ghiacel, Dan Lungu: Wind, Snow ano Temperaiure Eifeois on Structure based on Probability, Abacus Press. Although wind effects on trusses and towers are different, the force coeflicients C;, are similar and are dependent on the same parameters, Trusses Foree coefficients for trusses with flat-sided mem- bers or rounded members normal to the wind are dependent upon solidity ratio, ¢. Solidity ratio @ is defined as the ratio of effective area of the frame normal to the wind direction S,, to the area enclosed by the projected frame boundary (Figure 3.5(b))8,x2 cae oa (aad) 0b, +5) Thus where S, is the shaded area Shielding effects In the case of trusses having two or more parallel identical trusses, the windward truss has shield- ing effect upon the leeward truss. This effect is dependent upon the spacing ratiod /h (Figure 3.6). The shielding factor yreduces the force coefficient for the shielded truss and is generally given as a fanetion of solidity ratio and spacing ratio in codes, (Table 3.4). ,: Total area of structural components of a panel projected normal to face (hatched area) @: Solldity Ratio 2 $= S;- FO +b) Figure 3.5{b) Calculation of solidity ratio ‘Source: international conference on “Trends in Transmission Line Technology’ by the Association of Indian Engineering Industries, New Delhi, 1986 Towers The overall force coefficient for towers which con- sist of one windward truss and one leeward truss absorbs the coefficient of both solidity ratio @and shielding factor y. Thus (3.15) je (8.16) choa+yw @17 whore ©,' is the foree covificient for individual truss and C, is the force coefficient for the overall tower. Table 3.5 gives the overall force coefficients for square sections towers recommended inthe French and the British eodes.* G, for windward tras , for leeward truss for tower fe ESEReaS) ex Dg} 2 PSs) Figure 3.6 Spacing ratio for leeward truss ‘Source: Dan Ghiacel, Dar Lungu: Wind, Snow ard Temperature Etfecis on Structure based on Probability, ‘Aoacus Press. ‘The wind force F on latticed towersis given by F=CpA, 18) where C, is the overall force coefficient, p. dynamic wind pressure, and A, the surface area in m? on which wind impinges. Wires and cables ‘Table 3.6 gives the force coefficients as a function ofdiameterd, dynamic pressure and roughness for wires and cables for infinite length (1/d>100) ac- cording to the French and the British practices.” Based on the considerations discussed above, the practice followed in the USSRin regard towind load calculations for transmission line towers is, summarised below. ‘Wind velocity forms the basis of the computations of pressure on conductors and supports. The wind prossure is ealeulated from the formula aca, H 19 where Fis the wind foreo in kg, V the volocity of wind in metces/second, A, the projected area in the case of cylindrical suifaces, and the area of the face perpendicular to the direction ofthe wind in the case of lattice supports in'sq. metres, C, the aerodynamic coefficient, and aa coefficient which takes into account the inequality of wind velocity along the span for conductors and ground wires. ‘The values of aerodynamic coefficient C, are specified as follows: For conductors and ground-wires: For diameters of 20mm and above ra For diameters less than 20mm 12 For supports: For lattice metallic supports actording t9 the ‘Veblo 3.7, ‘Values of the cvelficient & ‘The values of @are assumed as given in Table 3.8, Wind velocity charts have been prepared accord ing to 5-year, 10-year and 15-year bases. That is. Transmission Line Structures 65the five.yoar chart gives the meximam wind ve lecitios which have occurred every five years, the 10-year chart gives the maximum velocities which have occurred every ten years and s0 on. The five- ‘year chart forms the baaia of designs for lines up {035 kV, the 10-year chart for 110 kV and 220 kV lines, and the L5-year chert forlines at 400kV and above. In other words, the more important the line, the greater is the return period taken into account for determining the maximum wind ve- locity to be assumed in the designs. Although there aro regions with maximum wind velocities less than 25m/sce. in all the three charts, o.g., the 1D-year chart hows the rogions of 17, 20, 24, 28, 32, 86 and greater than 40m/2ec., the minimum velocity assumed in the designs is 26m/sec. for lines uptoand inclading220 kV, and27mvsec.for «Figure 3.7 Definition of aspect ratio 830 kV and 500 KV lines. Table 3.4 Shielding factors for parallel trusses Country, Code v France, Reales NV 65 Italy, CNR LINI 10012 ayn s2 ee leman es Soviet Union, SNIP I-A.11-62 | eee 2 4 5 0.1 | 1.00 1.00 100 1.00 02 | 085 090 093 O97 03 | 068 075 080 0.65 04 | 050 060 067 0.73 05 | 033 045 053 0.62 06] 0.15 030 040 0.50 1.0 | 0.15 0.30 040 0.50 Table 3.5 Overall force coefficients ¢, for square-section towers Country, Code Flatsided members Rounded members France, Regles NV 65 32-29 0.7(3.2 = 29) 0.08 < 9< 0.35 Great Britain, Subcritical Supercritical CP3: Ch: Part 2: 1972 flow flow avcbms! dV > 6 mis! (0.1 3.8 22 12 02 33 19 13 o= 403 28 17 14 o4 23 16 14 05 21 14 4 Source Den Ghiocel. Dan Lungu, Wind, Snow and Temperature effects on Structures based (on Probability, Abacus Press 66 Transmission Line Structures afbTable 3.6 Force coefficients C, for wires and cables Country, Code escciption G France, Régles NV 65 42028 406 Smooth surface members of Tapsos +10 circular section deo0.28sos 1s +05 Moderately smocth wires and rods ap < 15 +2 galvanized or painted) apo 1s +07 Fine standed cables apes si avpo 1s +09 Thick stranded cables apes +13 pals +11 Source: Dan Gniocel Can Lungu, Wind Snow and Temperature ete on Structures based on Prebablty, ADACLS Pres Table 3.7 Aerodynamic coefficient for towers Table 3.8 Space coefficient « for conductors and ground wires fatio of wictn of me surface Aerodynamic coicent ‘At wind velocities Coefficient at ‘over which wind i , comresponaing to ratio acting to wicth of the of area of brecing to Up to 20m/sec 1,00 surface perpencicule to area of panel directon of wind (Figure 3.7) Up eaeemiaise ee gis Une apeisser. 0.75 Aspect tio = 27 0.18 025 0.35 045 Upto 35m/sec and above 0.70 05-07 3. 26 22 18 — Forsupponsa=" 1 a an os" Zo 15-20 3 B26 22 The new approach applicable to transmission line tower designs in India is now disenssed. ‘The India Meteorological Department has re- cently brought out a wind map? giving the basic maximum wind speed in km/h replacing the ear- lier wind pressure maps. The map is applicable to 10m height above mean ground level. The basic wind speed in m/s V, is based on poak gust velocity averaged overa time interval of about three seconds and corresponds to 10m height above mean ground levelina flat open terrain.The baste wind speeds have been worked out for a 50- year return period and refer to terrain category 2 {discussed later). Return period is the number of years the reciprocal of which gives the probability of extreme wind exceeding a given wind speed in any one year. Transmission Line Structures 67Design wind speed ‘The basic wind speed is modified to include the effects of risk factor (h,), terrain and height (k,), and local topography (h,), to get the design wind speed (V, |. Thus V, =V,h, ky Ay (3.20) where k,, band A, represent multiplying factors to account for chosen probability of exceedence of extreme wind speed (for selected values of mean return period and life of structure), terrain cate- gory and height, and local topography and size of gust respectively. Risk probability factor (h,) In the design of structures a regional basic wind velocity having a mean return period of 50 years is used. The life period and the corresponding &, factors for different classes of structures for the purpose of design aro included in Table 3.9. ‘The factor k, is based on statistical concepts which take account of the degree of reliability required and period of time in years during which there will be exposure to wind, that is, life of the structure. Whatever wind speed is adopted for design purposes, there is always a probability (however small) thatit may be exceeded ina storm of exceptional violence; the greater the period of years over which there will be exposure to the wind, the greater is this probability. Higher return Table 3.9 Risk coefficients for di periods ranging from 100 years to 1,000 years in association with greater periods of exposure may have to be selected for exceptionally important structures such as natural draft cooling towers, very tall chimneys, television transmission tow- ers, atomic reactors, ete. Terrain categories (k, factors) Selection of terrain categories is made with due regard to the effect of obstructions which consti- tute the ground surface roughness. Four catego- tries are recognised as given in Table 3.10. Variation of basic wind speed with height in different terrains ‘The variation of wind speed with height for differ- ent sizes of structures depends on the terrain category as well as the type of structure. For this purpose threo classes of structures given in the note under Table 3.11 are recognised by the Code.* Table 3.11 gives the multiplying factors by which the reference wind speed should be multi- plied to obtain the wind speed at different heights, in each terrain category for different classes of structures. ‘The multiplying factors in Table 3.11 for heights well above the heights of the obstructions producing the surface roughness, but lees than the gradient height, are based on the variation of gust velocities with height determined by the following ifferent classes of structures Mean probable iy Gass of structure design life of for each basic wind speed structure in years 330023944 475055 1. All general buildings ang structures 50 10 10 10 10 10 10 2, Temporary sheds, structures such as those used during construction ‘operations (for example, formwork 5 082 0.76 073 071 0.70 067 and falsework}, structures during construction stages and boundary walls 3. Buildings and structures presenting allow degree of hazard to life and 25 094 092 091 090 0.90 089 property in event of failure, such as ‘solated towers in wooded ereas, farm buildings other than residential buildings 4. important buildings and structures such as Hospitals, communications 100 105 1.08 107 107 1.08 1.08 Duildings/towers, power plant structures. Source: Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design loads (other Part 3—Wing Loacs I. 875-198) 68 Transmission Line Structures than earthquake) for Buildings and Structures.formula based on the well-known power formula explained earlier: (BF sts, (ZF aan gust velocity at height 2, velocity at gradient height 1.85 V,, at gradient height, the exponent for a short period gust given in Table 3.12, Z, = gradient height, ¥, = rogional basic wind velocity, and Z = height above the ground. V,=V,, The velocity profile for a given terrain category does not develop to full height immediately with the commencement of that terrain category, but develops gradually to height (A,), which increases with the fetch or upwind distance (x). The values governing the relation between the developed height (h,) and the fetch (r) for wind flow aver each of the four terrain categories are given in the Code? Topography (k, factors) ‘Tho effect of topography will be significant ata site when the upwind slope (6) is greater than 8°, and below that, the value of &, may be taken to be equal to 1.0. The value of &, varies between 1,0 and 1.36 for slopes greater than 3°. ‘The influence of topographic features is con- sidered to extend 1.5 L, upwind and 2.5 L, of summit or crest of the feature, where L, is the effective horizontal length of the hill depending on the slope as indicated in Figure 3.8. The values of L, for various slopes are given in Table 3.122 If the zone downwind from the crest of the feature is relatively flat (@ < 3°) for a distance exceeding L,, then the feature should be treated as an escarpment. Otherwise, the feature should be treated as a hill or ridge. Topography factor k, is given by the equation kya 1+Cs (3.22) where C has the valuos appropriate to the height Habove meangroundlevel and the distance x from the summit or crest relative to effective length L, as given in Table 8.12b. The factor sis determined from Figure 3.9 for lifts and escarpments and Figure 3.10 for ridges and hills, Design wind pressure ‘The design wind pressure p, at any height above mean ground level is obtained by the following relationship between wind pressure end wind velocity: p,20.8V2 (3.28) where p, = design wind pressure in Nim?, and V, = design wind velocity in m/s. ‘The coefficient 0.6 in the above formula de- pends on a number of factors and mainly on the atmospheric pressure and air temperature. The value chosen corresponds to the average Indian atmospherie conditions in which the sea level temperature is higher and the sea level pressure slightly lower than in temperate zones. Table 3.10 Types of surface categorised according to aerodynamic roughness Category Description 1 Exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions ~ Open sea coasts and fat treeless plains Open terrain with wellscattered obstructions having heights generally ranging from 1.5 to 10m. ~ Airfields, open parklands and undeveloped sparsely built-up outskirts of towns and suburbs Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of buildings oF structures up to 10m in height. = Wellwooded areas and suburbs, towns and industrial areas fully or partially developed Terrain with numerous large high closely spaced obstructions ~ Large city centres and well-developed industrial complexes. Source: Incian Standard Code of Practice for Design loads (other than Earthquate) for Buliings and Sinuctures. Part 3~ Wind Loads 1875-1933, Transmission Line Structures 69Crest Region affected by topographical feature TS Ley, wind = average ground level x sve upward | We downward (a) General detination Crest Moe! VTPTTL TT downward slope <3" (0) Clit and escarpment Crest Wind downward slope > 3" (6) Hill and ridge Figure 3.8 Definition of topographical dimensions Crest 2.0 20 16 oa 16 he 40 10 Hle 3 = 08 as 0.4 0.8| 0.8] 00 15-10 OF © 0 05 10 15 20 Upwind tLe Downwrind x/Le Figure 3.9 Factor s for cliff and escarpment ‘Scurco: Incian Standard Code of Practice for Design Loads (other than Earthquake) for buildings and structures Part 3— Wind Loads IS : 875-1987 70 Transmission Line StructuresTable 3.11 Factors to obtain design wind speed variation with height in different terrains for different classes of building structures Height Terain Category 1 ‘Terrain Gaegoy2 — Terrain Caxegony 3. Terrain Category 4 cess Class Cass Cass im A & WB we oe SA Te of 10 105 1.03 0.99 100 0.98 0.93 0.91 088 082 080 O76 0.67 15 1.09 1.07 7.03 105 1.02 097 097 094 087 0.80 0.76 0.67 20 112 110 1.06 1.07 1.05 1.00 1.01 098 G91 080 0.76 0.67 30 115 1.13 1.09 1.12 1.10 1.04 1,06 103 096 097 0.93 0.83 50 120 148 1.14 M17 41S 110 1.12 1.09 1.02 110 1.05 0.95 100 1.26 124 1.20 124 1.22 IAP 120 147 110 1.20 1.15 1.05 150 1.30 1.28 1.24 12g 125 1.21 1.24 1.21 11S 124 1.20 1.10 200 1.32 130 1.26 130 128 1.24 1.27 124 118 127 1.22 1.13 250 1.34 132 1:28 132 131 1.26 1.29 126 120 128 1.24 116 300 1.35 1.34 1.30 134 132 128 1.31 128 1.22 430 1:26 1.17 350 1.37 135 131 1.36 134 1.29 132 130 124 131 1.27 1.19 400 1.38 136 132 1.37 135 1.30 134 131 125 132 1.28 1.20 450 1.39 137 1.33 1.34 136 1.31 135 132 126 133 1.29 121 $00 1.40 1.38 1.34 1.39 137 1.32 1.36 133 128 134 1.30 1.22 Note ‘Class A’ Structures and caddings having maximum dimension ess than 20m, Glass B) Structures an cladgings naving maximum dimension between 20m and Som, Class C Structures and clacgings having maximum dimension greater trian 50m Scurce. Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design Loads father than Earthquake] fer Buildings ard Structures, Part 3 — Wind Loads. 16875-1988. Table 3.12a Variation of effective horizontal length of hill and upwind slope 0. Example Calculate the design wind speed for a tower 20m high situated in a well-wooded area (Category 3) and for 100-year probable life near an abrupt es- Slope ® carpment ofheight 35m (Figure 3.84). The tower is aig located around Madras. The crest of the escarp- <8 17° L ment is 10m effective distance from the plains. The >179 & tower is located on the downwind side 5m from Note Lis the actual length of tne unwsine siope in the wind direction, and Z is the effective height of tne feature Table 3.12b Variation of factor C the crest. tan @= 10/95 = 0.2887; @= 15.94 H=20m HIL = 20/10 =2 Xe45 b= 10m X/L = +8/10 = +05 ‘The basic wind speed for Madras = 50 m/s, with slope 0 k, factor for 100-year probable life = 1.08 a ‘A, factor for 20m height for well-wooded area Spa FES (terrain category 8) (class A) = 1.01 A, factor for topography: 3 <0 17° 1.2(8) PorX/Z = +0.5 andH/L =2, the s factor fom SIT 0.36 Figure 3.9 is found as = 0.05 Source: Indian Stanciard Code of Practice for Design Loads father than Earthoucke) for Burldirgs and Structures. Part 3 ~Wind Loads. §:875-1987. From Table $.19b, factor C = 1.2Z/L= 12% 20/10 = 2.4 Therefore, b, = 1+0.05 x 24= 112 ‘Transmission Line Structures 71Crest 20 1 a ae. | 15 15 [ [O54 s H °& ry . z 40 o | 7 TS te 02 ® 3) [Ens 05 loa 0s bap | - 09 P21 a 00 15 +10 -05 0 0 05 10 15 20 : Upwind Downwind ovina narind Figure 3.10 Factor s for ridge and hill ‘Souree: Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design Loads (other than Eerinqueke) for Buildings and Stuctures Part 3—Wird Loads IS 875-1987 Design wind speed V, = V, *LOLx 1.12 = 61.08 Note: Values of k factor can be greater than, equal to or less than, one based on the conditions en- countered. Wind force on the structure ‘The force on a structure or portion of it is given by PeC,A.p, (3.24) where ©, is the force coefficient, A is the effective projected area, and >, is the pressure on the surface, ‘The major portion of the wind force on the tower is due to the wind acting on the frames and the conductors and ground wires Wind force on single frame Force coefficients for a single frame having either flat-sided members or circular members are given in Table 3.13° with the following notations: D = diameter V, — design wind speed ° ~ solidity ratio Wind force on multiple frames The wind force on the windward frame and any unshielded parts of the other frame is calculated using the coefficients given in Table3.13. The wind load on parts of the sheltered frame is multiplied 72. Transmission ine Structures by a shiolding factor y, which is dependent upon the solidity ratio of windward frame, the types o? members and the spacing ratio. The values of shielding factors are given in Table 3,14. ‘The spacing ratio d/h (same as aspect ratio a/b for towers) has already been defined in Figure 3.7. While using Table 3.14 for different types of members, the aerodynamic solidity ratio B to be adopted is as follows: Aerodynamic solidity ratio B for flat-sided members solidity ratio ¢ (3.26) Wind force on lattice towers Force coefficients for lattice towers of square or equilateral triangle sections with flat-sided mem- bors for wind direction against any face are given in Table 8.15. Force coefficients for lattice towers of squore sections with circular members are given in Table 3.16! Force coefficients for lattice towers of equilat- eral-trianguler towers composed of circular mem bers are given in Table 3.17.9 ‘The wind load on a square tower can eitherbe caleulated using the overall force coefficient forthe tower asa whole given in Tables 3.15 to3.17, using, the equation F - C,A, p,, or calculated using the cumulativeeffectof windward and leeward trusses from the equation FC, + pA,p, (3.26)Table 3.13 Force coefficients for single frames Force coeticlents for Girevier section Reio Flaesided — Subertical —_Superertical members Pow flow 80 ° 1300! vb rvve AO) cbs.» On 09 10 10 10 1.0 0.2 08 09 10 10 10 03 07°08 10 10 1.0 0.4 06 07 10 10 10 Os 0.500.609) LO iLO O7 03 06 08 09 10 1.0 03 06 06 08 10 Note B= 6 for flacsced members Tables 9.18 and 8.14 give the values of Gand v respectively. In the case of rectangular towers, the wind force can be calculated based on the cumulative effect of windward and leeward trusses using the equation F'= C,(1 + y)A,p4 the values of C, and yheing adopted from Tables 3.13 and 3.14 respec- tively While calculating the surfaco area of tower face, an increase of 10 percent is made to account for the gusset plates, eto. Wind foree on conductors and ground wires Force coefiicients for conductors and ground wires are given in Table 3.18° according to the diameter Table 3.15 Overall force coefficients for towers composed of flat-sided members Force coefficient for Square towers Solidity Ratio Equilat ° gular towers 01 38 31 0.2 a3 27 03 28 23 04 23 19 0.5 24 1s Source for Tables 3.14 & 3,15. Indien Standard Coce of Practice for Design Loads (other than Eerthquake} fer Buicings and Structures, Port 3~ Wind Loads 875-987, Table 3.16 Overall force coefficient for square towers composed of rounded members Force Ceelficent for ‘Suberteal tow Sperriieet Row Solty rio |v, <0 mils By, 26 mA of rent face ¢ onto face oneeemer onto ace on vocorner 0.05 24 25 uw 12 On 22 23 12 13 02 19 21 ie 16 03 1? 19 La 16 oa 16 1 1 16 05 es 19 14 16 Table 3.17 Overall force coefficient for equilateral triangular towers composed of rounded members Force coefficient for Solidity Fation Of front facé —Sueritical flow Supercritical tow ¢ Dv,<6mi/s DY, 26 mess 0.05 18 0.8 0.1 Le 08 02 16 cl 03 LS Te o4 1s MW 0.5 14 iP Source for Tables 3.16 and 3.17 indian Standard Code of Practce for Design Loads father than Earthquake) for Bullcings anc Structures. Part 3 — Wind Loads, 5,875-1987, Transmission Line Structures 73Table 3.18 Force coefficients for wires and cables (/D > 100) Force coefficient C, for Smooth Moderately Fine Thick Flow regime surface smooth wire stranded stranded wire gahanzed cables cables oF painted) Ov,<06mis — - 12 13 DV;206m¥s — = 09 n DV, <6 miss 12 12 — — Dvj,2 6 me/s 05 07 - - Souree Indian Standard Coce of Practice for Design Loads (other than Earnquate) for Bulcings and Structures Part 3 = Wind Loads, 5875-1987 (D), the design wind speed (V,), and the surface roughness, D being expressed in metres and V, in metres/second For conductors commonly used in power transmission, DV, is always less than 0.6 m/s, so that the force coefficient applicable is 1.2 (from the table). ‘The wind force on the conductor is calculated from the expression F = C,A,p, with the usual notations. In the case of long-span transmission line conductors, due tothe large aspect ratio(A=L/D). the average drag per unit length is reduced. In other words, when spans are long, the wind pres- sureon the entire span is not uniform. Besides, the conductor itself is not rigid and swings in the direction of the gusts and therefore the relative velocity is less than the actual gust velocity. Fur- ther, under the effect of the wind, there is a twist- ing effect on the conductor and a part of the wind energy is absorbed in the conductor in the process. All these considerations can be accounted for in a single factor called the ‘space factor’, which varies from 0.7 to 0.85; this factor decreases with increase in wind velocity and span length. ‘The wind force F on the conductor may now be calculated from the following expression: FeaC,A,p, where a.is the space factor (0.7 to 0.85) and C,,A, and p, have the usual notations, Maximum and minimum temperature charts A knowledge of the maximum and the minimum temperatures of the area traversed by a transmis. sion line is necessary for calculating sags and 74 Transmission Line Structures tensions of conductors and ground wires under different loading conditions. The maximum and the minimum temperatures normally vary for different localities under different diurnal and seasonal conditions. 1S:802 (Part D)-197 (Second Revision) gives the absolute maximum and minimum tempere- tures that are expected to prevail indifferent areas in the country. The maximum temperature isople- ths range from 37.5° to 80.0°C in steps of 2.5° and the minimum temperature isopleths from ~7.5° to 17.5° in steps of 25°. ‘The absolute maximum temperature values are increased by 17°C to allow for the sun's radia- tion, heating effect of eurrent, ete, in the conduc tor. In case the temperature-rise curves of condue- tors are readily available, the actual rise in tem- perature in the conductor due to the heating effect, of current for a given line capacity is read from the curves and added to the absolute maximum tem- perature values. To the values thus arrived at, is added the rise in temperature due to sun’s radia tion which is normally taken as 6° to 7°C for con- ductors at temperatures below 40°C and 2° to 3°C for conductors at higher temperatures. Seismic effects The force attracted by a structure during aseismic disturbance is a function of the ground accelera- tion and the properties of the structure. The seis mic disturbance is essentially a dynamic phe- nomenon, and therefore assuming an equivalent lateral static seismic force to simulate the earth- quake effects is an oversimplification of the prob- lem, However, all over the world, in regions af- fected by earthquakes, the structures designed based on the equivalent staticapproach have with-stood the earthquake shocks satisfactorily, which justifies the use of this method. The equivalent static method can be derived from first principles from Newton's second law of motion thus: Seismic lateral force P = Ma (3.27)a =(F)a=W(§) @2nb where M = mass of the structure, W = weight of the structure, @ = acceleration experienced by the strue- ture due to earthquake, and = acceleration due to gravity. This force is dependenton a number of factors, the more important among thom being © stiffness of the structure * damping characteristics of the structure * probability of a particular earthquake oc- curringata particularssite where the struc- ture is located * importance of the structure based on the consequences of failure * foundation characteristics. Tneorporating the above variables in the form of coefficients, 18:1893-1975 gives the following formula for the calculation of horizontal equiva- lent seismic force: P= a,Win which a= IF,(S2) (8.270) = Ala, (27a) = 9 coefficient depending on the soil- foundation system (Table 3 of the Code), I = coefficient depending on the impor- tance of structure (for transmission towers this may be taken as 1.0), F,, = seismic zone factor, (&) = average acceleration coefficient which takes into account the period of vi- bration of the stractureand damping characteristics to be read from Fig ure 3.11, iy = Seismic coefficient, and id hoe basic seismic coefficient. Seismic coefficients specified in IS:1893-1975 are based on a number of simplifying assumptions with regard to the degree of desired safety and the cost of providing adequate earthquake resistance in structures. A maximum value of a, = 0.08 has been adopted in the Code arbitrarily because the Practice in Assam before the code was introduced where B 04 08 12 16 20 24 2830 Natural period of vibration in seconds = Average acceleration coetticient Bie Figure 3.11 Average acceleration spectra . ‘Souree: ingian Standard Critaria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures iS: 1975-1983 ‘was to design structures for this value. again fixed somewhat arbitrarily. The structures constructed with this seismic coefficient have performed well and withstood the 1950 Assam earthquake (Rich- ter’s Scale Magnitude 8.3). For transmission line towers, the weight W of the structure is low in comparison with buildings. ‘The natural period is such that the ($2) value is quite low (See Figure 3.11). Because the mass of the toweris lowandthe (Sf) valueisalsolow, the resultant earthquake force will be quite small ‘compared to the wind force normally considered for Indian conditions. Thus, earthquake become a governing design criterion. Full-ecale dynamic tests have been conducted bythe Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, on a transmission test line.” In thisstudy, the natural frequency, mode shape and damping coefficient were obtained separately for the foundation, the tower, and the tower-conduc- tor coupled system. Detailed response calculation of the test line when subjected to a simulated E] Centro N-S Wave (a typical earthquake) showed that the tower members could withstand severe earthquakes with instantaneous maximum stress below yield point. No definite earthquake loads are specified for transmission line towers in the Design Standards Transmission Line Structures 75on Structures for Transmission in Japan,’ which is, frequently subjected to severe earthquakes. ‘The towere for the test line referred to above were designed to resist a lateral load caused by a wind velocity of 40m/sec. The towers of this test line have been found to perform satisfactorily when tested by the simulated earthquake mentioned above. A detailed study based on actual teats and computer analysis carried out in Japan indicates that, generally speaking, transmission towers designed for severe or moderate wind loads would be cafe enough against severe earthquake loads." Tnexceptional cases, when the towers are designed for low wind velocities, the adequacy of the towers canbe checked using the lateral soismicload given. by equation (3.274). Example: Let the period of the tower be two seconds end damping five percent critical. Further, the soil- foundation system gives @ factor of f= 1.2 (for isolated footing) from Table 3 of I8:1893-1975, The importance factor for transmission tower I = 1,00 (as per the Japanese method) Reforring to Figure 3.11, the spectral accel- eration coefficient ($4) = 0.06. Assuming that the tower is located in Assam (Zone V— from Figure 1 of IS:1893-1975 — Seismic Zones of India), the horizontal seismic coefficient a, = alr, ($8) = 1210.4 « 0.06 = 0.0288 ‘Therefore, the horizontal seismic force for tower weighing 6,000kg is Paw 0.0288 x 5,000 M4 kg (quite small) Broken-wire conditions Itis obvious that the greater the number of broken wires for which a particular tower is designed, the more robust and heavier the tower is going to be. On the other hand, the tower designed for less stringent broken-wire conditions will be lighter and consequently more economical. It is clear therefore that a judicious choiceof the broxen-wire conditions should be made so as to achieve econ- omy consistent with reliability. ‘Tho following broken-wire conditions are gen- erally assumed in the design of towers in accor- dance with 1S:802 (Part 1)-1977: 76 Transmission Line Structures For voltages up to 220 kV Single-cireuit towers tis assumed that either ony one power conductor isbroken or one ground wire is broken, whichever constitutes the more stringent condition for a particular member. Double-cireuit towers L. Tangent tower with suapension strings (0° to rr Ie is assumed that either any one power conductor is broken or one ground wire is broken, whichever constitutes the more strin- gent condition for a particular member, 2 Small angle towers with tension strings (2 t0 15% and medium angle towers with tension sirings (15° to 30°): Teis assumad that either any two of the power conductors are broken on ‘the same side and oh the same span or any ono ‘of the powor conduetors and any one ground wire are broken on the same span, whichever combination is more stringent for a perticular ‘member. 8. Large angle (20° to 60") and deadsend towers with tension strings: It is assumed that either three power conductors are broken on the same side and on the same span or that any bwootthe powerconductors andany one ground wire are broken on the same span, whichever combination constitutes the most. stringent condition for a particular member. Cross-arms In all types of towers, the power conductor sup- ports and ground wire supports are designed for the broken-wire conditions, For 400 kV lines Single circwit towers (with tivo sub-conductors per phase) 1, Tangent towers with suspension strings (0° to 25> Ie is assumed that either any ground wire fr one sub-eonductor from any bundle eandue- tor is broken, whichever is more stringont for 4 particular inember. ‘The unbalanced pull due to the sub-conductor being broken may be assumed as equal to 25 percentof the maximum working tension ofall the sub-conductors in one bundle . Small angle tension towers (2° to 15°) ; Medium angle tension towers (15° to 30°), |. Large angle tension 80° to 60") and dead-end tavers: It is assumed that any ground wiro is broken oral] sub-conductors in the bundle are broken, whichever is more stringent for a particular member. Double-circuit towers (with tivo sub-conductors per phase) L ingant towers with suspension strings (to)Ibis assumed that either all sub-eonductors in the bundle are broken or any ground wire is broken, whichever is more stringent fora par teular member. Smallangle tension towers (2° to 15° Madium-angie tension towers (15° to 30°), Ic is assumed thateither ewo phase conductors ‘each phace comprising two conductors) are brokonon the same sidoandoa the samo span, or any one phase and any one ground wire is broken on the eame span, whichevor combina- tion is more stringent fora particular member. 4. Lange-angle tension (30° to 60" and Dead-end towers: It is assumed that either all the three phases onthe sarneside and on the same span are bro- ken, ortwo phases and any one ground wireon the same span is broken, whichever combina- sion is more stringent fora particularmember +500 AV HVDC bipole During the seventh plan period (1986-20), a 500kV HVDC bipole line with four subcondue- tors has been planned for construction from hand to Delhi (910km). The following bro- kkenswite conditions have been specified for this ina: 1. Tangent towers (0°): This sould take up to 2° with opan reduction. Tt is aicumnod that either one pole or one ground wire is broken, whichever is more stringent for 4 porticular member. 2. Small-angle towers (0° to 16%) It js assumed that either there is breakoge of all the subconductors of the bundle in one pole or one ground wire, whichever is more Stringent. When used as en anticeaseading tower (ten- sion tower for uphf: forces) with suspension in- sulators, all conductors and ground wines are assumed to be broken in one span. 3, Medium-angle towers (15° to 30°) It ie asoumed that either one phase or one ground wire is broken, whichever is: more stringent, 4. Large-angle towers 30° to 60° and deadkend towers Tt is essummed that all conductors and ground wires are broken on one side. Te would be useful to review briefly the prac- ticesregarding thebroken-wire conditions assumed in the USSR, where extensive transmission net- works at various voltages, both A.C. andD.C.,have ‘dean developed and considerable experience in the design, construction and operation of networks in widely varying climatic conditions hes been acquired. For suspension supports, under the conductor broken conditions, the conductors of one phase are assumed to be broken, irrespective of the number of conduetors on the support, producing the maxi- mum stresses on thesupport; and under the ground wire broken condition, one ground wireis assumed tobebroken, which produces the maximum stresses with the phase conductors intact. For anchor supports, any two phase condue- tors are assumed to be broken (ground wire ro- maining intact) which produce the maximum strosses on the support, and the ground wire bro ken conditions (with the conductors intact) are the same as in the case of suspension supports, ‘The broken-wire conditions specified for a tower also take into account the type of conductor clamps used on the tower. For example, if ‘slip type clamps are used on the line, the towers are not designed for broken-wire conditions, even for 220 kV, 890 kV and 500 kV lines. ‘The designs of anchor supports arealso checked for the erection condition corresponding to only one circuit boing strung in one span, irrespective of the number of cireuits on the support, the ground wires being not strung, as well as for the erection condition corresponding to the ground wires being strung in one span of the support, the conductors being not strung. In checking the designs for oree- tion conditions, the temporary strengthening of individual sections of supports and the installation of temporary guys are also taken into account In the case of cross-arms, in addition to the weight of man and tackle, the designs are checked up for the loadings corresponding to the method of erection and the additional loadings due to erec- tion devices, Loadings and load combinations The loads on a transmission line tower consist of three mutually perpendicular systems of loads acting vertical, normal to the direction of the line, and parallel to the direction of the line. It has been found convenient in practice to standardise the method oflisting and dealing with loads as under: Transverse load Longitudinal load Vertical load Torsional shear Weight of structure Each of the above loads is dealt with sepa- rately below, ‘Transverse load ‘The transverse load consists of loads at the points ofconductor and ground wiresupportin a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the eross-arms, plus a load distributed over the transverse face of Transmission Line Structures 77Longitudinal axis X-arm (A)Transverse load (B)Longitudinal toad 2 6 i Ve Ve c Ve Ve {C) Vertical load Figure 3.12 Loadings on tower the structure due to wind on the tower (Figure 8.12). Transverse load due to wind on conductors and ground wire ‘The conductor and ground wire support point loads! are made up of the following components: 1, Wind on the bare (or ice-eovered) condue- tor/ground wire over the wind span and wind on insulator string. 2. Angular component of line tension due to an angle in the line (Figure 3.13). The wind span is the sum of the two half spans adjacent to the support under consideration. The governing direction of wind on conductors for an angle condition is assumed to be parallel to the longitudinal axis of the cross-arms (Figure 3.14). Since the wind is blowingon reduced front, iteould bearguedthat this reduced span should beused for the wind span. In practice, howover, since the reduction in load would be relatively small, it is usual to employ the full span. In so far as twin-conductor bundle in horizon- tal position (used for lines at 400 kV) is concerned, it has been found that the first sub-conductor in each phase does not provide any shielding to the second sub-conduetor. Accordingly, the total wind load for bundled conductors is assumed asthe sum total of wind load on each sub-conductor in the bundle. 78 Transmission Line Structures Under broken-wire conditions, 50 percent of the normal span and 10 percentof the broken span is assumed as wind span, Wind load on conductor Wind load on conductors and ground wire along with their own weight produces a resultant foree which is calculated as follows. The calculation covers the general case of an ice-coated conductor: ‘Let be the diameter of conductor in mm and the thickness of ice coating in mm (Figure 3.16). ‘Then, weight of ice coating on I-metre length of conductor, id + 2 -a"]x & x 900 kg (3.28a) (ce is assumed to weigh 900 kg/m?) Weight per metre length of ice-coated con- ductor W=w+w, where w = weight of bare conductor per metre length, and wv, = weight of'ice coating per metre length. Horizontal wind load on ice-coated conductor per metre length, 2, ds Pa Qx Se pkg where p = wind pressure in kg/m on two-thirds the projected area of conductor. (3.28){ | d im m6 ae 7PM Figure 3.13 Transverse load on the cross-arm due to line deviation Resultant force per metre length, R 21s (3.28¢) Wind load on insulator string ‘The wind load the insulator string is calculated by multiplying the wind pressure assumed on the towers and the effective arcaof the insulator string. It is usual to assume 50 percent of the projected areaoof the insulator string as the effective area for purposes of computing wind load on insulator strings. The projected area of insulator string is taken as the product of the diameter of the insula- tor disc and the length of the insulator string. The total wind load on the insulator strings used for 4 Wind at points of conductor support (2) = W,, [3 66 KV to 400 kV transmission lines worked out for awind pressure of 100 kg/m! is given in Table3.19. The Table also gives the approximate weight ofthe * insulator string normally used. Transverse load due to line deviation ‘The load due to an angle of deviation in the line is computed by finding the resultant force produced by the conductor tensions (Figure 3.13) in the two adjacent spans, Itis clear from the figure that the total trans- verse load = 27Sin 6/2 where @ is the angle of deviation and Tis the conductor tension. Any tower type designed for a given line angle has a certain amount of flexibility of application. ‘The range of angles possible with their correspond- ing spans areshown ona Span-Angle Diagram, the construction of which is given later. Wind on tower To calculate the effect of wind on tower, the exact procedure would be to transfer the wind on tower to all the panel points. This would, however, in- volve anumberoflaborious and complicated aleu- lations. An easier assumption would be to transfer the equivalent loads on the conduetor and ground wire supports which are already subjected to cer- tain other vertical, transverse and longitudinal toads. Reduced front span Figure 3.14 Wind on conductors of angle tower Transmission Line Structures 79Table 3.19 Wind load on insulator strings (disc size: 255 x 146 mm] Veluge Lenger Dames Frajextea Eflocwe sen Computed ving leag.on Weight of Ka) sgpensen gach dec. west Ferwre iced mgulatorsiongneginslaeor insulator theseng atiumea SD» erwang pretture of eng ong (cor 2x Co! 3) ol 4 100 kgm 9) (en) ler 56.) i 2 3 ig 6 7 66 107 235 02718 0.1359 136 318 132 158 255 04267 0.2134 214 57 220 265, 235 0673) 6.3366 337 1225 400 415 255 1.054) 0.5271 527 200.9 loe ‘The projected area is an unknown quantity until the actual sections are known. Therefore, itis Conductor necessary to make an assumption inorder to arrive 2 Figure 3.15 Resultant load ‘on conductor ‘The wind load on towers is usually converted, for convenience in calculating and testing, into concentrated loads acting at the point of conductor and ground wire supports, This equivalent wind per point is added to the above component loads in arriving at the total load per support point. Calculation of wind load on towers is made on the basis of an assumed outline diagram and lat- tice pattern prepared from considerations of load- ings and various other factors, Adjustments, if required, are carried out after the completion of preliminary designs and before arriving at final designs. ‘The wind load is assumed to be applied hori- zontally, acting in a direction normal to the trans- mission line. 80 Transmission Line Structures at the total wind load on the structure. Experience has shown that the net area of the tower lies between 15 and 25 percent of the gross area, depending on the spread and size of the structure. ‘The gross area in turn is the area bounded by the outside perimeter of the tower face. For towers approximately 60m in height or higher, it will be found that the ratio of net area to gross area is much smallerat the bottom ofthe tower thanatthe top. This variation should be taken into considera- tion in calculating the wind load, ‘Tho projected area A on which the wind acts is computed by considering one face only. For ac- counting the wind force on the leeward face, a factor of 1.5isused in accordance with the relevant provision of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956, The windload on the tower, for the purpose of analysis, is assumed to act. at selected points, generally at the crose-arm and also at the waist in the case of corset type towers. One of the following methods is adopted to determine the magnitude ofloads appli- cable at the aforesaid selected points. Figure 3.16 gives the framework of a tower with reference to which the methods are explained. Method 1 ‘The wind loads are first caleulated for various members or parts of the tower. Thereafter, the moments of all these loads taken about the tower base are added together. The total load moment s0 obtained is replaced by an equivalent moment assuming that equal loads are applied at the se lected points. Method 2 ‘The loads applied on the bottom cross-arms are increased with corresponding reductionin the loads: applied on the upper cross-arms.27.83 m 18.68m 305m Ewenton Pe Transverse face 2 “pee b we Longitudinal face Far-side lattice —— Near-side lattice Figure 3.16 Equivalent wind load on transmission line tower Method 3 ‘The tower is first divided into a number of parts corresponding to the ground wire and conductor support points, The wind load on each pointis then calculated based on solidity ratio; the moment of this wind load about the base is divided by the corresponding height which gives the wind load on two points of the support in the double circuit tower shown, Method 4 ‘The equivalent loads are applied at a number of points or levels such as: 1. ground wire peak 2, all eross-arm points 3. waist level (alco portal base level ifdesired) in the case of corset type towers. ‘The wind loads on different parts of the tower are determined by choosing an appropriate solid- ity ratio. Out of the load on each part, an equiva- lent part (that is, a part load which produces an equal moment at the base of that part) is trans- ferred to the upper loading point and the remain- ing partto the base, This process is repeatod for the various partsof the tower from the top downward It can be seen that the load distribution in Method 4 is based on a logical approech in which importanee is given not only to moment equiva- lence but slso to shear equivalence at the base. ‘Thus Method 4 is considered to be superior to others, A typical wind load calculation based on this method is given in Figure 3.17. Table 3.20 compares the wind loads arrived at by the four methods. Although the design wind load based on method 4 is higher than that in the other three methods, it is still lower than the actual load (2,940kg). ‘A realistic approach is to apply the wind load at each node of the tower. This is practically impos: sible when calculations are done manually. How- over, while this could be handled quite satisfacto- rily in a computer analysis, the representation of wind load in prototype tower tests poses problems ‘Therefore, the current practice is to adopt Method 4 in computer analysis and design which are also being validated by prototype tests. Purther re- search is needed for satisfactory representation of foreas due to wind on tower during tests if the Transmission Line Structures 81Table 3.20 Comparison of various methods of wind load computations Tower details Method | Method 2 Method 3 Method 4 load in kg P, 0 0 205. 90 p, 253 200 175, 108 & 253 200 195 135 P, 253400 305 626 Total 1.518 1.600 1.555 1.828 Actual wind load 2,940 actual wind load which can be accounted for in computer analysis is to be simulated. Longitudinal load Longitudinal load acts on the tower in a direction parallel to the line (Figure 3.12) and is caused by unequal conductor tensions acting on the tower. ‘This unequal tension in the conductors maybe due to dead-ending of the tower, broken conductors, unequal spans, etc.,and its effecton the tower is to subject the tower to an overturning moment, tor- sion, or a combination of both. In the case of dead- end tower or a tower with tension strings with a broken wire, the full tension in the conductor will act as a longitudinal load, whereas in the case of a tower with suspension strings, the tension in the conductor is reduced to a certain extent under broken-wire condition as the string swings away from the broken span and this results in a reduced ‘tension in the conductor and correspondingly a reduced longitudinal load on the tower. ‘The question then arises as to how much reduetion in the longitudinal load should be al- lowed in the design of suspension towers to account for the swing of the insulator string towards the ‘unbroken span under broken-wire conditions. The general practice followed in India is to assume the unbelanced pull due to a broken con- ductor as equal to 50 percent of the maximum working tension of the conductor. In this practice, as in the practices of other countries, the longitudinal load is somewhat arbi- trarily fixed in the tower design. However, itis now possible through computer programs to calculate the actual longitudinal loads during the construc- tion of the line, taking into account the effective span lengths of the section (between angle towers), 82 Transmission Line Structures the positioning of insulator strings, and theresult- ingdeformations of supports, thus enabling acheck on the proper choice of supports. For theground wire broken condition, 100 per- cent of the maximum working tension is consid ered for design purposes. ‘The unbalanced pull due to a broken conduc- tor/ground wire in the case of tension strings is assumed equal to the component of the maximum working tension of the conductor or the ground wire, as the case may be, in the longitudinal diree- tion along with its components in the transverse direction. This is taken for the maximum as well as the minimum angle of deviation for which the tower is designed and the condition which is most stringent for a member is adopted. The forces due to impact which arises due to breaking are as- sumed to be covered by the factor of safety allowed in the designs. ‘When there is a possibility of the tower being used with a longer span by reducing the angle of line deviation, the tower member should also be checked for longitudinal and transverse compo- nents arising out of the reduced angle of line deviation. Vertical load Vertical load is applied to the ends of the cross- arms and on the ground wire peak (Figure 3.12c) and consists of the following vertical downward components: 1, Weight ofbare or ice-covered conductor, as specified, over the governing weight span. 2, Weight of insulators, hardware, etc., cov- ered with ice, if applicable. 3. Arbitrary load to provide for the weight of a man with tools.In addition to the above downward loads, any tower which is subjected to uplift must have an upward load applied to the conductor support points. While the first two components can be evaluated quite accurately, a provision of 150 kg is generally made for the weight of a lineman with tools (80 kg for the weight of man and 70 kg for tools). Another uncertain factor that arises is the extra load to be allowed in the design over and above the normal vertical load, toenable the tower to be used with weight spans larger than the normal spans for which it is designed (in other words, the choice of a suitable weight span for which the toweris tobe designed). [tis not possible for the designer to make an assumption regarding the weight span unless he has a fairly accurate knowledge of the terrain over which the line has to pass; and therefore the economic weight span will be different for different types of terrain. An allowance of 50 percent over the normal vertical load is considered to be quite adequate to cover the eventuality of some of the towers being used with spans larger than the normal spans. This clight increase in the design vertical load will not affect the line economy to an appreciable ex- tent, as the contribution of vertical loads towards the total load on the tower members is small. However, where the lines have torun through hilly and rugged terrain, a higher provision is made, depending on the nature of the terrain. The Cana- dian practice usually makes an allowance of 100 percent over the normal vertical load; this large allowance is probably due to the rugged and hilly terrain encountered in the country. It should be noted that, for the design of uplift foundations and calculation of tensile stress in corner legs and also insome members of the structure, the worst condi- tion for the design is that corresponding to the minimum weight span. Weight of structure ‘The weight of the structure, like the wind on the structure, is an unknown quantity until the actual design is complete. However, in the design of towers, an assumption has to be made regarding the dead weight oftowers. The weight will no doubt depend on the bracing arrangement to be adopted, the strut formula used and the quality or qualities of steel used, whether the design is a composite ‘one comprising both mild steel and high tensile steel or makes use of mild steel only. However, as @ rough approximation, it is possible to estimate the probable tower weight from a knowledge of the positions of conductors and ground wire above ground level and the overturning moments. Ryle" has evolved an empirical formula giving the approximate weight of any tower in terms of its height and maximum working overturning moment at the base. The tower weight is repre- sented by W=KHVM (3.29) where W = weight of tower above ground level in H = overall height of the tower above ground level in metres, M = overturning moment at ground level, in kg m (working loads), and K = aconstant which varies withinarange of 0.3970 to 0.8223. The towers investigated covered ranges of about 16to1 in height, 3,000 to 1 inoverturning moment, and 1,200 to 1 in tower weight. Areliableaverage figure fortower weight may be taken as 0.4535 HVMkg, for nearly all the towers studied have weights between 0.3970 HV and 0.5103 HVM kg. Ryle points out that any ordinary transmission line tower (with vertical or triangular configuration of conductors) giving a weight of less than, say, 0.3686 HVM may be considered inadequate in design and that any ‘tower weighing more than, say, 0.567 HVM must be of uneconomic design. In the case of towers with horizontal configu- ration of conductors, the coefficient X lies in the range of 0.5103 to 0.6748, Ryle"! recommends that the average weight of such towers may be repre- sented by 0.6238 HVM kg. Values of K for heavy angle towers tend to be less than those for straight-line towers. This is due to the fact that on a tower with a wider b angle it is easier todirect the leg lines towards the load centre of gravity. Values of K tend tobe higher the larger the proportion of the tower represented by cross-arms or ‘top hamper’. ‘Theweight of ariver-crossingsuspension tower with normal cross-arms lies between 0.4820 HVM for towers of about 35 metres in height, and 0.7088 HM for very tall towers of height 145 metres, ‘Towers with special ‘top-hamper’ or long-span terminal-type towers may be 10-20 percent heavier, The tower weights given by theseformulaeare sufficiently accurate for preliminary estimate: The formulae are also found to be extremely useful Transmission Line Structures 83in determining the economic span length and general line estimates including supply, transport and erection of the tower. Itis obvious that, when the height ofthe upper ground wire is raised, the conductors being kept at. the same height, the weight of the tower does not increase in proportion to the height of the ground wire alone. Taking this factor into consideration, Ailleret!" has proposed the presentation of Ryle's formula in the form VPH. While this is more logi- cal, Ryle's formula is simpler, and for general esti- mating purposes, sufficiently accurate. In Ryle's formula, safe external loads acting on a tower are used as against ultimate loads generally adopted for design as per IS:802(Part I)- 1977. Since the factor of safety applied for normal conditions is 2.0, the Ryle’s equation isnot directly. applicable if the tower weight is caleulated based onloads determined as per the above Code. In this case the following formulac!? are applicable, For suspension towers, W = 0.1999 HVM + 495 (3.30) For angle towers W= 0.2083 HM + 400 (3b Since there is no appreciable difference in the above two equations, the common equation given below may be used for both the tower types: W = 0,208 HVA + 450 (3.32) A more detailed evaluation of tower weight due to Walter Buckner is presented below. This is based on the principle of summing up the mini mum weight of struts panel by panel. ‘The minimum weight ofa single strutis given by weAly= EY where A. is the cross-section of strut, 1 is the unsupported length, y isthe density, and P is the compression load on strut (3.33) For a given compression load P and unsup- ported length J, the lightest angle section is that which permits the highest crippling stress ¢,. For geometrically similar sections og = (CNPHL where C is a constant (8.34) ‘Taking the factor (YP)/I es a reference, the crip pling stresses of all geometrically similar sections forany compression loadings and strutlengths can 84 Transmission Line Structures be plotted as curves, which enable the characteris- ties of the various sections to be clearly visualised. At the higher values of\ Pl, high-tensile steels (for example, St 52) are economical. This applies specially with staggered strutting, in which the maximum moment of inertia is utilised. The theoretical minimum weight of the com- plete tower w,, is given by the sum of the weights of the members according to equation (3.33). The weight g,, per metre of tower height for one panel is Ba® z re +e (3.35) where x = number of members, P = truss force, 8; = additional weight of bolts, ete. per metre of tower height, and dg = equivalent height of panel If this expression is integrated from x = 0 to x = h, we get the woight of the tower body Gp with leg members of St 62 roughly in kilograms without crogs-arms, ete; 6,= Q(B + Dna [Me om —0%) 2, * 3, (3.38) where A = height of tower from the top cross- arma to ground level in metres, ™, Q ="; M, = maximum normal mo- ment at ground level ¢e = h)in tonne. metres, b, = tower width at the top cross.arm (z=0)in metres, 5, = tower width at ground level (x =A) in metres, taper in metresimetre, and torsion under abnormal loading in tonne-metres. Weights of typical towers used in India ‘The weights of various types of towers used on transmission lines, 88 kV to 400 kV, together with the spans and sizes of conduetor and ground wire used on the lines, are given in Table 8.21, Aasum ing that 80 percent are tangent towers, 15 percent 80° towers and § percent 60° towers and dead-end towers, and sllowing 15 percent extra for exten- sions and stubs, the weights of towers for ¢ 10km Line are also given in the Table. Having arrived at an estimate of the total weight of the tower, the estimated tower weight is approximately distributed between the panels. Upon completion of the design and estimation of the tower weight, the assumed weight-used in the