FIELD AND WAVE ELECTROMAGNETICS DAVID K. CHENG SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY| i P| FIELD AND WAVE ELECTROMAGNETICS DAVID K. CHENG ‘SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY A ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY + Reading, Massachusetts rk, California, London’ ‘team enlace Sydney| i z ‘This book i in the APDISON;WESLEY SERIES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SPONSORING EDITOR: Tom Robbins PRODUCTION EDITOR: Marilee Sorotskin TEXT DESIGNER: Melinda Grbsser ILLUSTRATOR: Dick Morton PRODUCTION MANAGER: Herbert Nolan ‘The text ofthis book was composed in Times Roman by Syntax International Library of Congress Cataloging in Pobliction Data (Cheng, David K. (David Keun date~ Field and wave eletromigoetcn. Bibliography: p. 1. Electromagnetism, 2. Field thoy Physics) LT Qcr60.ce8 sora 5 seiz9 : ISBN 0201-01239.1 ‘AACR? ; Copstiaht © 1983 by Addison-Wesley Pelshing Company, ne Alig reser No part of his publication may be pprouee, sored in a trical system, of rae raed i Ay form erty any mans, exon meter meng ae ea ts Tihout he prior writen perma afte pusher, Fined inte Uae Sehenor rs Sioutaneouly in Canad : Plot SEER sn Ake 246] x | 341 Treztectromagnetic Mode! 24 Introduction ‘The electromagnetic model SI units and universal constants Review questions Introduction ‘Vector addition and subtraction Products of vectors 2-3.1 Scalar or dot product 243.2 Vector or cross product 2-33. Product of three vectors Orthogonal coordinate systems 2-4.1 Cartesian coordinates 2-42 Cylindrical coordinates 2-4.3 Spherical coordinates Gradient of a scalar field Divergence of a vector field Divergence theorein Curl of a vector field Stokes’s theorem, ‘Two nul identities 2-101 Identity 1 2-101 Identity 11 Helmholtz’s theorem Review questions Problems 10 u B B 1s 16 18 a 4 31 45 33 35 55 56 37 ci) ostatic Electric Field : x CONTENTS i 3-1 Introduction 3-2. Fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space 3-3. Coulomb's law 3.2.1. Electric figld due w a system of discrete charges 3-32. Electric feld due to a continuous distribution of charge 3-4 Gauss's law and applications 3-5. Electric potential 3-51 Electric potential due to a charge distribution 3-6 Condugtors in static electric field 347 Dielectrics in static electri field 3-7.1__ Equivalent charge distributions of polarized dielectries 3-8 Electric flux density and dielectric constant 3-811 Dielectric strength 3-9 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields 3-10 Capacitance and gapacitors 3210.1 Series and parallel connections of capacitors 3-1 Electrostatic energy ang forces 3-111 Electrostatic energy in terms of field quantities 3-112 Electrostatic forces Review.questions Problems 4-1 Introduction i "4-2. Poisson's and Laplace's equations }-3 Uniqueness of elegtrostatic solutions i 4 Method of images = A 44.1 Point charge and conducting planes 4-42 Line charge and parallel «° conducting cylindgr = 4-4.3 Point charge and conducting sphere 65 Cy) B 15 8 2 84 9 9s 96 99 108 10s 109 44 47 120 123 126 128 133 133 139 141 142 148 14766 o 78 8 2 an 95 96 99 104 10s 109 114 7 120 123 126 128 133 133 . 139 14h 142 144 147 4-5 Boundary-value problems in Cartesian coordinates 4-6 Boundary-value problems in cylindrical coordinates 4-7 Boundary-value problems in spherical coordinates Review questions Problems 5-1. Introduction 5-2 Current density and Ohm's law 5-3 Electromotive force and Kirebhof’s voltage law 5-4 Equation of continuity and Kirchhof’s current law 5-5 Power dissipation and Joule’s law 5-6 Boundary conditions for current density 5-7. Resistance calculations Review questions Problems © static magnetic Fictds 6-1 Introduction 6-2 Fundamental postulates of magnetostatics in free space ‘Vector magnetic potential Biot-Savart's law and applications The magnetic dipole : 6-5.1 Scalar magnetic potential 6-6 * Magnetization ancl equivalent current densities 6-7 Magnetic field intensity and relative permeability 6-8 Magnetic circuits 6-9 Behavior of magnetic materials 6-10 Boundary conditions for magnetostatic fields 6-11 Induetances and Inductors 6-12 Magnetic energy 6-121 Magnetic energy in terms of field quantities 6 ee 6 conTeWTs xi 150 158 168 167 169 i 173 17 180 182 183 187 19 192 196 197 202 204 208 212 23 217 220 225 230 233 241 244255 257 259 268 269 2 24 281 283, 286 287 288 290 291 292 293 294 296 298 301 302 306 307 8-21 Transverse electromagnetic waves t 8-2.2 Polarization of plane waves Plane waves in conducting media i 8-31 Low-loss dielectire 1 8-3.2 Good conductor 8-3.3 Group velocity Flow of electromagnetic power and the Poynting vector | 8-4.1 Instantaneous and average power densities “Normal incidence at a plane conducting boundary ‘Oblique incidence at a plane conducting boundary 8-61 Perpendicular polarization 8-62 Parallel polarization, Normal incidence at a plane dielectric boundary Normal incidence at multiple dielectric interfaces 8-8.1 Wave impedance of total field 8-8.2 Impedance transformation with__ multiple dielectrics 8-9 Oblique incidence at a plane dielectric boundary 89.1 Total reflection 8-9.2 Perpendicular polarization 8-9.3 Parallel polarization, Review questions Problems 9 Theory and Applications of Transmission Lines 9-1 Introduction 9-2 Transverse electromagnetic wave along a parallel-plate transmission line 9-2.1 Lossy parallel-plate transmission lines 9-3. General transmission-line equations 9-3. Wave characteristics on an infinite ‘transmission line 9-32 Transmission-line parameters 9-33 Attenuation constant from power relations 9-4 Wave characteristics on finite transmission lines 9-4.1 Transmission lines as circuit elements 9-42 Lines with resistive termination CONTENTS — xiii 32 314 317 318 319 322 370 37 315 379 381 385 388 390 395 400xiv CONTENTS 9-43_Lines with abjtdry termination 404 41 an 9-44 Transmission-lne circuits |! 407 9-5. The Smith chart an oad 95.1, Smith-chart calculations for lossy lines 420 u 9-6 Transmission-ine impedance matching 42 ‘ “ 9-6. Impedance mateng by quarter, wave transformer! 423 u 9-62. Single-stub matching 426 un 9-63 Double-stub matching 41 Review questions | 435 u Problems : 437 : uu 10 Waveguides and Cavity Resonators ‘ : 0-1 Introduction 443 10-2 General wave behaviors along uniform " Buiding structures a4 10-2.1 Transverse electromagnetic waves 487 10-2.2 Transverse magietic waves 443 10-2.3 Transverse glectric waves 452 1 10-3 Parallel-plate wavepiide : : 456 10-3.1 TM waves betwiéen parallel plates 457 10-3.2 TE waves between parallel plates 461 10-3. Attenuation in beralie-pate waveguides 463 10-4 Rectangular waveguides 467 10-4.1 TM waves jn rectangular waveguides 467 10-4.2 TE waves in rectangular waveguides an - 10-43 Attenuog in rectangular waveguides 415 10-5. Dielectric waveguides 478 10-5.1 TM waves along detect stb a0 o 10-5.2 TE waves along a dielectric slab 483 << 7 10-6 Cavity resonators, 5 486 “10-61 TMynp modes 5 s 487 2 TE modes 488 10-6.3 Quality factor Si cavity resonator 490 Review questions : 493 Problems i 495an 420 “422 43 426 al 435 437 447 448 452 456 437 461 463 461 467 an 475 48 419 483 “7 8 490 493 495 11-1 Introduction 11-2 Radiation fields of elemental dipoles 11-21 The elemental electric dipole 11-2.2 The elemental magnetic dipole Anteana paticfff€ and artenna parameters’ Ni-4 This tinear antennas 11-41 The halt-wave aipole M1-5 Antenna arrays * 115.1 Two-element arrays 118.2 General uniform linear arrays 11-6 Receiving antennas 11~6.1 Internal impedance and directional pattern 11-6.2 Effective area 11-7 Some other antenna types 11-71 Traveling-wave antenna ——~— 41-72. Yagi-Uda antenna 11-73 Broadband antennas 1-8 Aperture Radiators References Review questions Problems Appendix A Symbols and Units A-1 Fundamental SI (rationalized MKSA) units A-2 Derived quantities A-3- Multiples and submultiples of units Appendix B Some Useful Material Constants B-1 Constants of free space B-2 Physical constants.of electron and proton 00 02 502 505 50? 515 517 518 521 327 $52 532 534 555 555. Answers to Sstected Problems ; i Index CONTENTS Relative permittivities Gite conan) Conductivities Relative permeabilities Back Endpapers Left. Gradient, divergence, cprl, and Laplacian operations Right: Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates 556 556 357 559 560 14The many books on introductory electromagnetics can be roughly divided into two main groups. The first group takes the traditional development: starting with the experimental laws, generalizing them in steps, and finally synthesizing them in the form of Maxwells equations. This is an inductive approach. The second group takes the axiomatic development: starting with Maxwell's equations, identifying each with the appropriate experimental law, and specializing the general equations to static and time-varying situations for analysis. Ths i a deductive approach. A few books begin with a treatment of the special theory Pvelativity and develop all of electro. magnetic theory from Coulomb's law of force; but this approach requires the cussion and understanding of the special theory of relativity first and ‘best suited for a course at an advanced level Proponents of the traditional development argue that itis the way electromag netic theory was unraveled historically (from special experimental laws to Maxwell's equations), and that itis easier for the students to follow than the other methods 1 feel, however, that the way a body of knowledge was unraveled is not necessarily the best way to teach the sybject to students. The topics tend to be fragmented and cannot take full advantage ofthe conciseness of vector calculus, Students are puzzled at, and often form a mental block to, the subsequent introduction of gradient, d- vergence, and cur operations, Asa process for formulating in ceectromagnetic model, this approach lacks cohesiveness and elegance The axiomatic development usually begins with the set of four Maxwell's equa tions, either in differential or in integral form, as fundamental postulates. These are ‘equations of considerable complexity and are dificult to master. They are likely 10 cause consternation and resistance in students who are hit with all of them at the beginning of a book. Alert students will wonder about the meaning of the feld vectors and about the necessity and sufficiency of these general equations. At the initial stage students tend to be confused about the concepts ofthe electromagnetic model, and they are not yet comfortable with the associated mathematical manip- ulations. In any case, the general Maxwel’s equations are soon simplified to apply to static fields, which allow the consideration of electrostatic fields and magneto- static fields separately. Why then should the entire set of four Maxwell's equations be introduced at the outset?" perhapsvi PREFAC™ ‘ : - Traay be argued that Coulomb's law, though based on experimental evidence, Shargegre# Postlate’ Consider the two stiphlations of Coulomb's ans one tre aay eles re very small compared with their distance of sepuraton aeaits Feo between the charged bodies is inversely proportional to ine sree te st Gftance. The question arises regarding the fst stipulation: How stall wots ‘tacaed bodies be in ordar to be considered “very small” compared with hag dn asces aeguctice the:charged bodies cannot be of vans’ ag sizes (ea! poten Sparees). and theres dificulty in determing the"true” distance between the bocing of fnite dimensions. Far given body sizes the relative accuracy in dstence mesccne, rec eater when the separation is largér. Hoviever, practical consderatng. (weakness of force, existence of extraneous charged bodiss cle) seine noes Sistanee of separation in the laboratory, and experimental inaccuracies cannon og Snikely avoided. This lends to a more important question concerning the mere Sauare relation ofthe second stipulation, Even ithe charged bodies were of vanishing pomcgperimental measurements could not be of an infinite accuracy no meee accuracy (See Section 3-2), se tack builds the electromagnetic mode] using ain axiomatic approach in B7e st for static elecric folds (Chapter 3), them for siatie magnetic telee (Chapter Sh 2nd finally for time,varying fields leading to Maxwell's equations (Chapter 7). Ire nathematical basis foreach step is Helmholtz's theorem which tance tat Onstant if both its divergence and model in pec eeeited evprywhere. Thus, for the development of the sloteetanc Fer sru tee space iis boy necessary to defen single vector (namely the eens FEM tensity B) by specifying its divergenée and its curl as postulate il ate Raations in electrostatics for free space, including Coulamb’s law end Gagne Law, can be derivéd.ftom th¢ wo rather simple postulates. Relations ip weaned raiatsetn be developed through the concept of equivalent charge dictthucoee ot polarized dielectrics. : aa Similarly, forthe mggnétostatic model in. fre space it is necessary to define Calta single magnetic fuxidensty vector B by specifying its divereecce ance nn Ralana eestlatest all othgt formulas can be derived from these ts posts Relations in material media éan be developed thyough the concept of eecreclae Field rene aes OF cours! the validity of the postulates lies in thelr soil te yield results that pnform with experimental evidence. ro gme-varyie fields, the cleric and!imagngtic fel intensities are coupled. he GutlE postulate forthe electrostatic model mbt be modified to conten no Faraday's law, In addition, the curl B postulate fgr the magnetostatic model must also be modified inorder obs consisent withthe uation stecmne eei ental evidence, b's law: that the bration, and that de square of their ¥ small must the 24 with their dis. izes (ideal point tween two bodies istance measure. 4 considerations ssriet the usable racies cannot be sing the inverse- vere of vanishing aracy no matter ble for Coulomb square (not the 2TH uestion ok iy ae tic approach in fields (Chapter ns (Chapter 7), ch states that a divergence and xe electrostatic ly, the electric ates, All other ¥ and Gauss's ons in material listributions of ‘sary to define reenpand its wo f cutates Of alent hei? wwulty t0 S are coupled. conform with i¢ model must sity. We have, PREFACE vil then, the-four Maxwell's equations that constitute the electromagnetic model, 1 believe that this gradual development of the electromagnetic model based on Helmholtz’s theorem is novel, systematic, and more easily accepted by students. In the presentation of the material, I strive for lucidity and unity, and for smooth and logical flow of ideas. Many worked-out examples (a total of 135 in the book) are included to emphasize fundamental concepts and to illustraie methods for solving typical problems. Review questions appear at the end of each chapter 10 {est the students’ retention and videsstanding of the essertial material in the chapter. ‘The problems in each chapter are designed! reinforce sswlents’ comprehension of the interrelationships between the different quantities in the formulas, and to extend their abilitysof applying the formulas to solve practical problems. I do not believe in simple-minded drill-ype problems that accomplish little more than an exercise on a calculator, ‘The subjects covered, besides the fundamentals of electromagnetic fields, include theory and applications of transmission lines, waveguides and resonators, and fantennas and radiating systems. The fundamental concepts and the governing theory of electromagnetism do not change with the introduction of new clectromas- netic devices. Ample reasons and incentives for learning the fundamental principles of electromagnetics are given in Section 1-1. | hope that the contents of this booi, strengthened by the novel approach, will provide students with a secure and suf. ficient background for understanding and analyzing basic electromagneic phe- nomena as well as prepare them for more advanced subjects in electromagnetic theory. There is enough material in this book for a two-semester sequence of courses. Chapters I through 7 contain the material on fields, and Chapters 8 through 11 on waves and applications. In schools where there is only a one-semester course on electromagnetics, Chapters 1 through 7, plus the first four sections of Chapter 8 would provide a good foundation on fields and an introduction to waves :n un- bounded media. The remaining material could serve as a useful reference book on applications or as a textbook for a follow-up elective course. If one is pressed for time, some material, such as Example 2-2 in Section 2-2, Subsection 3-112 on electrostatic forces, Subsection 6~5.1 on scalar magnetic potential, Section 6-8 fon magnetic circuits, and Subsections 613.1 and 6=13.2 on maynetic forees and torques, may be omitted. Schools on a quarter system could adjust the material to be covered in accordance with the total number of hours assigned to the subject of electromagnetics ‘The book in its manuscript form was class-tested several times in my classes on clectromagnetics at Syracuse University. I would like to thank all of the students in those classes who gave me feedback on the covered material. { would aiso tike to thank all the reviewers of the manuscript who offered encouragement and valuable suggestions. Special thanks are due Mr. Chang-hong Liang and Mr. Bai-lin Ma for their help in providing solutions to some of the problems. Syracuse, New York D.K.C. January 1983ce INTRODUCTION Stated in a simple fashion, electromagnetics isthe study ofthe effects of electric charges, at rest and in miotion. From elementary physics we know there are two kinds of charges: positive and negative, Both positive and negative charges are sources of an lectric field, Moving charges produce a current, which gives rise to a magnet fel, Here we tentatively speak of electri fleld and magnetic field in a general wi efinitive meaings wll be attached to these terms later. A feld isa spatial distribution of a quantity, which may or may not be.a fuinetion of time. A time-varying electric field is accompanied by a magnetic field, and vce versa. In other words, time-varying leetric and megnetic fields are coupled, resulting in an electromagnet field. Under certain conditfons, time-dependent electromagnetic fields produce waves that radiate fom the souice. The concept of fields and waves is essential in the explanation of action at a distance. In this book, Field arid Wate Electromagnetics, we stay the Principles sind applications of the laws of electromagnetism that govern electro. ‘magnetic phenomena, Eleciromagnetits is of fundamental iniportinee to physicists and electrical engineers, Eléctromagnetic theory is indispensable in the understanding of the principle of atom smashers, cathode-ray ostilloscopes, radar, satellite communication, television reception, remote sensing, radio astronomy, microwave devices, optical fiber communication, instrument-landing systems, electromechanical energy con- version, and s@ on. Circuit concepts represent a restricted version, a special case, of electromagnetic coticepts. As we shall see in Chapigt 7, when the source frequency is very low so that thé dimensions of a conducting nétwork are much smaller than the wavelengib, We have a quasi-static situatior, which simplifies an electromagnetic problem ta drcll problem. However, we hasten {0 add that circuit theory is ill a highly developed, sophisticated discipline. It appliés to a different class of electrical engineering probletns, and itis certainly important in its own right. ‘Two situitions illustrate the inadequacy @f circult-theory concepts and the need of electromagnetic-ield concepts. Figure J-I depicts a monopole antenna ofthe type we sce on a jwilkie-talkie, Ol transmit, the source at the buse feeds the antenna with ‘Amessage-carrying current ai an appropriate cartier frequency. From a circuit-theory 12 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 Incident condudting \ wal Fig. 1-1 Amonopoleantenna, * Fig. 1-2 An electromagnetic problem, Point of view, the source feeds into an open circuit because ‘he Upper tip of the antenna nay Gonnected to anything physically; hence no eurrent would flow and nothing ould happen. This viewpoint, of course, cannot explain why communication ean fe SSablished between walkie-talkies ata distance. Electromagnetic concepls moxt be used, We shall seein Chapter 11 that when the length ofthe antenna isan apprecisble part of the carrier wavelength a nonuniform curtent will ow along the open arded antenna, This current radiate a time-varying electromagnetic Fld in space, which an induce current in another antenna ata distance In Fig. 1-2 we show a situation where an electromagnetic wave is incident from fd yon large conducting wall containing a small hoe aperture) Electromagnexie felds wil exist om the right side of the wal at points, such as Pin the figure, thet ne Polunecessarily directly behind the aperture. Circuit theory is obviously insdesuate here forthe determination (or even the explanation ofthe existence) of the felon {Us situation in Fig. 1~2, however, represents a problem of practical importance oc ‘solution is relevant in evaluating the shielding effectiveness ofthe conducting wall Generally speaking, circuit theory deals with lumped-parameter systems Circuits consisting ‘of components characterized by lumped parameters such an resistances, inductanets, and eupacitances. Voltages and currents ate the mary {ostem variables. For DC circuit, the system variables are constants and the sows ming equations are algebraic equations. The system variables in AC circuile we {ime-dependent; they are scalar quantities and are independent of space coordinaree hs governing equations are ordinary differential equations. On the other hand, moet sigettomagnetc variables are functions of time as wells of space coordinates. Many are vectors with both a magnitude and a direction, and their representation and manipulation require a knowledge of vector algebra and vector calculus, Even ia Sati cases, the governing equations are, in general, partial diferential equations Ie ‘The Product ofthe wavelength and the fequeney ofan AC source isthe velocity of wave propagtion. Atheantenna snd nothing tion gan be pis et be appre “able pen aed pace, which cident from Tomagnetic are, that are inadequate e field at P. portance as, tucting wall, systems — sts such as the main 1d the gov- cireuits are ordinates, hand, most ate( any tation and Cin uations. It Propagation, 3 i } is essential that we aie equipped to hjfidle vector quantities and variables that dfe both time- aid shace-dependent, The fundamentals of vector algebra and veciée calculus will:be dveloped in Chaptet 2: Techniques for solving partial differential ‘equations aré heeled in dealing with cerctin types of electromagnetic problems, These techniques will bd discyssed in Chaptér 4. the importance of acquiring a facility in the use of these tnathematical tools in the study of electromagnetics cannot be overemphasized. | THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MoDEL ° + There are two ajproaches inthe developufent ot x scientific subject: the inductive ‘approach and thetleductive approach, Using the inductive approach, one follows te historical developinent ofthe subject, stating with the observations of some simple experiments nd ifring om thon laws af ores tps of snag from particular phesiomena to general pridciples. The deductive approach, on the other hand, postilatesia few fundumentalrelations for an idealized model. The Postulated relatids see axionns, from which particular laws and theoeeims ea he derived. The validity of the model and the axioms is verified by thoi ability to predict. consequences thalicheck with experimental observations. In this book we prefer to tse the deductive or axiomatic approach hegause it is more elegant and enables the development of the subjget of eestromngueltes in ainanrderty way. Ti aad model ws a or stubing & eee nae mun elt 10 world situations and be able to explain physical phenomena: otherwise, we would be engaged in mental exercises for no purpose, For example,a theoretical mode! could be built, from which one might obtain many mathematical relations: but, f these relations disagiee with observed results, the model is of no use. The mathematics may be correct, bt the underlying assumptions of ti€ model may be wrong or the implied approximations nlay not be justified. Three esséntial steps are involved. in building a theory on an idealized model First, some basic quantities germane to the dubject of study are defined. Second. the rules of operatiod:(the mathematics) of these quantities are specified. Thin. som fundamental relatipns are postulated. These postulates or laws are invariably based on numerous experimental observations acquired under controlled conditions and Synthesized by brant minds. A familiar example is the circuit theory built on a circuit model of ideal sources and pure resistnces, inductances, and capacitances lit this case the basic quantities are voltages (V), currents (7), resistances (R, inductances (L), and tapscitatoes (C); the rules of operations are those of algebra, ordinary differential equatigns, and Laplace transformation; and the findamental postulates are Kirchhof’ voltage and current laws. Many reitions and formulas can be derived {om this basically fathar simple model, and the reiponses of very elaborate networks can be determined. ‘The valldity and value of thie model have been amply demonstrated. Jn a like manner, an electromagnetic theory can be built on a suitably chosen electromagnetic model, Ia this section we shall take the first step of defining the basic4 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 Weanlities of electromagnetics. The second step, the rules of operation, encompasses Nector algebra, vector calculus, and partial differential equations. The fundamentals ot yestor algebra and vector caleulus willbe discussed in Chapter 2 (Vector Analysis) and the techniques for solving partial diferential equations will be introduced wher these equations aris ater inthe hook, The hid step the fundantental postulates sil Sr retented in thressubsicv in Chapters 3,0, and 7 ase deal with respectively, Staticelectric fields, steady magnetic ficlds and electromagnetic elds ‘The quantities in our eleciromgnetic model can be divided vuighly imut wo Rlegoris: source arid'eld quantities. The source of an electromagnetic held is cain ir sletic charges at rest or in motion, However, an electromagnetic eld may SAS @ Cedistribution of charges which will, in turn, change the fields hence, the Separation between the cause and the effect is not always so distinct. Ine Use the symbol q (sometimes 0) to denote eletrc charg. Electic charge is @ fundamental property of matter and it exists only in postive or negative integral ‘multiples of the charge on an eleeteon, «" e=-160x 10 (O, a-1 where Ezench physicist Charles A. de Coulomb, who formulated Coulomb's law i its (Coplomb’s law will be discussed in Chapter 3) A coulomb is a very large unit for eu charge; it takes 1/(.60 x 10") or 625 billion electrons to make apt C, In fac two LC charges 1m apart wil exert a force of approximately | millon too Sigh other Some other physical constants forthe electron are listed in Appenci B-2, mathematically by the equation of continuity, which we will discuss in Section $4 Ary formulation or solution ofan electromagnetic problem that violates the principle of conservation of electric charge must be incorrect. We recall that the Kicchhcirs Satrent law in circuit theory, which maintains that the sum ofall the currents leaving ‘junction must equal the sum of all the currentsntering the junction, is an assertion "tn 1962 Murray GettMann hypothesized quark asthe baie building blocks of matter. Quarks were Fen ria fo ca a fraction ofthe charge, «ofan electron: bit, to date thelr xstenes hag no oe ne fed experimental * The system of units wil be discussed in Section 1-3compasses damentals Analysis), seed when, lates, will spectively, 1 into two tie itd 5 cfield may henge, the charge is 2 ve integral wy) XY daf the in 88 as unit for zup -1C. nillion tons » Appendix onservation hat cece triccharges influence of tive charges tion of elec~ represented on 5-4 be principle Kirchhof' ents leaving an ytion vanes were Snot beea vere i i | iF L i | i | } t current density), osama jt ted i tpt no ane er assumption thiit there isto cumulation’ of cHllrge at the junction.) Although, in point ina discrete Manne, tese abrupt vatiatlons onan atomicseale are unimportant when we considetthe eldetomagnetic effect of large aggregates of charges. In cons i¢roscopic sense, electticcharge either does or does not exist at 4 structing a mactottopic or large-scale theory of electromagnetism, we find that the use of smoothed-dbt average density fuictidns yields very good results. (The same proach i used i mechanics where a smoothed-out mass density function is defin=*, in spite ofthe fact that mass is associated onl} with elementary particles in a discrete ‘manner on an atosific scale.) We define a voluhd charge densir,, p,as asource quantity as follows: ub am a = tin ici’, ws where isthe ambunt ofcharge in a very smill volume Av. How small should Av be? should be small enough to represent an accurate variation ofp, but large enough to contain a very arge nuniber of discrete charges. For example, an elemental cube with sides as small as 1 micron (10~® m or | jum) has a volume of 10-"* m?, which will still contain about 10"* 100 billion) atoms. A smoothed-out function of space coordinates 9, defined with such a small Av is expected to yield accurate macroscopic results for nearly all practical pirposes. : Jn some physial situations, an amount of charge Ay may be identified with an clement of surface As or an element ofline A¢-In such case, it wll be more appropriate to define a surface charge density, p,, oF a line charge density, Pe: (Cim’); a3) “Gim. sj Except for certain Special situations, charge densities vary from point to point; hence P,P and py ate it gereral, point functions of space coordinates. Current is the ate of change of charge with respect to time: that is da 4 Be Cor Ay ans) where / itself may be time-dependent. The unit of current is coulomb per second (C/s), which isthe sanié as ampere (A). A current must flow through a finite area (a con: ducting wire of afifite ctoss section, for instabce); hence itis not a point function. [4 electromagnetics, We define a vector point function volume current density (or simply, hich measures the amourtt of current flowing through a unit area ‘normal to the direction of current flow. The bold-faced J isa vector whose magnitudé is the current per unt aréa (A/m2) and whose direction isthe direction of current flow, We shall elaboraté on the relation between I and J in Chapter 5. For very good6 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 conductors, high-frequency alternating currents are confined in the surface layer, in- stead of flowing throughout the interior of the conductor. In such cases there isa need. to define a surface current density J,, which is the current per unit width on the con- ductor surface normal to the direction of current flow and has the unit of ampere per meter(A/m). ‘There ars fo r fundamental vector field quantities in electromagnetics: electric Jisld intensity E,eleetrie flux density (or electric displacement) D, maint flus density B, and magnetic field intensity U "The definition and physical signilientice of these uantities will be expkained fally when they are introduced! iter in the book, AU this time, we want only to establish the following, Electric field intensity E is the only vector needed in discussing electrostatics (effects of stationary electric charges) in free space, and is defined as the electric force on a unit test charge. Electric displacement vector D is useful in the study of electric field in material media, as we shall see in Chapter 3. Similarly, magnetic flux density B is the only vector aeeded in discussing ‘magnetostatics (effects of steady electric currents) in free space, and is related to the magnetic force acting on a charge moving with a given velocity. The magnetic field intensity vector H is useful in the study of magnetic field in material media. The definition and significance of B and H will be discussed in Chapter 6. ‘The four fundamental electromagnetic field quantities, together with their units, are tabulated in Table 11, In Table 1-1, V/m is volt per meter, and T stands for tesla or volt-second per square meter. When there is np time variation (as in static, steady, Table 1-1 Electromagnetic Field Quantities Symbols and Unite for Field Quantities Field Quantity Symbol Unit Electric field intensity E vim bole | Blectric tux density D | cm? « (Electie displacement) | Magnetic tux density ® i Magnetic |____ Magnetic etd intensity H Alm or stationary cases), the electric field quantities E and D and the magnetic field ‘quantities B and H form two separate vector pairs. In time-dependent cases, however, electric and magnetic field quantities arc coupled; that is, time-varying E and D will sive rise 10 B and H, and vice versa. All four quantities are point functions; they are defined at every point in space and, in general, are functions of space coordinates. Material (or medium) properties determine the relations between E and D and between Band H. These relations are called the constitutive relations of a medium and will be examined later. : 13 UNVface layer, ine hereisa need hon the con- of ampere per tics: electric fe flux density ance of these ‘book. At this Es the only 1argest in fie displacement e shall see in in discussing elated to the vagnetic field Vang. The hay units, ands ws tesla static, steady, Unit vim Cin? T [3 field as Yever, E ang * will S3 lang are coordinates. and D and medium and SAND UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS 7 The principal objective of studying’ ‘elécttomagnetism is to understand the inter action between elargesvand currents at distance based on the elecromageene rodel, Fields-and' waves (lime- and spatedlependent fields) are basic consol and Ay “B= A-B, Since Ay,“ D = 0, s0 k Pein bY a vector is not wefined, and expressions such as K/A and B/A are meaningless, i 2-4 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS wiephave indicated before that although the laws ofiléctromagnetism are invariant Gu Soardinate system, solution of practical problehs requtes thatthe veka derived from these laws be expressed in « coordinate syatem appropriate (0 the Bra eas ie iven problems, For example if we are to determine the electric feed and the a Beint in space, we at least need to describe the positon of the cores and the location of this point in a coordinate system, In a three-dimensional space a famiicc are pected a8 the intersection of three surfaceg Assume that the dhe Tenis ofsurlacesace described by u, = constant, = constant ae 4s = constant, Wher he o's need not all be lengths in the familar Cartesian or rectangle oe sansa Mis Ma, and ns correspond to x,y, and z respectively) Whee the sees Spaces are mutually perpendicular to bne another, we haven othoyoel eens Probleme noeorA! coordinate systems are not used hecause they complies Problems. (21a) (2-216) Ha, = ay 7 2-210) These three equations are not allindependent, as the spéeifcalion ofone ‘automatically implies the other two. We have, of equtse, ae aa, (2-22) and By RAG a ay rae (2-23) ny vector A can be writen asthe um of is components in the three orthogonal directions allows: " (2-24) , Sol a) »ACB nd B/A ace ’ sre invariant he relations siate to the slectre field F the source ‘onal space a at the three Sore 2 thes three Wen nate eomplieate inate system be the unit ectors. In a = vectors are 1a) ~ (2-21b) (2-21c) Momatically orth” ~wal (2-24) 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 19 where the magnitudes of the three components, A, 4y,, ind A,,, may change with the location of A; that is, they may be functions of uy, up, and 1;. From Eq, 2-24) the magnitude of A is, Aa |Al= (43 +43, + 432 (2-25) Example 2-3 Given three vectors A, B, and C, obtain the expressions of (a) A~B, (b) A xB, and (co) C-(A x B) in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system (GH, ua, a) : Solution: First we write A, B and C in the orthogonal coordinates (a, és): A Aa + Aes + Magy B=a,2,,+4,,B,, + 4,2,,, Cm AC, + aCe + Coy A) ABS Ay, + aA + Ady) (Oy By, + 4,By, + 2,,8,,) = AY Ba + AnBus + AiBos in view of Eqs. (2-22) and (2-23), DY AK Bala A, + aha + tea) X (OB, + 8,,By, + 8, (Ana, = Ae Bu) Mylo, Ali) #8, (Asctay ~ AygBa) Be ay Mn, An A om) 1B, Bu, Bul Equations (2-26) ind (2-27) express, respectively, the dot and cross products of two vectors in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. They are important and should be remembered. ©) The expression for C «(A x B) can be written down immediately by combining the results in Eqs. (2~26) and (2-27). CAR B)= Cu(AegBy ~ AgBu) + Co(AusBuy— A Bu) + CuldesBag~ AB) nC Cal My Aue (2-28) B, BB, Eq, (2-28) can be used to prove Eqs. (2-18) and (2-19) by observing that a permutation of the order of the vectors on the left side leads simply to a rearrange- ‘ment of the rows in the determinant on the right side. In veetor calculus (and in electromagnetics work), we are often required to Perform line, surface, and volume integrals. In each case we need to express the20 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 de = [dey + (des)? + (dest = [ily diy)? + (ha dig)? + hy dus)? (2-32) Fie iferenial volume do formed by ferential coordinate changes du, dus, and ‘usin directions a, a,,, and a,, respectively i (de, dé, d?,) oF de = hhgy di, diy dy 2-33) Later we will have occasion to express the current or fox flowing through a dilferental area. In such cases the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the cov ena or fox low must be used, and its convenient to consider the piffrential area a vector with a direction normal to the surface; that is, ds= ads] | (2-34) For instance, ifeurrent density J is not perpendicular io a differential area of a mag: nitude ds, the current, di flowing through ds must be the component of J nortnel > ‘he area multiplied by the area. Using the notation in Eq. 2-34), we can write simply dh J+ds a = Jea,ds, (2-35) In general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, the diferentigl area ds, normal to the unit vector ay, is Aon ds, 8, (dt, des) Cis the symbol of the vector ¢ si the ‘ Th 2-44 Car spe syst The "Theane of the co- may not be a nige du into a (2-29) My and us 2 differential Be dl =rdp change in an ath changes:t (2-30) (3) shy (2-33) 2g through a > the current area a vector (2-34) ‘3 of mage Jnormal to “write simply Y-38) cormal to the Baa sa ae 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 21 or 1 = Aalishs dug du). (2-36) Similarly, the differential area normal to unit vectors a, and a, ar, respectively, sy = a,,(hyhs du, dus) (2-37) and 453 = a(t di, dus). | - + Many orthogonal coordinate systems exist; but we shall only be concerned with the three that are most common and most useful: 1. Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates,t 2 Cylindrical coordinates, 3. Spherical coordinates. ‘These will be discussed separately in the following subsections, Cartesian Coordinates, (uy, tay a) = (x, 9 2) A point Pls, yx 2) in Cartesian coordinates is the intersection of three planes specified by x =x;, y= ys, and 2 = 2,, as shown in Fig, 2-9. It is a right-handed system with base vectors a, a,, and a, satisfying the following relations ax aysa, (2-384) a, xa, =a, The position vector to the point Pls, yu) is OP = a,x, +a, +0.2, (2-40) ‘A vector.A in Cartesian coordinates can be written as ! The term “Cartesian coordinates” is prefeted because the term “rectangular coordinates" customarily sasociated with two-dimensional geometry.22 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 y= y plane Fig.2-9 Cartesian coordinates, ~~ The dot product of two vectors A and Bis, from Eq, (2-26), AVB=A,B, + A,B, = Bi, (2-42) and the cross product of A and B is, from Eq. (2-27), AXB Az * A A, (2-43) ee a 8 Since x 9, and 2 are legyhs themselves, all three thetic coeicients are unity; that ih = ha = ha = 1. The exprsssons forthe diferental length, difereevel wor and differential volume afe — trom Eqs. (2-31), (2-36, 2-37) (0-38) and (2 39) respectively. z : 1g dx ta, dy + 8, de; (2-44) : » | dse=a,dyds f (2-45) * | as, as, do de (2-456) dx dy: (2-450) and do = dx dy dz. } (2-46)(2-43) 3 are unity; ential area, 1d (2-33) — (2-44) (2-46) 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 23 Example 2-4 A scalar line integral of a vector field of the type is of considerable importance in both physics and electromagnetics. (IF isa force, the integral isthe work done by the force in moving from P, 10 P, along «speciied path; if Fis replaced by E, the electric feld intensity, then theiategra represents eo electromotive force.) Assume F = a,xy +a,(3x—y"), Evaluate the scalar line integral from P,(5, 6) to (3,3) in Fig: 2-10 a) along the diet path CD, P,P ss thon (6) along path @, P,4P,. Fig. 2-10" Paths of integration (Example 2-4) Solution: First we must write the dot product F + dé in Cartesian coordinates. Since this is a two-dimensional problem, we have, from Eq, (2~44), Fede = [aay + a,x — y?)]-(a, de +a, dy) = xy dx + Gx — yA) dy. 47) 1s important to remember that dé in Cartesian coordinates is aways given by Eq. (2-44) irespective of the puch or the direction of integration The liscton ot integration is taken care of by using the proper limits onthe integral 4) Along dreet path © — The equation ofthe path P,P, is — y= He) (2-48) This is easly obtained by noting from Fig. 2-10 that the slope ofthe lie P,P, is 2. Hence y = (xis the equation of the dashed line pasing through th orgia and parallel to P,P,..Since line P,P; intersects the x-axis at x = +1, its equation is that of the dashed line shifted one unit in the positive x-direction; it can be24 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 obtained by replacing x with ( ~ 1), We have fom Es. (2-47) and (2-48), Sere = [Fb de + Gx- yay] PaO Pea : 7 o Pax — part Pay +345 +27 = -10. In the integration with respect to y, the relation 3x = 2y +3 derived from Eq, (2-48) was used’ ) Along path @— This path has two straight-line segments: From P, to A:x=5,dx=0 \ Fede =(15 - y*)dy. > From A to Ps: y=3,dy = 0, Fede = 3x dx, Hence, Jr den'ftas—yyay+ fh 3eax Pan® J}us-y)ay+ [¥axae =18-24=-6.. * We see here that the value of the line integral depends on the path of integration. In such a case, we say that the vector field F is not conservative. 2-42 Cylindrical Coordinates © (lay tas ts) = (6 8,2) “In cylindrical coordinates a point P(r, 6, 21 is the intersection of a circular eylin- ical surface r = r,,a half-plane'cpntaining the z-axis and making an angle 4 = $, with the xz-plane, and a plane parallel to the xy-plage at z= z,. As indicated in Fig. 2-11, angle @ is measufed from the positive x-ax}s, and the base vector a, is tangential to the cylindrical qurface. The following right-hand relations apply: : (2-49a) ; (2-496) i Xa may, (2-496) a, x ay(2-48), " leriv.d trom integration, -eulareylin- angle d= 9, indicated in vera is wh (da) (2-496) (2-48) 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 25 Fig.2-11 Cylindrical coordinates Cylindrical coordinates are important for problems with long line charges or currents, and in places where cylindrical or circular boundaries exist, The two-dimensional Polar coordinates are a special case at = = 0. A vector in cylindrical coordinates is written as Ady + gy badly (2-30) The expressions for the dot and cross products of two vectors in cylindrical coordi- nates follow from Eqs. (2-26) and (2-27) directly. Two of the three coordinates, r and = (u, and us) are themselves lengths; hence ‘hy = hy = 1. However, @ is an angle requiring a metric coefficient hy = r to convert 6 to dfs. The general expression for a differential length in cylindrical coordinates is then, from Eq. (2-31); dem a, dr + age di + ade. es) ‘The expressions for differential areas and differential volume are ay dd de ‘ say dreds ay dr dp (2-820) and do=rdrdp dz. (2-53)26 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Fig. 2-12. A differential, Volume element in cylindrical coontinates. A typical differential volume element at a point (¢, 4, 2) resulting from differential changes dr, dé, and dz in the three orthogonal coordinate direétions is shown in Fig. 2-12. ‘A vector given in cylindrical coordinates can bé transformed into one in Cartesian coordinates, and vice versa. Suppose we want to express A= a,4, + agd, + a,d, in Cartesian coordinates; that ig, we want to write A as a,A, + a,4, + ad, and deter. mine 4. A,,and 4,, First of al, we note that 4,,the component ofA, isnot changed by the transformation from cylindrical to Cartesian coorginafs. To find , we equate the dot produets of both expressions of A with a,. Thus! Art Asay SA at Aaya, The term containing A, disappears here because a, - a, = 0. Referring to Fig. 2-13, ‘which shows the relative positions of the base vectors @,, a, a,, and a,, we see that Be = G08 8 2-54) and ag Re »(F+0) =Ssin', (2-55) Hence, 4 : AeA, 008 } — Ay sing. (2-56) 4 : + ig 2-13 Relations between Bean ananday. |» differential is shown in in @ysian not ehangedd 1, we equate > Fig 2-13, we see that (2-54) (2-55) (2-56) nN 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 27 Similarly, to find 4,, we take the dot products of both expressions ofA witha, 4, Ava, Aaya, + Asay ay, From Fig. 2-13, we find os ( -¢) Sting @-57 and 603 9. 2-58) It follows that Aysin } + Ay cos . (2-59) It is convenient to write the relations between the components ofa vector in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates in a matrix form: [<]-[=* as | : | (2-6) 4.) Lo 0 Our problem is now solved except that the cos @ and sin @ in Eq, (2-60) should be Converted into Cartesian coordinates. Moreover, dy, Ag, and A, may themselves be functions of r, }, and. In that case, they too should be converted into functions of %; )s and z in the final answer, The following conversion formulas are obvious from Fig. 2-13. From cylindrical to Cartesian coordinates: x=roos$ (2-614) yersing (2-616) 2 (2-616) ‘The inverse relations (from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates) ate (2-62a) (2-62) (2-62¢)28 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Example 2-5 Express the yector ‘ A= 2,(3 008 9) — agar + 9,5 in Cartesian coordinates, Solution: Using Eq. 2-60) girgetly, we have! - Ax}. [p0ady -sing 1 0773 cos 6} ‘ [rs es | “2 allo ovals or : A= a,(3 cos? $ + 2r sind) + a,(3 sin ¢ cos gh — 2r cos 4) + a,5° But, from Eqs. (2-61) and (262), x —™ cos 6 pV and sin @ = r+ Therefore, whic i Example 2-6 Given F = a,xy ~ a,2s, evaluate the scar line integral 2] [trea along the quarter-irle showin in Fig, 2-14 ui Fig. 2716 Pat ore integral (esl 2-6)2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 29 Solution: We shall solve this problem in two ways: first in Cartesian coordinates, then in cylindrical coordinates. + a) In Cartesian coordinates. From the given F and the expression for d@ in Eq (2-44), we have F dé = xy dx ~ 2edy. The equation oi the quarter-crcle ie x2 + y? = 90 s x, y $3). Therefore, [iR-ae =P xyo=3 ¥ dx—2 J) (I= ay P -[ IHF +950 af oxy a(t ) 2) In cylindrical coordinates. Here we first transform F into cylindrical coordinates. Tnverting Eq, (2-55), we have LE oS TE cos: sing OV [4] =|-sing cos 0} |, ° ° Ula. With the given F, Eq, (2-63) gives F) [ cose sing x us msing eos@ | |=241, FAL lho 0 Lo F = a,{xy cos — 2x sin 9) — ag(xy sin g + 2x c0s 4) which leads to For the-present problem the path of integration is along a quarter-circle of a radius 3, There is no change in r or = along the path (dr = O and d: = 0); hence Eq, (2-51) simplifies to ae dp and 3(ay sin $ + 2x cos 6) dp.30 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Because of the circular path, F, is immaterial tq the present integration. Along the path, x = 3 cos @uand y = 3 sin. Therefore. J2 de = fo? ~109 sin? # 089 + Bor #4 = -Hsin? 6 + @ + sin d cos ¢)| " =-9(143), : ‘which is the’ same as before, In this particular example, Fis givén in Cartesian coordinates and the path is circular. There is no compelling reasop to solve the problem in one oF the ether coordinates, We have shown the conversion of vectors an! the pracedtire of sation in both coordinates Example 2-7 Given . Gras over the surface ofa closed cylinder about the =-axis specified by z = +3andr = 2, as shown in Fig. 2-15, Solution: In connection with Eq. (2~34) we noted that the direction of ds is normal to the surface. This statement is actually imprecise because a ngrmal to a sutface can Point in either of two directions. No ambiguity would arise in Eq, (2-35), since the choice of a, simply determines the reference direction of currept low. In the present case, where F - ds is to be integrated over a clased surface (denoted by the circle on the integral sign), the direction of ds is always to be tiken 4p that of the outward ormal, Our problem is to carry ouf the surface integral Fig. 2-15 A cylindrical surface (Exapople 2-7. evaluate the scalar gurfacd Tmregral the a) » 9‘ration, Along. 6 the path is oF the other eof solution Si since the the present circle on @ outward i | I t ene 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 31 over the emir specified sac. Thi integral gives the net outard fu ofthe vector F through he enosd sure The inde in Fig 215 has the sures: the top fae the botom face, nd the side wall Se GPa Fender f Feast fi, Pade We evaluate the three integrals on the right side separately, DTopfee. r= 3ana, dsm rede rom Ea, 2-52); fh, Feads= JP faker ardp = 12, 9) Bottom face, == 3,4, Frags sky ds = rdr dg; Gon F* ‘which is exactly the same as the integral over the top face. 9) Side wall. dp de = 24h de (om Ea. 2-52 Joos Feads= [2 [Pky dé de 12a, $F ds 12th + 1k + 120k = 12a(k, + 2k). 2-43 Spherical Coordinates (44, tas ug) = (R, 0, AA point P(R,, 0, 4) in spherical coordinates is specified as the intersection of the following three surfaces: a spherical surface centered at the origin with a radius R Ri; @ right circular cone with its apex atthe origin, its axis coinciding with the axis32 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 7 4 Fig. 2-16 Spherical coordinates = and having a halfangle @ = 0,;and a half-plane containing the z-axis and making an angle @ = $1 with the xz-plane. The base vector ay at P is radial from the origin and is quite different from a, in cylindrical coordinates, the latter being perpendicular to the “The base vector ay lis in the = y plane and is tangential to the spherical Surface, whereas the base vector ag is the same as that in cylindrical coordinates, ‘These are illustrated in Fig, 2-16, Far a right-handed system we have ag kay (2-648) mx ay (2-64b) MX ey. (2-64) Spherical coordinates are important for problems jnvolving point sources and regions with spherical boundaries, When an observer is very far fram the source region of finite extent, the latter could be considered asthe origin ofa spherical ordinate system: and, asa result, suitable simplifying approximations could he male This ih the eason that spherical Goordinates ure used in solving antenna problems inthe hy fila A vector in spherical coordinates is written as As agdy + aA, + aA, (2-65) The expressions for the ot and crass products of wo vectors in spherigal coordinates can be obtained from Eqs. (2-26) and (2-27) i In spherical coordinates, only Ru) is a length. The other two coordinates, 0 and 6 (us and uy), are angles. Refere}ag 0 Fig. 2-17, where atypical differential volume clement is shown, we see that metrip coeicients hy = Rand hy = R sin 0 are required if The ent‘King an rub here dinates, 2-64a) 2-64) 640) Sand region dinate This is be far nates 8 ume tired reese, See 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 39 Fig. 2-17 dierent volume element in spherical Rind coordinates. SneemNert ao and dg into dé, and ds, Tespectively. The general expression for a ‘iflrential length is, from Eq, (2~31), [de = ae dR + aR dO + aR sin 0 ap. (2-66) ane e*pressions for differential areas and differential volume resulting from differ- ntial changes dR, d0, and dé in the theee coords directions are eR? sin 6 do dy wR sin dR ad | am adr dd | do = R? sin 0 aR dag, (2-68) For convenience the base vectors, metric Coefficients, and expressions for the differ- ential volume are tabulated in Table 2. J Actor given in spherical coordinates can be transo or cylindrical coordinates, and vice versa: From Fig, 2 and X= Rsin 8 cos 6 Y=RsinOsing 2= Roos34 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2- vi Table 2-1 Three Basic Orthogonal Coordinate Systems > Cartetian Cylindrical ‘Spherical Coordinates Coordinates Coordinates Coordinate-system Relations (6.2) (R06) Pas. Voctors. a a, a 4 he a, hy 1 1 t Metric Coefcients hy i , R hy 1 ' Rain ae be dy dz sind dR do dp Conversely, measurements in Cartesian coordinates can be transformed into those in spherical coordinates: Rae eye (2-70a) apy q O= tag Et (2-70b) eaten (2-100) Example 2-8 The position of a point P in spherical coordinates is (8, 120°, 330”), Specify its location (a) in Cartesiari coordinates, and (b) in, cylindrical coordinates, Solution: “The spherical coordinates 6f the given point are R= 8; 9 = 120°, and b= 330". i : ) In Cartesian coordinates. We use Eq: (2-694, bo x = 8 sin 120° 0s 330° = 6 y= 8 sin 129° fi:330° = -23" ' 2 = 800s 120" 4, Hence, the location of the point is F(6, +23, vector going from the origin to the point) is OP a6 42/3 ~ a4. 4), and the position vector (the w nord Exam ordins Soluti This i a poir all po, funeti defini: in gen produ Recali vector Oe. ¢erica vordinates 20,9) r R Rsing ‘wana Oo 2m) (2-706) (2-10) 20°, 330"). ordinates, 120°, and. tector (the saree 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 35 b) In cylindrical coordinates. The cylindrical coordinates of point P can be obtained by.applying Eqs. (2~62a, b,c) to the results in part (a), but they can be calculated directly from the given spherical coordinates by the following relations, which can be verified by comparing Figs. 2~11 and 2-16: Rain @-na) ono Gib) z= Roos. 2-119 We have P(4,/3, 330°, —4) ; and its position vector in cylindrical coordinates is OP = 943 - It js interesting to note here that the “position vector” of a point in cylindrical coordinates, unlike that in Cartesian coordinates, does not specify the position of the point exactly. Can you weite down the position vector of the point P in spherical coordinates? Example 2-9 Convert the vector A= agg + ayy + ad, into Cartesian co- ordinates, Suluion: Wn this problen we want (o write A inthe form ofA os aA, + aay + a This is very different from the preceding problem of converting the coordinates of a point. First of all, we assume that the expression of the given vector A holds for all points of interest and that all three given components 1g, ay and A, may fanctions of coordinate variables. Second, at a given point, Ay, 4g, and Ay wil ha definite numerical values, but these values that determine the direction of A will, in general, be entirely different from the coordinate values of the point. Taking dot product of A with a,, we have dy Ava, Lee Ag + Agdy ae + Aga, Recalling that aga, ay*a,, and a, a, yield, respectively, the component of unit Wectors ag, ay, and a, in the direction of a,, we find, from Fig. 2-16 and Eqs. (2-69a, b,c): q+ a, = sin 0 cos @ = —— 2-72) sin 008 § = ¢ Ay a, = cos 8 cos = a 2-73) VEG + PTF) agen, = sin pa = (74) vst ey36 VECTOR-ANALYSIS /2 Thus, i Ay ='Ag in 0 008 $ + Ay 008 8 cos $ — Ay sin d (2-75) Similarly, (2-16) and @m If Ag, Ag and A, are themselves functions of R, J, and @ they tqo need to be converted into functions of x,y, and z by the use of Eqs. (2~70a, 6, ¢). Equations (2-73), (2-76), and (2-77) disclose the fact that when a vector has a simple form in one coordinate system, its conversion into another coordinate system usually results in a more complicated expression. Example 2-10 Assuming that g.cloud of electrons copfined in a region between two spheres of radii 2and 5 cm hag.a charge density of x 1078 R cost = (C/m?), find the total charge contained in the region. Solution: We have = fow The given conditions of the problemi obviously point.to the use of spherical coordi- jon for dein Eq. (2-68), we perform a triple integration. O= Jo" [5 od aR? sin aR dQ do. ‘Two things are of importance here.’First, since p is givep in units of coulombs per cubic meter, the limits of integration for R must be converted to meters, Second, the full range of integration for 0 ig froni 0 to x radians, no from 0 to 2x radians. A litle reflection will convince ug that a halF-crce (nota fullcrele) rotated about the z-axis thr 2-5 GRA! An £ pos We ata tior oir rep : dep line chat the(2-75) 276 2-7) onverted (2-76), ante between Tevordi- a) imbs pee ‘ond, the Allie be axis 2-5/ GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD 37 through 2x tadians (6 rom Ot 2) generates sphere: We have Qa 31078 Ff [oe A cost sin 0a do dg Fo maa 6 (hg gly) sn 2c a 09 x 10°* [2*(—cos 8 vin26\ }| | cos! ¢ co L8z (uo), 3% 18 x 10-+f \ ° 2-5 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD In electromagnetics we have to deal with quantities that depend on both time and Position. Since three coordinate variables are involved in a three-dimensional spac We expect to encounter scalar and vector fields that are functions of four variables {6 ys tas Wy). In general, the fields may change as any one of the four variables changes, We now address the method for describing the space rate of change of a sealar field at a given time, Partial derivatives with respect to the three space-coordinate variables ‘tee involved andl, inasmuch as the rate of ehange may’be dilferent in different disses tions, a veetor is needed to detine the space rate of change of a scalar field at a eiven point and at a given time. Let us consider a scalar function of space coordinates V(u,, us, us), which may Fepresent, say, the temperature distribution in a building, the altitude ofa mountain ous terrain, or the electric potential in a region. The magnitude of V, in general, depends on the position of the point in space, but it may.be constant along certain lines or surfaces. Figure 2-18 shows two surfaces on which the magnitude of V is constant and has the values ¥, and V, + dV, respectively, where dV indicates a small change in V. We should note that constant-V surfaces need not coincide with any of the surfaces that define a particular coordinate system. Point P, is on surface V3 Pz Fig. 2-18 Concerning gradient ofa scala,38 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 isthe corresponding point on surface ¥ + dV along the normal vector da; and P, is 4 point close to P; along anpther vector dé x dn. For the same change dV” in V, the space rate of change, dV/d, is abviously greatest along dn because dn is the shortest distance between the two surfaces." Since the magnitude of dVjd? depends on the Girection of dé, AV isa directional derivative, We define the vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of inrease ofa sealar 4s the gradient of that scalar, We write FA (2-78) | sraay For brevity it is customary to employ the operator del. represented by the symbol V and write VV in place of grad ¥, Thus, (2-79) We have assumed that dV is positive (an increase in V); it dV is negative (a decrease in V from P, to P,), VV will be negative in the a, direction, The directional derivative along dé is av _adVdn_ av Bind Hm * av =F MAY) a, (2-80) Fauation 280) states that the space rate of increase of fin thea, direction is equal {o the projection (the component) ofthe gradient of ¥ in that direction, We can tica write F a SIV) ae, (2-41) where dé = a, d¢. Now, dV.in Eq, (2-81) is the total diferential of V asa result ofa change in position (from P, to Fs in Fig, 2-18): it can be expressed in terms of the R,) centered at the origin, as shown in Fig. 2-22, Fig. 2-22 Aspherical shell, region (Example 2-15),48 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Solution: Here the specified region has two surfaces, at R= Ry and R= Ry, At outer surface: R = Ra, ds = agR3 sin 6.40 di; = J Jf ema sin 0.40 de = 4nkR} —agRi sin 6 dO.dd; Jz eR sin ddd w 40003, Actually, since the integrand is independent of 0 or in both cases, the integral of a constant over a spherical surface ‘s.simply the constant multiplied by the area of the surface (423 for the outer sprface and 4nR? for he inner surfac), and no integea, ion is necessary. Adding the two résults, we have (fps = ark th : — To find the volume integral we first determine V- F for an F that has only an Fq component La ROR Since V-F isa constant, its volume integral equais.the product ofthe constant and the volume, The volume of the shal region betweet the two spherical surfaces with radii R, and R, is 4n(R} + R})/3. Therefore, t Jp F de = 09 Fv» snice ~ 2, as before s ‘This example shows that the divergence theorem holds even when the volume has holes —that is, even when the volume is enclosed’ by-a multiply connected surface v 1 eis S Fea gg ih'Fa) (KR*) = 3k, 2-8 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD In Section 2-6 we stated that a net outward flux of a vector A through a surface ‘bounding a volume indicates the prekence of a source. This source may be called a ow source and div A is a measure of the strength of the flow source. There is another kind of source, called vortex source, which causes a cifculation of. vector field around it, The net circulation (or simply circulation) ofa vector. field around a closed path is defined as the scalar line integral ofthe vector over the pajh. We have Cireuation ofA arbund contour 4) A ae @-11y Equation (2-112) if a mathematical efinition, The physical meaning of circulation depends on what kind of field the vector A represents. IPA is a force acting on an object its circulation willbe the work done by the force in moving the object once aro will bo«cenilofa fons an faces with volume surface, a surface zealled a another af ey reution fag on an cone ba I b 2-8/CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD 49 Fig. 2-23. Relation between ay af and dé in defining cur, around the contour; if A represen s an ci-:tric field intensity, then the circulation Will be an electromotive force aiound the closed path, as we shill see later in the- book. The familiar phenomenon of water whirling down a sink driin an example of 4 vortex sink causing a circulation of fluid velocity. A circulation of A may exist even when div A =O (when there is no flow source), Since circulation as defined in Eq, (2-112) isa line integral of a dot product, its value obviously depends on the orientation of the contour C relative to the vector A. In order to define a point function, which is a measure of the strength of 2 vortex Souree, we must make C very small and orient it in such a way that the circulation is 2 maximum. We define? —— [Cuta=voen im E[aagacee] qn words, Eq, (2-113) states that the curl of a vector field A, denoted by Cutt A or ¥ & A, 18a vector whose magnitude isthe maximum nei circulation of A per unit oreo as the area tends to zero and whose direction isthe normal direction of the area chen the area is oriented to make the net circulation maximum, Because the normal to an area can point in two opposite directions, we adhere to the right-hand rule that when the fingers of the right hand follow the direction of dé, the thumb points 10 the direction. This is illustrated in Fig. 2-23. Curl Ais a vector point function and ip Conventionally written as V x A (del cross A) although V is not to be considered a YeFtor Operator except in Cartesian coordinates. The component of ¥ x A in any other direction a, isa, -(V x A), which can be determined from the circulation por Unit arca nacmal to a, as the area approaches zero, ig Wx Jin, go(G, 4-4), where the direction of the line integration around the contour C, bounding arca 4s, and the direction a, follow the right-hand rule, (2-113) "ts books publihed in Europe the ur of Ais often called the rotation of A and written 2 ot A50 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 | Fig. 2-24 Determining (V x A). We now use Eq, (2-114) to find the three components of V x A in Cartesian Coordinates, Refer to Fig, 2-24 where a differential rectangttar area parallel to the s=xplane and having sides Ay gd Az is drawn about a typieal point Pty Wehavea, = a,and As, and 4, Thus, 1732 and the contour C, consists othe our side 1 1 : 2-115) (x A= lim oe (Baas A «) (2-115) In Cartesian coordinates A= a,4\+ 2,4, +,4, The contributions of the four sides to the line integral are 5 oy, (sos 94) (x0 wt, x) can be expanded as a Tajlor series: Side: dé 1 de As de = At where 4, +HOT, 2-116) s : 2 Soy rs (Ay), (Ay), ete. Thus, faa A def dao de where H.O.T, contains the fa 1 +Horha (tI) 2B hear zo) : a ») = Alta Yor 2) +HOT; 2-118) 7h {Asso ro 36)— : ia 2-119 G neCartesian Tel to the tn You Zo oD a 2-116) (2-117) (18) (2-119) 2-8/CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD: 51 Note that d¢ is the same forsides 1 and 3, but thatthe integration on side 1 is going bppward (a Az change in 2), while that on side 3 is going downward (a — Az change in 2). Combining Eqs. (2-117) and (2-119), we have La Ao ae (4e+n0n) Ay de (2-120) ‘The H.OLT. in Eg. (2-120) still contain powers of . Similarly, it may be shown sat f A-ae=(-Ze+noz)| ay ey ae a leato Substtusing Eqs. (2-120) and (2121) in'Eq, (2-115) and ‘noting that the higher ‘order terms tend to zer0 as dy —0, we obtain the x-component of V x 4 Wx A= a 22) wil reveal a cyclic order in x,y, and = and smponents of Vx A. The entive es an coordinates is AA close examination of Eq. (2 enable us 10 write down the = and for the curl of in Cartes Compared to the expression for V+ A in Eq. (2-100), that for ¥ x A in Eq, (2-123) is more complicated, as itis expected to be, because i is a vector with three compo ents, whereas VA is a scalar. Fortunately Eq, (2-123) can be remembered rather asily by arranging it in a determinantal form in the manner of the eross product exhibited in Eq, (2-43), O19 ‘The derivation of V x A in other coordinate systems follows the same procedure. However, it is more involved because in curvilinear coordinates not only A but also 4 changes in ragnitude asthe integration of Ade is carried cut on opposite sides of a curvilinear rectangle, The expression for V x A in general orthogonal curv Iinear coordinates (u,, 13, 13) is given below. Se ei ae Varad52. . VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Itis apparent from Eq. (2-125) thak an operator form gannot be fotind here for the symbol V in order to consider YX A a cross prpduct, The expressions of Vx A i cylindrical and sphericat t8ordirlates can be easily obtained from Eq. (2-125) by ! using the appropriate u,, us, and ug and their metre cdeffciens h, hy, and hy, Example 2-16 Show that ¥ x A 20 if i 29.8] 3) A = aytk/r) in cylindrical gpordinates, where kis @ epnstimt, or i ¥) A= agf(R) in spherical epordinates, where f(R) is any. function of the radial | on ean distance R. 7 1 Solution oO \ yindrical coordinates the’ following apply: (ay. sts.) = (n 6 : rand hy = 1, We have. from Faq, 2-123). ; a ‘ 2} oO z e-129 As s b) In spherical coordinates the ‘following ¢ lig = Rand hy = R sin. Hence YEAS RrsinO/R 2 Le SAR RAgi: | Resin GA,| m™ and, forthe given A, i . ‘an aR sind | q fe ( Veda iy a . ( R sin] FR VR),for the oA 125) by he radial eo 2-9/STOKES'S THEOREN, 53 A curl-free vector ield is called an irrottional or a conservative field. We will See in the next chapter that an electrostatic field i irrotational (or conservative) The expressions for V x A given in Eqs. (2-126) and (2-127) for cylindrical and spherical + coordinates, respectively, will be useful for later reference, 2-9 STOKES's THEOREM For a very small diferental area As, bounded by a contour C,, the definition of Vx A in Eq, (2-113) leads to Woe Ah (async a-1a9 wai ba, (2-128) we ave taken the dot product of both sides of Eg, (2 with a sods, For an arbitrary sures 5, we can subdivide it mo mans. cy small ferential areas, Figure 2-25 shows such a scheme with dy) urs treed ifeential element. The ef side of Ea, (2~128) isthe fon ofthe vector ¥ 3A thea the area As, Adding the contributions ofall the iferenta areas tothe hus we hace fon 3. AY gy = fav x Ada (2-129) Now we sum up the fine integrals around the contours ofa the diferential elements represented bythe right side of Fg, (2-128, Sines the commen maccal ne ns own adjacent clementsis tavern in oppenitetctons yee toot onibution of athe conan rts the lnttoe tothe toa ne ee and only the eontibution from the extemal contour C boundie the eee remains ater the summation tia, (f Avde)= favae Combining Eas (2-123) and (2-130, we obtain he Stoke's theorem = Givxaredsag aut eu 30) Fig. 2-25 Subdivided area for Proof of Stoke's theorem.54 VECTOR ANALYSIS/2 : ! which states that the surface integral of the curl ofa vector field over an. open surface 1 &s equal co the closed line integral of the vector along the contour bounding the surface. AAs with the divergence theorems the validity of the limiting processes leading to the Stokes's theorem requires that the vector field A, as well as its frst derivatives, cxist and be continuous both an $ dnd along C., Stokes's theorem converts sutface integral of the curl of a vector tq'line integrai ofthe vector, and vice versa. Like the divergence theorem, Stoker's théorem is an importait identity in vectnr analysis, : and we will use it frequently ja ‘establishing other theurems ‘and relations in : sc magnetics. : Ifthe surface integral of V x A is carried over a dlosed surface, there will be no ie surface-bounding external contour, and Eq, (2-131) tells us that . Givxardsno (2-133) : for any closed surfice S. The poometey in Fig, 2-25 is efisen deliberately to en Phasize the fact that a nontrivial application of Stokesstheotem alsvays implies wn oe open surface with a rim. The simplest open surface. would be 2tw dimensional ? fe plane or disk with its circumference as the contour. We. emind ourselves here that i the directions of dé and ds (a) follow the right-hand rl, ia Example 2-17 Given F = a.xy~a.2x, vetfy Siokes's theorem over a quarter ex sireuiar disk with a radius 3,in the first quadraat, as was shown in Fig) 2-18 we (Example 2-6) 5 a Solution: Let us frst find the gurface integral of Vx F. From Eq, (2-130, i 240 TW at if % x w sy 22x Therefore he 2-101 tc [xref Fox aacan e J J { - Lip" -era]e ot LPRw=F+Ho- me “ 7 2 } f 3 2. ems +o ine 232, 2 : =) \O=F +9 sin sp] sur : ‘ =-9(1+4) i:1 surfce surface, ading to ivatives, + surface Like ensional at quar 214 2-10/TWO NULL IDENTITIES 55 11 is important to use the proper limits for the two variables of integration, We can imerchange the order of integration as fvmn-a- fli and get the same result. But it would be quite wrong if the 0 to 3 range were used as the range of integration for both x and y. (Do you know why’) For the line integral around ABO. we have already evaluated the part around the are from A to B in Example 2-6, : From B10 0:x = 0,and F< dé.= F(a, dy From 0 to A: y=0,andF-dé = F(a, dx -2+9) 4] dx dy = 0, xy dx = 0, Hence, Jaos¥ de [7 Fae ~9(1+2) from Example 2-6, and Stokes's theorem is verified Of course, Stokes's theorem has been established in Eq. (2-131) as a general identity; there is no need to use a particular example to prove it. We worked out the example above for practice on surface and line integrals. (We note here that both the veetor field «nd its first spatial derivatives age finite and esintinuous on the surface as well as on the contour of interest) 2-10 TWO NULL IDENTITIES Two identities involving, repeated del operations are of considerable importence in the study of electromagnetism, especially when we introduce potential functions ‘We shall discuss them separately below. Vx (WV) | (2-133) In words, the curl of the gradient of any scalar field is identically 2 of V and its frst derivatives everywhere is implied here.) Equation (2-133) cin be proveil readily in Cartesian coordinates by uit (2.89) for V and periovming Une indicated operations. In genecal, if we take the Surface integral of V x (VV) over any surface, the result is equal to the line integral of ‘VV around the closed path bounding thé surface, as asserted by Stokes's theorem: Ll xr =Guvvy-ae 2-101 Identity | 0. (The existence210.2 \ Pil 56 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 However, rom Eq, 2-81), i favy de =f ay = (2-135) ‘The combination of Eqs (2-134) an(2-135) states that the surface integral of Vx (°V) over any surface is zero. The integrand itself must therefore vanish, which leads to the identity in Eq. (2-133). Since a ordinate system is not specifi inthe deriva. tion. the identity is a general qne and is invariant with the choices of coordinate systems. i : A converse statement ¢/ Identity: I can be madé as fallows, If « > ctor field is curljree, then it can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. Let a vector field be E. Then, if x E =O, we can define a scalar field V such that B= —vv. (2-136) ‘The negative sign here is unimportant as far as Identity I is concerned. (It is included in Eq. (2-136) because this relation conforms with a basic relation between electric ficld intensity E and electric scalar potential Fin electrostatics. which we will take up in the next chapter, At this stage itis immaterial what E and V represent.) We know from Section 2-8 that a curl-free vector field is a conservative field: hence an irrata- onal (a conservative) vector field cart always be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. Identity : vex aso] | (2-137) bas Jn words, the divergence of the curl of any vector felis identically ero Equation (2-137), too, can be proved easily in Cartesian coordinates by using Eq, (2-89) for V and performing the indicated operations. We can prove it in general without regard to a coordinate system by taking the'volume integral of V«(V % A) on the left side. Applying the diverggnee theorem, wi have T¥ xin) do = Pv x Ay (2-138) Letus choose. orexample. the arbitrary volume V enclosed by a surface Sin Fig. 2-26 The closed surface 5 can be split into, two open surfaces, §, and S, connected by a common boundary which has been drawn twice as C,/and G2, We then apply Stokes's theorem to surface S, bounded by Cy; and surface 3 bounded by C,, and write the Tight side of Eq, (2-138) as an . +l ' QV A) dsm [Vm A)- ag ds +f (0H A) aga ds Ade ag Ande (2-139) aa He In Noe(2-135) Lot x ich leads ederiva- ordinate v fell & OF field 136) included reletcie take up veknow ues 2117) oy using “general (Wx a) (2-138) is fed bya Stokes's wi (2-139) i i at 2-11/HELMHOLTZ'S THEOREM 57 Fig.2-26 An arbitraty volume enclosed by surtice 5, ‘The nor~.als ay; and a,3 0 surfaces S, and 5, are cutward normals, and theit relations ‘with the path directions of C, and C, fellow the right-hand rule. Since the contours, C, and C; ate, in fact, one and the same common boundary between S, and S,, the {to line integrals on the right side of Eq. (2-139) traverse the same path in opposite directions. Their sum is therefore zero, and the volume integral of V- (V x A) on the left side of Eq, (2-138) vanishes. Because this is true for any arbitrary volume, the integrand itself must be zero, as indicated by the identity in Eq, (2-137) A converse statement of Identity 11 is as follows: Ifa vector field is divergenc then it cant be expressed as the curl of another vector field. Let a vector field be B. ‘This converse statement asserts that if V+ that 0, we can define a vector field A such Bovan (2-140) tion 2-6 we mentioned that a divergenecless field is also called a solenoidal field. Solenoidal fields re not associated with flow sourees ur sinks, The net outa flux of a solenoidal field theough any closed surface is zero, and the flux lines close ‘upon themselves, We are reminded of the circling magnet flux lines of a solenoid oF an inductor. As we will see in Chapter 6, magnetic fux density B is solenoidal and can be expressed as the curl of another vector field called magnetic vector potential A HELMHOLTZ’S THEOREM In previous sections we mentioned that a divergenceless field is solenoidal, and a curlfree field is irrotational. We may classify vector fields in accordance with theit being solenoidal and/or irrotational. A vector feld F is, 1, Solenoidal and irrotational if — ViF=0 and = Vx F=0, ENamples A static electric eld in a chargestive region, “2, Solenoidal but not irrotational if ViF=0 ‘and VxF #0, Example: A steady magnetic field in a current-carrying conductor,58 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 : 3. Irrotational but not solenoidal if VxF=0 and VF #0. Example: A static electric field in a charged region. 4. Neither solenoidal nor irrotational if V-F #0 Vxi et Example: Anclectric eld ins rye medinn) witha rince-vgeyiaglinagactic eld, ‘The most general vector fed then has both a nonzero divergence andl a nonzero curl and can be considered as the sum ofa solenoidal fick snd an ero fee Helmbolt= Theorem: A vector field (eector punt Juction) is determined to within an additive constant if both its divergence and its curl are specified everywhere. In an unbounded region we assume that both the divergence and the curl of the vector field vanish at infinity. If the vector field is confined within a region bounded by a surface, then it is determined if its divergence and curl throughout the region, ‘as well as the normal component of the vector over the bounding surface, are given, Here we assume that the vector functfon is single-valued and that its derivatives are finite and continuous. Helmholtz’s theorem can be proved as a mathematical’theorem in a general way! For our purposes, we remind ourselves (sce Section 2-8) that the divergence of a vector is a measure of the strength of the flow source and that the curl of a vector is a measure of the strength of the yartex source. When the strengths of both the flow source and the vortex source are Specified, we expect that the vector field will be determined. Thus, we can decombgose a’ general vector fd F into an irrotational part F, and a solenoidal part F,: >: . Fi+k, 14) with t Vx Fy : (2-142a) IW Rak g (2-142b) and } A +F,=0 (2-143a) Vx F,=G, (2-143b) where g and G are assumed to be known! We have 2 VeF=¥rF=g : (2-144) and Vx Fa¥xF=G (2-145) Helmholtz’ theorem asserts that when g and G ate specified. the vector function F * Se, for instance G. Artken. Mathemarlcal Meth fr Pipscis Académie Pres (1966), Section 11S Sols a) »stiefield, erocurl, ld, ined 10 ruwhere rl of the rounded = region, net ol a Hie tae val be ional (2-141) 21424) 2-142) 2-144) 21436) 2-1) as action F ction 115 i & 5 ' : seamen: 211 /HELMOHLTZ's THEOREM 59 is determined. Since V- and Vx are differential operators, F must be obtained by integrating g and G in some manner, which will ead to constants of integration. The determination of these additive constants requires the knowledge of some boundary 1 Conditions. The procedure for obtaining F from given g and G is not obvious at this time; it will be developed in stages in later chapters. ‘The fact that F, is irrotational enables us to define a scalar (potential) function V, in view of identity (2-133), such that R= -w. 146) Similarly, identity (2-137) and Eq. (2-143a) allow the definition ofa vector (potential) function 4 such thet FaVxA Helmboltz’s theorem states that a general vector function F ean be written as the sum of the gradient of a scalar function and the curl of vector function, Thus, F=-VV+VxA (2-148) In following chapters we will rly on Helmboltz’s theorem as a basic element in the axiomatic development of electromagnetism. Example 2-18 Given a vector function Fe a,0 = 642) 1 alegs = 22) +cyortional to and in the direction of the F. TFB is measured in newtons{N) and charge q in coulonbs (C), then E is in newtons per coulomb (N/C), which is the same as volts per meter (Vjm). The test chargt of course, cannot be zero in practices as a matter of fact, it cannot be less than the charge on an electron, However, the finiteness of the test charge would not make the measured E differ appreciably from its calculated value if the test charge is smal enough not to disturb the charge distribution of the source. An inverse relation of Eq. (3-2) gives the force, F, on a stationary charge q in an electric field F. Fl (ie aE (Ny The two fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space specify the divergence and curl of E. They are and [vxe= 3-5) 0 ( In Fa. 3-4), p is the volume charge density (C/m?), and ¢p is the permittivity of {tee space, a universal constant.’ Equation (3-5) asserts that static elecri fields are Urevationt-wibercas Ba, (34) imple that a static eletrie Fld is nef solenoidal unless = 0. These two postulates are concise, simple, an independent of any coordinate system; and they can be used to derive all other relations, laws, and Sheoren in electrostatics! Suel isthe beuuty of the deductive, axiomatic approsch 1 The permit ote pace ga 5x 10°? (Fim) See Ba. (1-1)68 sraric ELecrmIc FieLos/y ‘i Equations (3~4) and (3-8) arg polit relations; that is, heythold at every point in space. They are referred to as thg diffetential form of the pastulates of electrostatics, since both divergence and curl operations involve spatial derivatives. In practical applications we are usually interested in jhe total field of an aggregate ora distribution of charges. This is more conveniently ‘obtained by an integral form of Eq, (3-4). Taking the volume integral of both sides of Eq. (3-4f over,an arbitrary volume V, we have cae t a [Lv Bde== fo de. 6-6 In view ofthe divergence theorem in Eq, (2-104), Eq. (3-6) becomes, - 0 few & on where Q is the total charge contained’ in volume V bounded by stitface 5. Equa- tion (3-7) is a form of Gauss's law, which states thai:the ¢ptal outward flux of the electric field intensity over any closed surface in free space is equal to the total charge enclosed in the surface divided by €q. Gauss's law is one of the most important relations examples. ‘An integral form can also be obtained for the url rplation in Eq. (3-5) by integrating V x E over an open surface and invoking $tokes’s theorem as expressed in Eq, (2-131), We have lectrostaties. We will discuss it further in Section 3-4, along with illustrative fecu ‘The line integra i performed over a cldsed contour C bounding an arbitrary surface: hhence C is itself arbitrary. As a matte of fact, the surface-does not even enter into Eq, 3-8), which asserts that the spalar line inteyral of phe state electric field imtensicy around any closed patk vanishes, This issimaply another Way of saying that Fis irrota- tional o conservative, Referring’to Fig. 3, we seg,that ff the seatar line integral -8) o : : & Fig, 3-0 An arbitrary of or Ec i 4+y point statics, >ractical ribution 46-4) lume ¥, C6) sy by 3-8) cr into sensity a 7 ' Meee BESS i uo { 3-3/ COULOMB'S LAW 69 & OfE over the arbitrary closed contour C,C is zero, then i [.,B-ae+ [E-demo 6-9) : or : “ i t fro Boa Eeue (6-10 Along C, Along Cs or Lr op Along Cy Alas C, Equation (3-11) says that the scalar ling inregral-of the ievokativinal B field is ine endent ofthe path; it lepends only ant the end points. As we shall see nt Sections a the integral in Eq. (3-11) represents the work done by the electric field in movin a unit charge from point P, to point P,:; hence Eqs.(3~8) and (3-9) imply a statemone of conservation of work or ene: electrostatic field. ‘The two fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space ure repeated below because they form the foundation upon which we build the structure of electrostatics Postulates of Electrostaties in Free Space Differential Form Integeal Form | 3-3 COULOMB'S Law We consider the simplest possible electrostatic problem of a single point charge atest in a boundless fre space. In order to find the electric field intensity dco we draw a hypothetial spherical surface ofa radius R centered at. Since a poise charge has no preferred directions, its cletre field must be everywhere radial and has the same intensity at all points on the spherical surface. Applying Ea. (37) to Fig. 3-2) ave have : : feed Eng ds = Eq(4nR?) ' 4 tg ds = ae70 (9) Point charge attheoriin, (8) Point charge nat at he rin, Fig. 3-2 Pleovie fel imensity de ho point charg, Therefore, Br apEe=a— 5 (vim) (6-12) Beaten BR ORE Equation (312) tells us that the electric field imensity of a point charge isin the 5 ‘urward radial direction and hs a magnitude proportional to the charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the charge. This is a very important 1 ‘basic formula in electrostatics. It ig readily verified'that V x E = 0 for the E given in ‘ Eq. (3-12), F the charge q is not located at the origin ofa chosen coordinate system, suitable 1 changes should be made to the unit vector ay and thé distance R to reflect the locations k of the charge and of the point at which E is to be determined. Let the position vector of q be R’ and that of a field point P be R, as shown in Fig.'3-2(b). 71 Fq.(3-12), al 6-13) : ‘where ayp isthe unit vector drawn féom q to P. Since 7 R-R a : 3-14 c fe RT oi we have : 6-15 E Example 3-1. Determine the dei eld intend af 02,0, 25) due to point charge of +5 (nC) at 0(0.2, 01, ~2.) in ai. ll dimensions are in meters, : 4suitable >eations a vector from ) wf ue toa EN ' ' 3-3/coULOME's Law 71 Solution: "The position vector for the field point P R= OP = ~2,02~a23. " The position vector for the point charge Q is R20 = 0,02 40,01 - The difference is R-R= ~2,04~ 40.1402, which has a magnitude 2 RR] = [097 + (0.18 + 027} 0.458 Em, . Substituting in Eq. (315), we obtain 1 \or-Ry ane) JR}? s 5x 1079 . =O x OES Se (- 04 ~ 9,01 +0,02) p= 2145(~2,0873 — 2,0.218 + 0.0437) (V/mm) The aqntity within the parentheses iy the unit vector ayy = (R= RYIR— RL dan Ky hay a ntagnitude of 24.5 (Van, Note: The permittivity of air is essentially the same as that of the free space ens factor 1/(4x¢a) appears very froquently in electrostatics. From Eq, (I li) ne Know that €y = 1/(Hg).But sig = 4x x 10°" (H/m) in SI units: so 1 2 Reg fe 107 yF) 6-16) exactly. Ifwe use the approximate value. 3x 108 (my), then 1/(4z¢9)= 9 10° (my/F) jWhen a point charge g, is placed in the field of another point charge 4, at the abit foret Fra is experienced by q, due to electric field intensity E,, of ya 4, Combining Eqs. (3-3) and (3-12), we have — Equation{(317) isa mathematical form of Coulomb's law already stated in Section 3-1 in conjunction with Eq, (3-1). Note that the exponent on R is exactly 2, which is @ consequence of the fundamental postulate Eq. (3~4). In SI units the proportionality Constant k equals 1/(4ne), and the force is in newtons (N},72 STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS /3 sere Gathode Fig. 3-3 Electrostatic defection systemof a eathoderay svellegeaph (Fxample 3-2), Example 3-2 The electrostatje dellection system of a eathode-cay oscillograph is depicted in Fig. 3-3. Electrons from a heated cathode are given an initial velocity by a positively charged anode (not shown). The electrons enter at : = 0 into a region of deflection plates where a uniform electric field Ey = —a,£, is main- tained over a width w. Ignoring gravitational effects, ind the vertical deflection of the electrons on the fluorescent screen at = Solution: Since there is no forge in the z-direction in the z > 0 region, the horiz. velocity v is maintained. The field B, exerts a force on the electrons each carrying charge ~e, causing a deflection in the y direction. OE, i in the vertical direction, we have eb From Newton's second law of mot me eke where m is the mias of an electfon'Ijtegrating both sides, we obtain idy Wa ‘where the constant of integratfon is set to zero besause t, Oat r= 0. Integrating again, we have yo feet The consant of iteration it agin nro tense y= Oat ¢= 0. Note tat he electrons have a parabolic trajectory between the deflection plates. At the exit from the deflection plajes, f= w/t,” 80), 32 & Diserwte F 63-3/COULOMB'S LAW 73 oooltd) (2) When th stron ee i ' we Sie ces fe screen they have traveled a further horizontal distance — w/o seconds. During that time there is an additional ey w= w) 3-31 Electric Field due to a System of Discrete Charges Suppose in electrostatic field is ereated by a Gay. --» du located at diferent positions. Since electric field intensity isa linear fumes oy of (proportional to) agg/R?, the principle of superposition applies, and the tac Field at a point is the vector sum of the fields caused by all the individual cher Figm Ea, (15) we can write the electric intensity at i field point whose positon vector is Ras coup of n diserete point charges q, canying 1 Frey uk = mp on Aithough Ea. (3-18) is a succinct expression, itis somewhat inconvenient to we because ofthe need to add vectors of different magnitudes and directions {atu consider the simple case ofan electric dipole that consists ofa par of equal Lb and opposite charges, ++q and ~g, separated by a small distance, d, be shows ay Fig. 3-4 Let the center of the dipole coincide with the origin ofa spherical courcreare ‘stem. Then the E feld atthe point P isthe sum of the contributions due to +3 ‘erating r Fig. 3-4 Electric eld of a dipole,74 — stavic eLectnic FieLos/a and ~g. Thus, G-19) yes” mn m where the binomial expansion has been used and all terms containing the second and higher powers of (d/R) have bess! neglected. Similarly, for the second term on the right side of Eq. (3~19), we haye 3-20) (3-23) The derivation and interpretatiog of Fg, (3-24) reqpire the manipulation of Vector quantities. We can appreciate-that determining the electric field caused by three or more diserete charges will he even more tédion. In Section 2-5 we will introduce the concept of a scalur electric potential, with) whielr the electric. ele intensity caused by a distribution of charges can be found more easily ‘The electric dipole is an important entity in tle study of the electric field in dielectric media. We define the product of the charge q and the vector d (going from r ~qand +4) as the electric dipoly moment, p ped {equation (3-22) can then be rwrifn as 1a fsR-pa a], 32 aap? a 8?) 6-29 where the approximate sign (~) over the equal sign thas been left out for simplicity 3-37 Distr. atic Tr i6-19) 2 write (3-29) cts al eld in ng izom “ry wou apliciy, I 2-8/COULOMB'S LAW 75, Tethe dipole lies along the z-axis as in Fig. 34, then (see Eq, 2-77) Play cos 8 ~ ay sin 8) (3-25) ° R-p=Rpcos 0, 6-26) and Eq. (3~24) becomes Ba Past 2008 0+ a5 sin 0) (Vim). (3-27) Equation (3~27) gives the electric field intensity of an electric dipole in spherical Soordinates. We see that E of a dipole is inversely propattional to the cube of the distance R. This is reasonable because as R increases, the fields due to the clos. Spaced +q and —g tend to cancel each other more completely, thus decreasing more rapidly than that of single point charge. 3-3.2 Electric Field due to a Continuous Distribution of Charge The electric field caused by a continuous distribution of charge can be obtained integrating tsuperposing) the contribution of an element of charge over the listribution. Refer to Fig. 3-5, where a volume cha vet by distribution is shown. The ‘dinates, Swe a ilferentel clement of eharge behaves like a point charge, the contcibution of the charge p le ‘na differential volume element dv’ to the electric field intensity at the field point P is dv an oe 6-28) we ehuarige demty gC fas) es ftvtion ol the ce We have (3-29) Fig. 3-5. Electric field due to continuous charge distribution.or, since ay = R/R, ee : Teo Bae tv 0-29 ee eee Except for some especially simple! cases, the vector triple ihtegral in Eq. (3-29) or Eq, (3-20) is difficult to carry out because, in genetal,all'three quantities in the integrand (ag, p, and R) change with the location of the differential volume dv’ Ifthe charge is distributed on a:surface with a surface charge density p, (Cm, then the integration is to be carried out over the surface (not necessarily Sat). Thus — fa Pay av 3x Pm ype fee ha (Vom p ~ Pe ' an 2h deh 22) Fede vim), | 6-32) where 9, (Cim) is the line charge ‘density, and L’ the line (not necessarily straight) along which the charge is distributed. ' Example 3-3 Determine the eleciic field intensity of an infinitely long, straight. line charge of a uniform density gin air Solution: Let us assume that tHe line charge ligs along the z-axis as shown in Fig, 3-6. We are perfectly free to 6 this because the field obviously does not depend fon how we designate the line, Iriya accepted ewiventiom tase primed eunbnates {for source points and taprimed euairdanates for fll pings when there bs punsibly ‘of confusion.) The problem asks us to find the eldctFic field intensity at a point P. Which is at & distance r from the lie. Since the problem has a cylindrical symmetry Uthat is, the electric field is indeperident of the azimuth angle 6}. it would be most convenient to work with cylifdrical coordinates. We rewrité Eq. (3~32) as i R | E Felt Peale» Vim) (3-33) For the problem at hand pis constant and a line lement dd” is chosen to be at an arbitrary distance z' from the,Grigin. It is most important to remember that is the distance vector directed fipm the source to the field point, not the other way3-40) 5-29) of in the (Cim*), 0. Thus, stuaight) straight sssibilty point P, minetry be most lo heat F that R her way 3-a/couLoMB's Law 77 Fig. 3-6 An infinitely long struighcline charge around. We have 3-34) ‘The electri field, dE, due to the differential line charge element p, dé’ = p; dis where and 5b) In Eq. (3-35) we have decomposed dE into its components in the a, and a, directions. Ttis easy to see that for every p, dz’ at +7 theresa charge element p, ds’ at ~~”, which Will produce a dE with components dé, and —dE,. Hence the a, components will cancel in the integration process, and we only need to integrate the dE, in Eq, (3-354): ~~ or (3-36)78 STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS /9 Equation (3-36) is an important ‘result for an infinite line charge, Of course, no physical line charge is infinitely long; nevertheless, Eq (3~36) gives the approximate E field ofa long straight line charge ata point close to the line charge. 3-4 GAUSS’S LAW AND APPLICATIONS Gears’ aw flows dite from the vergence posta of detrosatic, Es. (3-4, by the application ofthe vergence theorems tas een died in Secon 3-3 2 a, OM and is vepeaed bere oh acount ots mporanse G-37) Gavos's law asserts that the total outward fla of the Befild over any: closed surface in free space is equal to the tou charge enclosed in the surface dicided by ¢y. We note that the surface $ can be any hypothetical (mathematical) closed surface chosen for convenience; it does not have to be. and usually is not, a physical surface Gauss’ law is particularly useful in determining the E-field of charge distributions with some symmetry conditions, such that ite normal component of the electric field intensity i constant over an enclose surface. ta such cases the surface integral on the Jef side of Eq, (3-37) would be very casy to evaluate, and Gauss's law would much more efficient way for fiiding the electrit field intensity than Eqs. (3-29) through (3-33), On the other hand. when symmetty conditions do not exist. Gauss's law would not be of much help, The essence of applying Gauss's law lies first in the recognition of symmetry conditions, and second in tha suitable choice of a surface over which the normal component of E resulting {rom a given charge distribution js. a constant, Such a surface js referred to as a Gaussian surface, This has principle ve use fo obi ig. (3.13) far pant ears Hhat possesses spherical sytnmetty consequently, « proper Gaussian surliee is the sistneg of w sphere centre at the point charge. Gauss'’s law equld ndt help in the derivgtion of Eq. (3-22) of (3-27) for an electric dipole, since a surfice about a separated pair of equal and opposite charges over which the normal component of E remains constant was not known. Example 3-4 Use Gauss's law to determine the electric field intensity of an infinitely long, straight, line charge of a uniform density py in-air. Solution: This problem wag solyed in Example 3~3 by using Eq. (3-32). Since the line charge is infinitely long, the resultant E field must be radial and perpendicular to the fine charge (E = a,£,}. and a component of E along the line cannot exis. With the obvious cylindrical symmetry, we construct a’eylindrical Gaussian surface of radius rand an arbitrary length L with the line charge as its axis, as shown in Fig. 3-7. On this surface, £, is constant, and ds = a,r d@ de (from Eq, 2-522). Weourse, no proximate £4, (3-4), tion 3-2 (3-37) 2 surface Wenote iosen for ns frie told tad be a ny vein the « surface bution, arineiple metry dat the 3-27) opposite known, finitely ino aiicwar ore sure 23). We separ 3-4 /GAUSS'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS 79 See | Infinitely lone uniform lige charge, er” Fig. 3-77 Applying Gauss's law fo an infinitely long line charge (Example 3-4}, have Qieae f [rast Tee's i no contribution from the top oF the Bottom-face of the eylinder because on sine fee d= aur drip but K hs no a-component there, making Eon Saetnly or the tun fae, ‘he total eharge encloned inthe uplante Oe ont Substitution into Eq. (3-37) gives us immediately : 2nrLk, 2nrLE, or fs obtained here + of the cylindrical Guassian surface hence we could have chosen a cylinder of 2 does not appear in the final expression. unit length. Feample 3-8 Determine the electre field intensity oan infinite planar cha se with 4 uniform siface charge density p, Solution: Ii clear thatthe Fld eawset by a hugged shewt ofan infinite extent is, poral to the sheet. Equation (3-31) eould be used to find E, but thn nents involve @ double integration between infinite limits of a general expression of 1/R?. Gauss’s law can be used to much advantage here.Ease ‘urface tna unitorm surface charge oc We choose as the Gaussian surfaee a reetang of an arbitrary area A equidistant from the planar charge, as shown in Fig. 3 Fig. 3-8 “ Applying Gause's law to an‘infnite planar charge (Example 3-5) lar box with top and bottom faces 8. ‘The sides of the box are perpendicular to the charged sheet. If the charged sheet coincides with the xy-plane, then or Evds= On the bottom face, the top face, (ae, “(a,ds)= ds E+ ds =(—a,£,):(—a, ds) = E, ds Since there is no contribution from the side faces, we have Gera 26, f,as= 28,4. ‘The total charge enclosed in the box i Q = pyA. Therefore, from which we obtain and 2B A =P, E Of course, the charged sheet may Aot coincide with the xy-plane (in which case we away from the sheet if p, is positive. id below the plane}, buf the E field always points,om faces ig 3-8, od sheet a > pints | 1 | I i SS \ : 3-47 GAUSS'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS 81 Example 3-6 Determine the E field caused by a spherical cloud of electrons with & volume charge density p = —p, for 0-< R b, : ‘olution: "First we recognize that the given source condition has spherical symmetry The proper Gaussian surfaces must therefore be concentric spherical surtaces, We ‘must find the E field in two regions, Refer to Fig. 3-9. a) 0 b outside the electron cloud. We obtain the same expression Tor f., Eds as in case (a. The total charge er.closed is : Consequently, eee 3g? — & ‘which follows the inverse squaré law and could have been obtained directly from Eq, (3-12), We observe that auiside the charged claud the E field is exactly the same as though the total charge is concentrated on a single point charge at the center, This is true, in general, for a spherically symmetrical charged repion oven though p is a function of R. The variation of Eq versus Ris plotted in Fig, 3-9, Note that the formal solution of this problem requires only a few lines, If Gaus®s law is not used, itis necessary (1) to choose a differential volume’ element arbitrarily located in the electron cloud, (2) to expres its vector distance Rito a field poitt jn 4 chosen coordinate.system, and (3) t6 perform a triple integration as indicated in Eq, (3-29). This is hopelessly involved process. The moral is: Tty to apply Guliss’s law if symmetry conditions exist for the given charge distribution 3-5 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL In connection with the null identity in Eq. (2-130) we poted that a curl-free vector field could always be expressed as the gradient of a sear field. This induces us to define a scalar electric potentql, ¥,such that. E=-w (3-38) because scalar quantities are easier to handle thal vectar quantities. It we can deter mine V more easily, then E cap be found by'a gradient dperation, which i a straight. forward process in an orthogonal coordinate systém. The reason for the inclusion of 4 negative signin Eq, (3-38) Will be explained presently,om faces 38, a points t i “onan oem RR et OE me rte Block 3-4/GAUSS'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS 81 Example 3-6 Determine the E field caused by a spherical cloud of electrons with 8 volume charge density p = —p, for 0< R b, olution: | First we recognize that the given source condition has spherical symmetry. The proper Gaussian surfaces must therefore be concentric sphe! ‘must find the E field in two regions, Refer to Fig, 3-9, a) 0 Areoi* pom : Yaa WF (3-48) where = od. (The “approximafe” sign (~) has been dropped for simplicity.) ‘The E field can be obtained from — VV. In spherical coordinates we have ov ay = WV = a : aR i 5 Beep tH2 008 0 + ay sin 3-49 gsi 608 0 oy 3-49) Equation (3~49) is the same as Eq. (3-27), but has been ghiained by a simpler pro- cedure without manipulating ppsition vectors, Example 3-7 Make a two-dimensional sketch of the aguipotential lines and the electric field lines for an electrig dipole, Solution: The equation of an equipotential surfade of q charge distribution is ob- tained by setting the expressiop for V to equal a constaat. Since 4, d, and ¢y in (3~48) for an electric dipole ape fixed quantities, 2 consjant V requires a constant ratio (cos 0), Hence the equgtion for an equipotential serie is (3-50) Fis7) 134%) sler prow and the mn is ob- constant 6-50) Se 3-5/ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 87 here cy is @ constant. By plotting R versus @ for various values of cy, we draw the solid equipotental lines in Fig. 3-14, In the range 0 < 8 < x/2.V is positive: R is maximum at @= 0 and zero at 6 = 90°. A mirror image is obtained in the range WSO nwhere Visnegative. The electric field lines or streamlivfes represent the direction of the E field in space. We set . de = KE, G-s) Fig. 3-14 Equipotenial and electric fed lines ofan electric dipole (Example 3-7)88 stavic ELeCTRIGHELDS/3 "> i £ i where k is a constant. In spherigal ¢oordinates, Eq. {3~5]) becomes (see Eq. 2-66). ag dR + a4R dO + aR pin Odd = Kinney + M6Ee + 2E.), (3-52) Which can be written 1 : aR_ Rd _ Rsinddd a 3-83) En ike Ey For an electric dipole, there is no Ey bomponent, and |, ak Rao * Teos ~ sind 4_ 2alsin 0) R sin” Integrating Eq. (3-54), we obtain ~ R= czsin* 6, (3-55) where c, is a constant. The electri field lines, having maxfma at 6 = 7/2, re dashed in Fig. 3-14, They are rotationally s}mmetrical abdut thg z-axis (independent of 6) and are everywhere normal to fhe equipotent ins. The electric potential due fo a.cpntinuous distribution of charge confined in a siven region is obtained by mi the contribution of an element of charge over the charged region. We have, ah jélume charge oat For a surface charge distribution, tS veg mM: f. 6-57) and, fora line charge, ‘i (3-58) Example 3-8 Obtain a formula’ for the elect i seudlncensiy on the axis of @ete hes : “Aes Se TARE SR Tea . S fs sibling aes a 5 Reg: S-5/ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 89 2-66). Solution: Although the disk has circular symmetry, we cannot visualize a surface 6-52) around it over which the normal component of E has a constant magnitude; hence ‘Gauss's law is not useful for the solution of this problem. We use Eq. (3-57), Working, ‘ith cylindrical coordinates indicated in Fig. 3-15, we have (6-53) ds! =r de dg! and R=JPar. ‘The electric potential at the point P(0, 0, 2) referring to the point at infinity is Pape po Vw Pe ft fe ae dg am tl Ll Res Be 602 4 5a) . Fella +0) 6-59) Therefore, 250 (3-603) red ina Ota seey], — 2<0, (3-600) "eg The determination of E fled at an off-axis point would be a much more diffcul problem. Do you know why? For very iargez, it is convenient to expand the second term in Eqs. (3-604) and (G-60b) into a binomial series and neglect the second and all higher powers of the ratio (6/23). We have sespyi (1 +2 ) ai-% or xis of a Fig. 3-15 A uniformly charged disk (Example 3-8) i |(G-61a) (3-616) ‘where Qis the total chargg on jhe disk. Hence, when the point of observation is very far away from the charged disk, the E field approximately follows the inverse square Jaw as if the total charge were goncentrated at a point Example 3-9 Obtain a formula for the electri field intensity along the axis of a uniform line charge of length, The uniform line-chargo density is p. Solution: For an infinitely lopg line charge, the E field'gan be determined readily by applying Gauss's law, as ig the solution to Fxamplg 3-4, However, for a line charge of finite length, as show in Fig. 16, we eannot cqnstruct a Gaussian surface cover which E- ds i constant. Gaus's law i therefore not useful here. Instead, we use Eq, (3~58] by taking an element of pharge dé” = ds’ at 2. The distance from the charge elehnent to the point P(O, 0, af along the axis ofthe line charge is ' Lt ze Here it is extremely important jp distinguish the position af the field point (unprimed coordinates) from the position gf the source point (primed coordinates). We integrate ReGie a> Fig. 3016 | A finite ine charge, of opform line density 9, Example 3). 3-6 ¢ ELECT61a) 3-61b) is very square surh =. The. he line primed teprate 3-6 / CONDUCTORS IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD 91 ‘over the source region fag eg = fon [E sah ak (3-62) Snes 2) The E field at P is the negative gradient of V with respect to the unprimed field coordinates, For this problem,» alt Le de * eel? — LPT ‘The preceding two exampies iliusirate the procedure for deie finding V when Gauss’ law cannot be conveniently applied. However, we emphasize that, ifsymmetry conditions exis such that a Gaussian surface can be constructed over which E + ds is constant, it is always easier to determine E directly, The potential V. if desired, may be obtained from E by integration, E 3-6 CONDUCTORS IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD So far we have discussed only the electric field of stationary charge distributions in free space or air. We now examine the field behavior in material media. In general, wwe classify materials according to their electrical properties into thrce types: cam ductors, semiconductors, and insulators (or dielectrics). In terms of the crude atomic ‘model of an atom consisting of a positively charged nucleus with orbiting electrons. the electrons in the outermost shells of the atoms of conductors ure very loosely held and migrate easily from one atom to another. Most metals belong to this group, The electrons in the atoms of insulators or dielectrics, however, are held firtnly to their orbits; they cannot be liberated in normal circumstances, even by the application of an external electric field. The electrical properties of semiconductors fall between those of conductors and insulators in that they possess a relatively small number of fcely movable charges, tn terms of the band theory of solids, we find that there are allowed energy bands for electrons, each band consisting of many closely spaced, discrete energy states. Between these energy bands there may be forbidden regions or gaps where no elec. trons of the-salid's atom can reside. Conductors have an upper ener band partially filled with electrons or an upper pais of overlapping bands that are partially filed so that the electons in these bands can move from one to another with only a small change in energy. Insulators or dielectrics are materials with a completely filled upper band, so conduction could not normally. occur because of the existence of a large energy gap to the next higher band. If the energy gap of the forbidden region 's relatively small, small amounts of external energy may be sufficient to excite the ¢lsctrons in the filled upper band to jump into the next band, causing conduction, Such materials are semiconductors.92 stanic ELecrnic Pieips (3 t The macroscopic electricl ploperty of a matérial medium is characterized by @ ‘constitutive parameter called conductivity, which we will define in Chapter 5, The definition of conductivity, hopejer, is not important in this chapter because we are not dealing with current flow and are now interested only in the behavior of static electric fields in material megla. Tn this section we examine the electric field and charge distribution both inside the bulk and on tHe surface df'a conductor. ‘Assume for the present that goime positive (oF negative)icharges are introduced in the interior of a conductof. An electric field will be get up in the conductor, the field exerting a force on the cRarges and making them mipve away from one another. This movement will continue until all the charges reach the conductor surface and redistribute themselves jn such a way that both thecharge and the field inside vanish, Hence, i Inside a Conductor (Pngier Static Conditions) =0 = (3-64) E=0 (3-65) When there isno charge in the fteior of conguctr(p 0 Emust be zero because, According to Gauss’ law, the Yoll outward eects uy thtgigh any closed eon ‘constructed inside the conductor trust vanish, Ty ‘The charge distribution ch the surface of @ conductpr depends on the shape of the surface. Obviously the chapges would not be in statg/of equilibrium if there were a tangential component of the electtc field intensity that proguces a tangential force and moves the charges. Therefore, inder static conditiogs the Field ona conductor surface is everywhere normal ta the surface. In othe? words, the surface of a conductor is am equipotential surface under static conditions.;As a, nutter of Tact since F.=0 everywhere inside a conduetbr, the whole conductor hus the same electrostatic Potential. A finite time is reupired for the charges to gpdistribute on a conductor Surface and reach the equilibrim: state. This time depends on the conductivity of the material, For a good capductge sich as copper, this time is in the order of 10-!°(s), 4 very brief transient. (This ppint will be elaborated in'Section 54.) Figure 3-17 shows an intepfage hetween a conductor pnd free space. Consider the contour abeda, which has ‘width ati = cd = Aw and. ‘he be-= da = Ah, Sides ab and ed are parallel to the intgrfaces Applying Eq.(3+8)f letting Ah—-0, and noting that E in a conductor aero, ye dain immediatly guaturnna fa 2-0, (3-6) which says thatthe eangential combdnen of the Ftd on a conductor surface is zero, In order to find E,, the | ‘cpniponent of E at'the ¢prfacg of the conductor, we ay ge 4 i si 75. The fstatie ld ayd odueed the nother. wee and vanish, surface ape of AU force ductor wluctor E=0 ‘static ductor of the 9, der the des ab noting oO (or, we | twig eg * a a Fit. 3-17 A conductenitee construct a Gaussian surface in the form of a thin pillbox with the top face in free space and the bottom face in the conductor where E = 0. Using Eq, (3-7), we obtain G, Eds = £, a5 = AS Ps % BaP 3-67) Hence, the normal com equal to the surface chan Space. Summa sponent of the E field at a conductor-free space boundary is irge density on the conductor divided by the permittvicy of free iging the boundary conditions at the conductor surface, we have Boundary Conditions at a Conductor-Free Space Interface E,=0 6-66) Eynk (3-67) = When an uncharged conductor is placed in a static electric field, the external field will cause loosely held electrons inside the conductor to move in a direction ‘pposite to that of the field and cause net positive charges to move in the direction of the field These induced free charges will distribute on the conductor surface and Create an indided field in such a way that they cancel the external field both inside the conductor and tangent to its surfice. When the surface charge distribution Teaches an equilibrium, all four relations, Eqs. (3-64) through (3-67), will hol! 4nd the conductor is again an equipotent body. Example 3-10 A positive point chat shell of an inner radius Rj and at of the radial distance R. ge Q is at the center ofa spherical conducting sn outer radius R,. Determine E and V as functions94» sTaviC ELECTRIC FiELDS (3 “4 > ‘Conducting shall Fig. 3-18 ‘Electr field intensity and potential valntiogg ofa point charge “+ at the genter pra conducting Sous Solution: The geometry of the Aroblem is shown ini Fig 3~18(a). Since there is spherical symmetry itis simplest jo use Gaus's law fo determine E and then find V by integration. There are three flistinet regions: (a) R > Rj, (b) R, < R< R,, and ( & < R, Suitable spherical Gaugsign surfaces will be eonsffucted in these regions Obviously, E = ayE in all three régions. 2) R> R, (Gaussian surge ):|. | j E O° = Eqidnk? = 2 ann? = E: 3-7 lew ELEGRICen find %, and gions, i 6-68) 3-7/ DIELECTRICS IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD 95 The B field is the same as that of @ point charge Q without the presence of the shell. The potential referring to the point at infinity is * Q Yn ~ JM en) dR = 20 o. (3-69) +b) Ris RR, (Gaussian surface S;): Because of Eq. (3-65), we know Eu 0. Since p = 0 in the conducting shell and since the total charge enclosed in surf ‘Sz must be zero, an amount of negative charge equal to —Q must be induced on the inner shell'surface at R = R. (This also means an amount of positive charge, equa! io +.¢ is induced on the outer shell surface at R = R,.) The von- Rys(b) Ry < R< Ry and (e) R < R,, Potent Wai found from the negative line integral of E, and polarization P is determined by the relation = D~ 6 E = e0fe, ~ DE. (3-99) The E, D, and P vectors have only radial components, Refer to Fig. 3-20(a), where ‘the Gaussian surfaces are not shown in otder to avoid cluttering up the figure a) R>R, ‘The situation inthis region is exactly the same as that in Example 3-10. We have, fom Eqs. (3-68) and (3-69), . From Eqs. (3-97) and (3-99), we obtain Day = €oER: (3-100) and Par (3-101), » Riser, The application of Gauss law inthis region gives us directly ~ @ 103 Freee R? Fae ae 7 e : Pam 72s (6-103) tne (1-2) 2, arSTATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS / 3 : ee Note that Daz has the sane expression as Dpj and Aiscontinuity at R & Ra Ip thi region, See Fly. 3-20 Field yuritions of 4 point chafge +9 at the center of a dielectf shit, (Example 3-11. that both Ey and Px have a 3-105)3-105) esa é base | 3-8 / ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY AND DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 193 OR R,, the application of Gauss’s law yields the same expressions for E,, Dp, and Py in both regions: To hnd ¥5, we must add to V, at R = R, the negative line integral of Eqs Sl(-De-(-Derd} om The variations of ¢oE, and Dg versus R are plotted in Fig. 3~20(b). The difference (Dp ~€o£q) is Px and is shown in Fig. 3-20(c), The plot for V in Fig, 3~20(d) is a composite graph for ¥;, Vey and Vs in the three regions. We note that Dy is a con. tinuous curve exhibiting no sudden changes iit going from one medium to anotber and that Pg exists only in the dielectric region. It is instructive to compace Figs. 3-20(b) and 3-20(d) with, respectively, Figs. 3-18(b) and 3-18(c) of Example 3-11 From Eqs. (3-83) and (3-84) we find Polnen =P (—telpag = ~Prileen 1) 9 : -(: -2) ae 6-107) on the inner shel surface; (3-108) oon the outer sll surface; and p= -VeP 0 Bap ; agg Pad) = 0. (3-109) Equations (3-107), (3-108); and (3-109) indicate that there is no net polarization Volume charge inside the dielectric shell. However, negative polarization surface charges exist on the inner surface; positive polarization surface charges, on the outer3/3 104 stamic ELECTRIC Fig Tes ll eee Coon Maia Material" Dieldtre Sremath (Vm) Ar (atmospheric pressure) 3x 10° Mineral el 3 1six 108 Polystyrene: 1 moe 10° Rubber 25 x 108 Glass "30x 108 Mica 2 200% 10" surface. These surface charges produce an electric fold intensity that is directed radially inward, thus reducing the:E field in region 2 due to the point charge +Q at the center. lectric Strength We have explained that an glectic field causes small displacements of the bound charges in a dielectric material, resulting in polarization, If the electric field is very strong, it will pull electrons corupletely out of the mélecules, causing permanent dislocations in the molecular stricture. Free chagges will appear. The material will ‘become conducting, and large chérents may resijt. This phenomenon is called a dielectric breakdown. Tho magimh electric fila Yatenalty that a dielectric material can withstand without breakdavn is the dielecttic aft of the material. The approximate dieletrie strengths af some common ubsthnces are given in Table 3-1 ‘The dielectric strength of a mgterial must not be cénfused with its dielectric constant A convenient number to remember is that the iiafectrie strenpth af air it the atmospheric pressure is.) kV/mm. When the eleetrig held intensity exueeds Us value, air breaks down, Massive ionization takes! placg, and sparking (corona dis. charge) follows. Charge tendy to concentrate at sharp goint. In view of Eq. (3-67), the electri field intensity inthe immediate viinityofsgrp points is higher than that at points on a surface with q small curvature. This is,phe principle upon which a lightning arrester works. Disgharke through the sharp foints of a lightning arrester prevents damaging discharges through nearby ebjecte, The fact that the electric field intensity tends to be a at a point near tie sufface of a charged conductor with @ larger curvature i ltr i the following ekample Example 3-12 Consider, two spherical conductors, win radii, and by (b; > b,), which are connected by a copducting wire. The distange of separation between the conductors is assumed to belvety. large compated to 4 so that the charges on the spherical conductors may be'corkiered as uniformly istributed. A total charge Q aed i ed sii2 bu, 4s vpry manent ial will salled a wterial ‘al, The ble 3-1 sonstant. ir at the which a arrester lee onducwor by> by) ween the son the urge Q Fig. 3-21 Two connected conducting spheres (Example 3-12), is deposited on the spheres. Find (a) the charges on the two spheres, and (b) the electric field intensities atthe sphere surfaces. Solution a) Refer to Fig. 3-21. Since the spherical conductors are at the same potential, we have O_O Frecb, ~ Ineby - Oh Or by Hence the charges on the spheres are directly proportional to their radii. But, since : Q+0=9, we find and ee The electric field intensities are therefore inversely proportional to the radii being higher at the surface of the smaller sphere which has a larger curvature. 3-9 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS Electromagnetic problems often involve inedia with diferent physical properties and require the knowledge of the relations of the fild quanties at an interface ‘between two media, For instance, we may wish to determine how the E and D vectors‘ Fig. 3-22 “An intgrface + between tw mei. hanes in crossing an interface, We alseady know the boundary conditions that must Fr eitsied at a conductor-fre spac interface. These conditions have besn green Eas (3-66) and (3-67) We now consider an interiace batween tW0 general natin shovin in Fig. 3-22. : gis Construct a small path abcia with sides ab and of in media 1 and 2 respec. tively, both being parallel tothe inttace and equal fo Aw Equation (2-9) when g assumed to be valid for regions containing discontituous medja, is applica te che path? If we let sides be ='da = Ah approach zero, their pontibutions to the line integral of E around the path can beineelected, We have Gaus Boa a —LULUr— Therefore By; ‘ 5 Ex (Vim), 6-110 which states that the cangential ogprpouent of an E field is continuous across an inter- Jace. Ea, (3-110) simplifies to 4. (3-66) if one of the meqia is a conductor Whee ‘media I and 2 are dielectrica with: permittivities ¢, and’e, respectively, we have tee Pk B-1 aa In order to find a relation hetween the normal:components of the fields at a oundary, we construct « small pilltox with its top face ip medium | and boteons fice in medium 2, as was illustrat in Fig, 3-22. Thelfaces have an area AS, ood the ‘eight ofthe pillbox hs vanishingly small Applying Gaugs's law Ea, (3-99) tothe * See C.T. Tal, "On the present ion of Marwcits theory Proceetas of he JEEE, vol. 60, pp. 936-945, Asus 7 : me whe inte the bre whi we or Ree lee Sol orig inte‘3-8 / BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS 117 pillbox, we have me psa (Dy +42 + Day) AS =a, "(D, —D,) AS =p, dS, 6-11) where we have used the relation a; = —ay,. Unit vectors a,, and a,, are, respectively, outward unit normals to media 1'and 2, From Eq. (3=112) we obtain Eq. (3~113) states that che normal component of D field is discontinuous across an interface where a surface charge exists—the amount of discontinuity being equal to the surface charge density, If medium 2 is a conductor, D; = 0 and Eq, (31136) - ,2°(D, —D) =p, I (G-113a) ; Diy Dan =p, (Cim’), (-1138) vat must | an given ‘ Where the reference unit normal is ourward from medium 2 media E i 2 whic becomes: re Din = Eve = Pos G14) the line Q : which simplifies to Eq. (3~67) when medium {is free space. : When two dilecris are in contact with no free charges athe interface, p, i we have i =D, 115) Ek or Din 2a GB 3 Ey = €2 Ean 116) 6-110) Recapitulating, we find the boundary conditions that must be satisfied for static ben : electric fields are as follows: 2 When i Taagetalcomponcas, Ey 5-10 Normal components, a,z(D; ~ D3) = py. @-1138) -t) waa EE Example 3=13~ A lucite shect (¢, = 3,2) is introduced perpendicularly in a uniform bottom, electric field E, = a,£, in free space. Determine E,, D,, and P; inside the lucite. cand 510 the Solution: We assume that the introduction ofthe lucite sheet does not disturb the original uniform electric field F,. The sitoation is depicted in Fig. 3-23. Since the i 4 interfaces are perpendicular to the electric feld, only the normal feld components need be considered. No freé charges exist. oe3-23 face set nw nom dks ell (sap 313, Boundary condition Eq, (3-114) at the left interface gives Di= aeoky There is no change in electric flux density across the interlate: The electric field intensity inside the lite sheet Mea, Br gDi=22D, ok t ‘The polarization vector is zaro outside the lucite sheet {P, = 0). Inside the sheet, ratlama(se ae aA, ny Clearly, a similar application of the boundary condition Eq. (3-114) on the right interface will yield the prigipal Bj and D, in thelrée dpace on the right ofthe lucite sheet. Does the solution an Problem chang if the original electric field is not uniform that i if By = af) ‘ re 4) fig ree Fig.3-24 Bauadafy conditions at the interface Between two dieletric ‘media (Example 3-44 : 3-10ried reloste dis not 3-10, elbacrrance AND CAPACITORS 109 i Example 3-14, Two diclectric media with permitivtes ¢, and ey are separated by acharge-fre¢ boundary as shown in Fig. 3-24. The electric field intensity in medium Lat the point P, has a magnitude £, and makes an angle «, with the normal. Deter tin themagnitudé and direction of theese ld intensity at point Ps iniechace, Solution: Two éqiations are needed to solv for two unknowns Ey, and Ey, After Ex, and E,, have been found, £, and x; will follow directly. Using Eqs. (3-110) and (3-115), we have : By sin ay = Ey sic ay o-117) and + « : re €2E 605 1, = €,B, 008 4. @-118) Division of Eq. (-L17) by Eq. (3-118) gives e —— (G-119) wana, ‘The magnitude of E, is Ey = VE} + E5, = (Ez sin a)" + (Ey cos ap a rea -[e. snag? +( te, omn) | @-120) By examining Fig, 3~24, can you tell whether ¢, is larger or smaller than €,” CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS From Section 3-6 we understand that a conductor in a static electric field is an equipotential body and that charges deposited on a conductor will distribute them selves on its surface in such @ way that the élecric field inside vanishes. Suppose the potential due to a charge Q is V. Obviously, increasing the total charge by some factor k would merely increase the surface charge density p, everywhere bythe same factor, without afecting the charge distribution because the conductor remains an equipotential body in a static situation. We may conclude from Eq, (3-S7) that the Potential of an isolated conductor is directly proportional to the total charge on it This may also be seen from the fact that increasing ¥ by a fuctor of & increases E = —VY by a factor ofk, Bu, ftom Eq, (3-67), E = ay/ey; it follows that p, and con- sequently the total charge Q will also increase by a factor of k. The ratio Q/V therefore110 stamic'eLectRic FieLos /3 remains unchanged, We write Mhere the constant of proportionality C is called the capacitance of the isolated fonducting body. The capacitance is the electric charge that must be added te ata ody per unit inrease in its electric potential. Is SI unit is coulomb per well ce farad (F) 3nd 72.00 the other. Several electric feld lines originating Irom positive cerses And terminating on negative charges are shown in Fig. 3-25, Note that the ed tines are perpendicular to the conductor sures, which ne equipotent surtnces Equation (3-121) applies here if V is taken to mean the potential difference betmecy 2 | oy iference Vz. A capacitor has a capacitance even when no voltage i appied wt 2nd Re free charges exist on its conductors. Capacitance C can be determiacd fron Fa. (3-122 by either (I) assuming a V3 and determining Q in terms of Vr or (2) ‘sssuming Q and determining V3 in erms of Q. At this stage, since we have not ye Fig. 3-25. A two-conductor capacitor.6-121) isolated to the volt, or + of two may be etween ductor ebvaraes he field vetween ao ductor y ofthe tential ad to it from or (2 not yet ncaa era enn i Ata ote arenes \ i 3-10 /CABACITANCE AND CAPACITORS 111 Studied the methods for solving boundary-value problems (which will be taken upin Chapter 4), we find C by the second method. The procedure is as follows: 1, Choose an appropriate coordinate system for the given geometry. 2. Assume chargés +0 and ~Q on the conductors. 3. Find E from Q by Eq. (3-114), Gausss lav, or other relations, 4, Find ¥,, by evaluating a from the conditctor carrying ~Q to the other carrying +0. 5. Find C by taking the ratio Q/M3 Example 3-15 _A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area S separated by a uniform distance d. The space between the plates is filed With a dielectric of a constant permittivity e, Determine the capacitance. Solution: cross section of the capacitor is shown in Fig, 3-26. It is obvious that the appropriate coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, Follow. ing the procedure outlined above, we put charges +Q and —Q on the upper and lower conducting plates respectively. The charges are assumed to be uniformly distributed over the conducting plates with surface densities +p, and —p,, where From Eq. (3-114), we have 2,2, E a Yes" Which is constant within the diclectrcif the fringing ofthe electric field atthe edges of the plates is neglected. Now £(-4 2), Fig. 3-26 Cross section of paralletplate capacitor (Example 3-15,412. static ELecTRIC FieLDs/3 Therefore, for a parallel-plate capacitor, (3-123) which is independent of Q or For this problem we could have started by assuming a potential difference V;,. between the upper and lower plates. The electric field intensity between the plates is uniform and equals Ea -2,-3. The surface charge densities at the upper and lower conducting plates are +p, and — Py tespectively, where, in view of Eq, (3-67), Therefore, Q = p45 = (eSid)¥j2 and C = Q/Y, = eS/d, as before Example 3-16 A cylindrical capacitor consists of an inney Bonductor of radius a and an outer conductor whose inner radius is b The space Dewees he condacoar, is filed with a dielectric of peemitiviye, andthe length ofthe sapactes Dee mine the eapcitance ofthe capacitor Solution: “We use cylindrical coordinates for this problem. First we assume eharges #+@and —@ on the surface of the inner conductor and the inner surface of the outer conductor, respectively. The E field in the dielectric can be obtained by applying Gauss's law to a cylindrical Gaussian surface within the dielectric a b)and outer radi R,. Determine E everywhek. P3-10 Two infinitely long coaxial eylindrcal sufies, charge densities ,, nd py respectively. 8) Determine E eferywhere 4) What must be Ihe relation between and b in ord that E vanishes for ¢ > 8? P3=11 AL what values of @ does the component’? rie fel Intensity of a sirected dipole have no P3-12 Three charges +4. — = =a)2, respectively. 8) Determine ¥ dpd E ava distant point PLR, 0, @) ) Find the equatlons for equipotentil surfaces and size ©) Sketch a family of equipotencial lines and stceamlines. sind + are arcanged along 1 and (Such an arrangement of three charges is called a linear electrostatic quadrupole.) P.313 A finite tne ciacge of length L caries «uniform ine charge dens 8) Determine Vin the plane bisecting the line charge ) Determine E from p, directly by applying Coulomb's law ©) Cheek the answer in pat (b) with -¥V. P3-14 A charge Q is distributed uniformly over an L x L squae pla 4 point on the axis perpendicular to the plate, and through its center, PASIS A charge Qs lstibuted uniformly over the wallof a cccular tube of radius band height 4 Determine V and E on its exis 8) ata point outside the tube, the ) at point inside the tube, e. Deter ine V and E at P3-16 A simple classical model of an atom consists of a nucleus of 4 positive chante Ale surrounded by a spherical electron cloud of the same total negative charge. (Nis the atom ppumber and e is the electronic charge.) An external electric field E, will cause the nucleus so be Gisplaced a distance r, from the center ofthe electron cloud, this polarizing the atom, Assoming ‘uniform cage distribution within the electron cloud of radius bind r, P17 Determine the work done in carrying a ~2(uC) charge from P\(2, 1, —1) 0 Pals, 2, -1) in the field B= a, + aye 2) along the parabola x = 25%, ') along the straight line joining P, and 3,130 STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS /3 P3-18 The polarization in a dielectric cube of side L centered at the origin is given by P= Plax +a,y +a) 1) Determine the surface and volute bound-charge densities b) Show thatthe total bound charge is zero P3-19 Determine the electric field intensity atthe center of a small spherical cavity cut out of a large block of dieietcic in which a polarization P exists. 3-20 Solve the following problems ) Find the breakdown voltage of a parallel-plate capacitor, assuming that conducting plates are $0 (mm) apart and the medium between them isa. ») Find the breakdown voltage ifthe entire space between the conducting plates filled with Plerislass, which has a dielectric constant 3 and a dielectric strength 20 (kenny, 6) Ifa 10mm) thick plexiglass is inserted between the plite, what isthe maxireum vokage ‘hat ean be applied to the plats without a breakdown’? P3-21 Assume that the = = 0 plane separates two lossless dielectric regions with ¢,, = 2 and 62 = 3. If we know that E, in egion | isa,2r —a,3x + a,(5 + 2), what do we also know about E, and D3 in region 2? Can we determine E and D, at any point ip region 2? Explain, P.3-22 Determine the boundary conditions fr the tangential and the Rarmal compos Patan interfue between two pe nts oF siclctrie media with dvleetrie constants €,, and, 3-23 What are the boundary conditions that must be satisfied by the electric potential at an imtenface between two perfect dielectrics with dielectric constants ,, and 6? P3-24 Diciccric lenses can be used to collimate cleciromagnetie fields. In Fig. 3-34, the left surface ofthe lens is that of a cireulareylinder, andthe tight surface is a plane. If E, at point Pry AS". 2) in region 1 is a,5 —a,3, what must be the dielectric constant of the lens in order ‘hal Ey in region 3 is parallel to the x-axis? ¢ o — o a 2 Fig. 3-34 Dielectric lens (Problem P26 3-25 The space between a parallel-pate capacitor of area $ is filed with a dielectric whose permittivity varies linearly frome, atone plate (y = 0) to; atthe other plate (y = d). Neslecting {tinging effect, find the eapacitance.ducting et with 4. the left 1 at point Sin order rie whose ‘Neelecting PROBLEMS 131 3-26 Consider the earth as a conducting phere of radius 637 (Mn) 4) Determine its eapacitance 5) Determine the maximum charge that can exist on it without eausing a breakdown of the Air surrounding i P3-27 Determine the capacitance of an isolated conducting sphere of radius 6 tha is coated with adieleetrie layer of uniform thickness d. The dlalectic has an electic susceptibility fe 3-28 A capacitor consiss of two concentric 5 pliercal shells of radii 8, and R,. The space between a is filled With a dielectric of relative permittivity from R, to A(R, and volume charge density p stored inthe following regions: 8) inside the sphere, ) outside the sphere (Check your results with those in Example 3-19, P3034 Find the electrostatic energy stored in the repion of space R > 6 around an electric dipole of moment p, 3-35 Prove that Eqs, (3-149) for stored electrostatic energy hold tre for any twe-conductor capacitor. i 2.3236 A paralelplate capacitor of width w, length L, ane separation ds partaly fled with « electric medium of dielectric constant «,795 shown in Fig’ 3-36. battery of Fs vale it oe ai sated tame ates 2) Find Dan pn ech on Fig 3-36 A puralepe camer Probiem P23) 3-37 Lag he rin of vial diaemen dev an exreion fr he fore betacen two pin chugs © and “Qstpured byron ne i 5-38 A pape cpaior of wih nth ad ean dhs a dei sn of permite the space betwen the pts The capers hare ioe es 8 hue inten Fig 3-31 Amin ta he esi tab seen oe shown teint ore atng on esas 2) wth he sich cose, he sich st pend ae, ea pe , tar 1-37 partially filled paralel-plate capacitor (Problem P.3~38)with radius conductor between, dl dieteetric lage WY by fi postion INTRODUCTION Electrostatic problems ate those which deal with the effects of electric charges at rest. These problems can present themselves in several different ways according to what is initially khown. The solution usually calls for the determination of electcie potential, electric field intensity, and/or electric charge distribution. If the ch distribution is given, both the electric potential and the electric field intensity bbe found by the formulas developed in Chapter 3, In many practical problems, however, the exact charge distribution is not known everywhere, and the formulas in Chapter 3 cannot be applied directly for finding the potential and ficld inten. sity. For instance, ifthe charges at certain disertte points in space and the potentials. of some conducting bodies ure given, it is rather dificult to find the distribution of surface charges on the conducting bodies and/or the electric field intensity ia space. When the conducting bodies have boundaries of a simple geometry, the ‘method of images may be used to great advantage, This method will be discussed in Section 4-4, In another type of problem, the potentials of all conducting bodies may be known, and we wish to find the potential and feld intensity in the surrounding space as well as the distribution of surface charges on the conducting boundaries. Differential equations must be solved subject to the appropriate boundary condi. tions. The techniques for solving partial aulferentjai equations in the various co- ordinate systems will be discussed in Sections 4-5 through 4-7. 4-2 POISSON'S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS In Section 3~8, we pointed out that Eqs. (3-93) and (3~5) are the two fundamental governing differential equations for electrostatics in any medium. These equations are repeated below for convenience, —, Eq. (3-93): - wep Eq. (3-5) “KE (0) 42) 133134 SOLUTION OF ELECTROSTATIC PROBLEMS / 4 The irrotational nature of E indicated by Eq, (4-2) enables us to define a scalar electric potential V, as in Eq, (3-38), Eq, (0-38): B= -w, 4-9 Ina linear and isotropic medium, D = cf, and Eq, (4-1) becomes Vee=p “9 Substitution of Eq (4-3) in Fg (4-4) yields Vl) =~, “5 where can be a function of position. Fora simple medium tha is, for a medium that is also homogeneous, esa constant and can then be taken out ofthe divergence operation, We have . — viv = 2, 9 In Eq. (4-6), we have introduced a new operator, V4, the Laplacian operator, which stands for “the divergence of the gradient of,” or W- V, Equation (4~6) is known as Poisson's equation; it states that the Laplacian (the divergence of the gradient) of V equals — p/e for « simple mediun, where ¢ is the permittivity of the medium (which is a constant) and p is the volume charge density (which may be a function of space coordinates), Since both divergence and gradient operations involve first-order spatial derivae tives, Poisson's equation is a second-order partial differential equation that holds at every point in space where the second-order derivatives exist. In Cartesian coordi- nates, Viva vy and Eq. (4-6) becomes (7) Similarly, by using Eqs. (2-86) and (2-102), we can easily verify the following exe pressions for V?V in cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Cylindrical coordinates (4-8)iretectrie 3) (4-4) (4-5) yediuim vergence 14-6) ter. sch known as cadienty of um (which ni of space fal deriva at holds at an coordi- Wow & (4-3) “4-2 / POISSON'S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS 135 Spherical coordifates: vive tb (ov) 1a RORY eR) * Rind OS" The solution of Poiston’s equation in three dimensions subject to prescribed bound- ary conditions is, in beneral, not an easy task, At points in a Simple medium where there is no fee charge, p = 0 and Eq (4-6) reduces to : (4-10) whichis known as Laplace's equation, Laplace's equation occupies very important position in electromagnetics. [isthe governing equation for problems involving a Set of conductors, sich as capacitors, maintained at iferent potentials, Once is found from Eq. (4-10), Ecan bedetermined from —VV and thecharge dissivation ‘on the conductor surfaces can be determined from p, = €E, (Eq. 3-67), Example 4-1 The two plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are separated by a distance d and mainlained at potentials 0 and Vq. 28 shown in Fig, fel, Acsuncne negligible finging effect atthe edges, determine a) the potential at any point between the plates, and (b) the surface charge densities at the plates, Solution: 4) Laplace's equation isthe governing equatidn for the potential between the plates since p = 0 there. Ignoring the fringing effect ofthe electric field is tantamount to assuming that tt feld distribution between the plates i the same as though the plates were infinitely large and that there is no vatiation of V in the x and directions. Equation (4-7) then simplifies to ety) Where d?/dy? is used instead of 0°/¢y*, since y is the only space variable. 7 (Example 4-1),136 SOLUTION OF ELECT \Usi*"1c PROBLEMS / 4 Integration of Eq. (4-11) with respect to y gives aa where the constant of integration C, is yet to be determined, Integrating again, we obtain Vecy+e; 12) i ‘Two boundary conditions are required for the determination of the two constants of integration: Aty (4-138) (4-136) Substitution of Eqs. (4~13a) and (4-13b) in Eq, (4-12) yields immediately C, = Void and Cz = 0. Hence the potential at any point y between the plates is, fro Eq. (4-12), (14) ‘The potential increases linearly from y = 0 to y = d. by Inorder to find the surface charge densities, we must frst find E at the conducting plates at y= 0 and y= d. From Eqs. (4-3) and (4-14), we have wv % aan 2,4, (4-1 WING (4-15) which isa constant and is independent of y. Note that the direction of Eis opposite to the direction of increasing V. The surface charge densities at‘the conducting plates are obtained by using Eq. (3-67), At the lower plate, Pu =F Electric field lines in an electrostatic field begin from positive charges and end in negative charges.again, 4-13) onstants (4-134) (6-430) ao is, from adueting 15) opposite ducting, 4-2 / POISSON'S:AND LAPLACE’S ( QUATICNS 137 { i i Example 4-2 Detcfmine the E field both inside and outside a spherical cloud of electrons with a uniform volume charge density » = ~py for 0< R b by solving:Poisson’s and Laplace's équations for V. 1 Solution: We ceil hat this problem was dlved in Chapter 3 Example 3-6) by applying Gaus's law. We now use the samg problem to ilusteate the slution ot one-dimensional Poisson's and Laplace's equdtions, Since there are no variations in@and 6 directions, we are only dealing with unctions off in spherical coordinates 2) Inside the eloud t a OSRSb,p* po. In this region, Poison’s equation (V*¥; 4 —p/es) holds, Dropping 2/20 and 8/26 terms from Eq, (4-8), we have 1 8 (pad) _ po G ay w% OR) ~ ey which reduces to (+16) 7) Since E, cannot be infinite at R = 0, the integration constant C, in Eq, (4-17) must vanish, We obtain o

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