Electronic Devices Sample Chapter

Eighth Edition
GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Electronics Devices
Vol 4 of 10
R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
NODIA & COMPANY
GATE Electronics & Communication Vol 4, 8e

Electroncis Devices
RK Kanodia & Ashish Murolia
Copyright By NODIA & COMPANY
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To Our Parents
Preface to the Series

For almost a decade, we have been receiving tremendous responses from GATE aspirants for our earlier books:
GATE Multiple Choice Questions, GATE Guide, and the GATE Cloud series. Our first book, GATE Multiple
Choice Questions (MCQ), was a compilation of objective questions and solutions for all subjects of GATE
Electronics & Communication Engineering in one book. The idea behind the book was that Gate aspirants who
had just completed or about to finish their last semester to achieve his or her B.E/B.Tech need only to practice
answering questions to crack GATE. The solutions in the book were presented in such a manner that a student
needs to know fundamental concepts to understand them. We assumed that students have learned enough of
the fundamentals by his or her graduation. The book was a great success, but still there were a large ratio of
aspirants who needed more preparatory materials beyond just problems and solutions. This large ratio mainly
included average students.
Later, we perceived that many aspirants couldnt develop a good problem solving approach in their B.E/B.Tech.
Some of them lacked the fundamentals of a subject and had difficulty understanding simple solutions. Now,
we have an idea to enhance our content and present two separate books for each subject: one for theory, which
contains brief theory, problem solving methods, fundamental concepts, and points-to-remember. The second book
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Thereafter we received an immense number of emails from our readers looking for a complete study package
for all subjects and a book that combines both GATE Guide and GATE Cloud. This encouraged us to present
GATE Study Package (a set of 10 books: one for each subject) for GATE Electronic and Communication
Engineering. Each book in this package is adequate for the purpose of qualifying GATE for an average student.
Each book contains brief theory, fundamental concepts, problem solving methodology, summary of formulae,
and a solved question bank. The question bank has three exercises for each chapter: 1) Theoretical MCQs, 2)
Numerical MCQs, and 3) Numerical Type Questions (based on the new GATE pattern). Solutions are presented
in a descriptive and step-by-step manner, which are easy to understand for all aspirants.
We believe that each book of GATE Study Package helps a student learn fundamental concepts and develop
problem solving skills for a subject, which are key essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous
effort in preparing this book, some errors may have crept in. We shall appreciate and greatly acknowledge all
constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book. You may write to us at rajkumar.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and reviewers for their efforts in
making this project successful. We would also like to thank Team NODIA for providing professional support for
this project through all phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family for
providing moral support and motivation.
We wish you good luck !
R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
SYLLABUS
GATE Electronics & Communications
Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic silicon. Carrier transport in silicon: diffusion current, drift current,
mobility, and resistivity. Generation and recombination of carriers. p-n junction diode, Zener diode, tunnel diode,
BJT, JFET, MOS capacitor, MOSFET, LED, p-I-n and avalanche photo diode, Basics of LASERs. Device
technology: integrated circuits fabrication process, oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation, photolithography, n-tub,
p-tub and twin-tub CMOS process.
IES Electronics & Telecommunication
Electrons and holes in semiconductors, Carrier Statistics, Mechanism of current flow in a semiconductor, Hall
effect; Junction theory; Different types of diodes and their characteristics; Bipolar Junction transistor; Field effect
transistors; Power switching devices like SCRs, GTOs, power MOSFETS; Basics of ICs - bipolar, MOS and CMOS
types; basic of Opto Electronics.
**********
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
SEMICONDUCTORS IN EQULIBRIUM
1.1
INTRODUCTION
1.2
SEMICONDUCTOR MODELS
1.3
1.2.1
Bonding Model
1.2.2
Energy Band Model
CARRIERS
1.3.1
1
2
Carrier Properties 3
1.4
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
1.5
DOPING
1.5.1
n -type Semiconductor
1.5.2
p-type Semiconductor
1.6
COMPENSATED SEMICONDUCTOR
1.7
FERMI FUNCTION
1.7.1
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
Energy Dependence of Fermi Function
EQUILIBRIUM CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS
1.8.1
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
1.8.2
Extrinsic Carrier Concentration
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM FOR INSULATOR, SEMICONDUCTOR, AND METAL
1.9.1
Insulator
10
1.9.2
Semiconductor
10
1.9.3
Metal
10
POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
10
1.10.1
Fermi Energy Level for n -type Semiconductor
11
1.10.2
Fermi Energy Level for p-type Semiconductor
12
1.10.3
Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature
12
CHARGE NEUTRALITY
10
13
1.11.1
Determination of Thermal Equilibrium Electron Concentration as a Function of Impurity

Doping Concentration
13
1.11.2
Determination of Thermal Equilibrium Hole Concentration as a Function of Impurity

Doping Concentration
13
DEGENERATE AND NON DEGENERATE SEMICONDUCTORS
1.12.1
Non-degenerate Semiconductor 14
1.12.2
Degenerate Semiconductor
14
14
1.13
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND STANDARD CONSTANTS
EXERCISE 1.1
17
EXERCISE 1.2
24
EXERCISE 1.3
27
SOLUTIONS 1.1
31
SOLUTIONS 1.2
47
SOLUTIONS 1.3
60
CHAPTER 2
SEMICONDUCTORS IN NON EQUILIBRIUM
2.1
INTRODUCTION
65
2.2
CARRIER DRIFT
65
2.3
15
2.2.1
Motion of Carriers in a Crystal
2.2.2
Drift Current
CARRIER MOBILITY
65
66
67
2.3.1
Mobility due to Lattice Scattering
2.3.2
Mobility due to Ionized Impurity Scattering
68
2.3.3
Mobility Variation Due to Electric field
69
2.4
CONDUCTIVITY
69
2.5
RESISTIVITY
69
2.6
CARRIER DIFFUSION
68
70
2.6.1
Diffusion Current Density for Electron
2.6.2
Diffusion Current Density for Hole
2.6.3
Diffusion Length
70
70
70
2.7
TOTAL CURRENT DENSITY
71
2.8
THE EINSTEIN RELATION
71
2.9
BAND BENDING
2.10
QUASI-FERMI LEVELS
2.11
OPTICAL PROCESSES IN SEMICONDUCTORS
72
73
2.11.1
Absorption
74
2.11.2
Emission
74
2.12
AMBIPOLAR TRANSPORT 74
2.13
HALL EFFECT
75
2.13.1
Hall Field 75
2.13.2
Hall Voltage
76
2.13.3
Hall Coefficient
76
2.13.4
Applications of Hall effect
76
74
EXERCISE 2.1
77
EXERCISE 2.2
86
EXERCISE 2.3
92
SOLUTIONS 2.1
98
SOLUTIONS 2.2
111
SOLUTIONS 2.3
125
CHAPTER 3
PN JUNCTION DIODE
3.1
INTRODUCTION
3.2
BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE
3.2.1
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
133
pn -JUNCTION
Space Charge Region in pn junction
ZERO APPLIED BIAS
133
134
134
3.3.1
Energy Band Diagram for Zero Biased pn junction 134
3.3.2
Built-in Potential Barrier for Zero Biased pn junction
3.3.3
Electric Field in Space Charge Region 135
3.3.4
Space Charge Width
REVERSE APPLIED BIAS
135
136
136
3.4.1
Energy Band Diagram for Reverse Biased pn Junction
3.4.2
Potential Barrier for Reverse Biased pn Junction
3.4.3
Space Charge Width
3.4.4
Electric Field
3.4.5
Junction Capacitance
136
137
137
137
FORWARD APPLIED BIAS
137
138
3.5.1
Energy Band Diagram for Forward Biased pn Junction
3.5.2
Excess Carrier Concentration
138
3.5.3
Ideal pn Junction Current
138
3.5.4
Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship
SMALL-SIGNAL MODEL OF THE
138
139
pn JUNCTION 139
3.6.1
Diffusion Resistance
140
3.6.2
Small-Signal Admittance 140
3.7
COMPARISON BETWEEN PN JUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS FOR ZERO BIAS, REVERSE BIAS,

AND FORWARD BIAS
140
3.8
JUNCTION BREAKDOWN 141
3.8.1
Zener Breakdown
141
3.8.2
Avalanche Breakdown
141
3.9
TURN-ON TRANSIENT
3.10
SOME SPECIAL PN JUNCTION DIODE
3.10.1
Tunnel Diode
3.10.2
PIN Diode 144
141
142
142
3.11
3.10.3
Varactor Diode
144
3.10.4
Schottky Diode
145
THYRISTORS
3.11.1
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
3.12
TRIAC
150
3.13
DIAC
151
EXERCISE 3.1
153
EXERCISE 3.2
163
EXERCISE 3.3
169
SOLUTIONS 3.1
182
SOLUTIONS 3.2
202
SOLUTIONS 3.3
220
CHAPTER 4
146
BJT
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.2
BASIC STRUCTURE OF BJT
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
146
233
233
4.2.1
Typical Doping Concentrations for BJT
4.2.2
Depletion Region 234
TRANSISTOR BIASING
235
4.3.1
Active Region
236
4.3.2
Saturation Region
4.3.3
Cut-off Region
4.3.4
Reverse Active Region or Inverse Region
234
236
236
OPERATION OF BJT IN ACTIVE MODE
237
4.4.1
238
Transistor Current Relation
MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION
237
240
4.5.1
Minority Carrier Distribution in Forward Active mode
241
4.5.2
Minority Carrier Distribution in Cut-Off Mode
241
4.5.3
Minority Carrier Distribution in Saturation Mode
242
4.5.4
Minority Carrier Distribution in Reverse Active Mode
242
CURRENT COMPONENTS IN BJT 243
4.6.1
DC Common-Base Current Gain
4.6.2
Small Signal Common Base Current Gain
4.6.3
Common Emitter Current Gain
4.7
EARLY VOLTAGE
4.8
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
245
245
246
4.8.1
Punch-Through Breakdown
4.8.2
Avalanche Breakdown
246
243
246
243
4.9
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND STANDARD CONSTANTS
EXERCISE 4.1
249
EXERCISE 4.2
261
EXERCISE 4.3
266
SOLUTIONS 4.1
274
SOLUTIONS 4.2
294
SOLUTIONS 4.3
308
CHAPTER 5
MOSFET
5.1
INTRODUCTION
5.2
TWO TERMINAL MOS STRUCTURE
5.3
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM FOR MOS CAPACITOR
5.4
5.5
317
318
Energy Band Diagram for MOS Capacitors with the p-type Substrate
318
5.3.2
Energy Band Diagram for MOS Capacitors with the n -type Substrate
319
DEPLETION LAYER THICKNESS 320
5.4.1
Space Charge Width for p-type MOSFET
320
5.4.2
Space Charge Width for n -type MOSFET
320
WORK FUNCTION DIFFERENCES 321
5.5.1
Work Function Difference for p-type MOS Capacitors
321
5.5.2
Work Function Difference for n -type MOS Capacitors
321
FLAT BAND VOLTAGE
322
5.7
THRESHOLD VOLTAGE
323
5.9
317
5.3.1
5.6
5.8
247
5.7.1
Threshold Voltage for MOS Structure with p-type Substrate
323
5.7.2
Threshold Voltage for MOS Structure with n -type Substrate
323
DIFFERENTIAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION FOR MOS CAPACITOR
324
5.8.1
Differential Charge Distribution in Accumulation Region
324
5.8.2
Differential Charge Distribution in Depletion Region
324
5.8.3
Differential Charge Distribution in Inversion Region
325
CAPACITANCE-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOS CAPACITOR 325
5.9.1
Frequency Effects on C -V Characteristics
5.10
MOSFET STRUCTURES
5.11
CURRENT-VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP FOR MOSFET
326
327
329
5.11.1
n -channel Enhancement Mode MOSFET for VGS < VT
329
5.11.2
n -channel Enhancement Mode MOSFET for VGS > VT
329
5.11.3
Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship for MOSFET
5.11.4
Transconductance
330
332
5.12
IMPORTANT TERMS
332
5.13
IMPORTANT CONSTANTS AND STANDARD NOTATIONS
334
EXERCISE 5.1
335
EXERCISE 5.2
345
EXERCISE 5.3
351
SOLUTIONS 5.1
355
SOLUTIONS 5.2
372
SOLUTIONS 5.3
389
CHAPTER 6
JFET
6.1
INTRODUCTION
6.2
BASIC CONCEPT OF JFET
393
6.2.1
n -channel JFET
393
6.2.2
p-channel JFET
394
6.3
6.4
393
BASIC JFET OPERATION 394
6.3.1
JFET Operation for Constant VDS and Varying VGS
6.3.2
JFET Operation for VGS = 0 and Varying VDS
DEVICE CHARACTERISTIC
394
395
397
6.4.1
n -channel JFET Characteristic
397
6.4.2
p-channel JFET Characteristic
398
6.5
IDEAL DC CURRENT-VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP FOR DEPLETION MODE JFET
6.6
TRANSCONDUCTANCE OF JFET
399
6.7
CHANNEL LENGTH MODULATION
399
6.8
6.7.1
Depletion Legnth
399
6.7.2
Small Signal Output Impedance
399
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND FREQUENCY LIMITATIONS
6.8.1
Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit
6.8.2
Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency
EXERCISE 6.1
401
EXERCISE 6.2
405
EXERCISE 6.3
407
SOLUTIONS 6.1
412
SOLUTIONS 6.2
422
SOLUTIONS 6.3
428
CHAPTER 7
399
399
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
7.1
INTRODUCTION
433
7.2
BASIC MONOLITHIC INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
433
7.3
FABRICATION OF A MONOLITHIC CIRCUIT
434
400
398
7.4
EPITAXIAL GROWTH
7.5
OXIDATION
436
436
7.5.1
Dry oxidation
436
7.5.2
Wet oxidation
436
7.6
MASKING AND ETCHING 436
7.7
DIFFUSION OF IMPURITIES
437
7.7.1
Diffusion Law
438
7.7.2
Complementary Error Function
7.7.3
The Gaussian Distribution
438
438
7.8
ION IMPLANTATION
439
7.9
THIN FILM DEPOSITION
440
7.9.1
Evaporation
440
7.9.2
Sputtering
440
7.9.3
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
7.10
PN JUNCTION DIODE FABRICATION
7.11
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
441
441
442
7.11.1
Monolithic Integrated Circuit Transistor
7.11.2
Discrete Planar Epitaxial Transistor
EXERCISE 7.1
444
EXERCISE 7.2
452
EXERCISE 7.3
453
SOLUTIONS 7.1
458
SOLUTIONS 7.2
464
SOLUTIONS 7.3
465
442
***********
442
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Electronics & Communication
Sample Chapter of Electronic
Devices (Vol-4, GATE Study Package)
CHAPTER 1
Page 15
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
SEMICONDUCTORS IN EQULIBRIUM
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Equilibrium or thermal equilibrium, implies that no external forces such

as voltages, electric fields, magnetic fields, or temperature gradients are
acting on the semiconductor. This chapter deals with the semiconductor in
equilibrium. Following topics are included in this chapter:
Semiconductor Models: bonding model, energy band model.
Electron and hole carriers; its properties: charge, effective mass.
Intrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductor: n -type semiconductor, p-type semiconductor,
compensated semiconductor
Effect of donor and acceptor impurities
Fermi function: energy dependence
Equilibrium carrier concentration: electron concentration in conduction
band, hole concentration in valence band.
Energy band diagram for insulator, semiconductor, and conductor
Fermi energy level: position of Fermi energy level, variation of Fermi
energy level with temperature
Charge neutrality
Degenerate and non-degenerate semiconductors
in
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1.2
SEMICONDUCTOR MODELS
In this section, we introduce and describe two very important models that
are used extensively in the analysis of semiconductor devices.
1.2.1
Bonding Model
The isolated Si atom, or a Si atom not interacting with other atoms, was
found to contain four valence electrons. The implication here is that, in
going from isolated atoms to the collective crystalline state, Si atoms come
to share one of their valence electrons with each of the nearest neighbours.
This results in covalent bonding, or equal sharing of valence electrons with
nearest neighbors. The bonding model is shown in Figure 1.1.
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Page 16
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Figure 1.1: Bonding Model of Silicon
1.2.2
Energy Band Model

Starting with N-isolated Si atoms and conceptually bringing the atoms closer
and closer together, one finds the inter atomic forces lead to a progressively
spread in the allowed energies.
1. The spread in energies give rise to closely spaced sets of allowed states
known as energy bands.
2. The distribution of allowed states consists of two bands separated by an
intervening energy gap.
3. The upper band of allowed states is called the conduction band; the lower
band of allowed state is called the valence band; and the intervening
energy gap is called the forbidden gap or band gap.
4. The valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is
completely empty at temperature approaching T = 0 K .
i. n
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Figure 1.2: Simplified Version of the Energy Band Model
1.3
CARRIERS
We are now in a position to introduce and to visualize the current carrying

entities within semiconductor. In a semiconductor, the two carriers are:
1. Electrons: In bonding model of semiconductor when Si-Si band is broken
and the associated electron is free to wander about the lattice, the
released electron is a carrier. Equivalently in term of the energy band
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2.
1.3.1
model, excitation of valence band electrons into the conduction band

creates carriers; that is electron in the conduction band are carrier.
Holes: The breaking of a Si-Si bonds also creates a missing bond or void
in the bonding structure and in term of the energy band model where
the removal of an electron from the valence band create an empty state.
The missing band in the bonding scheme, the empty state in the valence
band, is the second type of carrier found in semiconductors called the
hole.
Page 17
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Carrier Properties
Having formally introduced the electron and hole in this section, we study
about the nature of these carriers.
Charge
Both electrons and holes are charge entities. Electrons are negatively charged,
holes are positively charged, and the magnitude of the carrier charge is
q = 1.6 # 10-19 C
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Effective Mass
When an external field is applied to a crystal, the free electron or hole in

the crystal responds, as if its mass is different from the true mass. This mass
is called the effective mass of the electron or the hole. Following are some
important points about effective mass:
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. By considering this effective mass, it will be possible to remove the

quantum features of the problem.
2. The effective mass allows us to use Newtons law of motion to
determine the effect of external forces on the electrons and holes
within the crystal.
1.4
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor is said to be intrinsic if it contains no impurities and

no crystalline defects. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the equilibrium
concentration n 0 of electrons in the conduction band is the same as the
equilibrium concentration of holes p 0 in the valence band. i.e.
where
1.5
n 0 = p 0 = ni
n 0 = number of electron/cm3
p 0 = number of holes/cm3
DOPING
Doping, in semiconductor terminology is the addition of controlled amounts

of specific impurity atoms with the express purpose of increasing either
the electron or the hole concentration. Depending on the characteristic of
dopants, semiconductors are classified as n -type and p-type semiconductors.
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Chap 1
1.5.1
n -type Semiconductor
To increase the electron concentration, one can add either phosphorus,
arsenic or antimony atoms to the Si crystal, these are the donor (electronincreasing) dopants or n -type impurity. The n -type semiconductor is created
by introducing the donor impurities in an intrinsic semiconductor.
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
EFFECT OF DONOR IMPURITIES
1. If a pentavalent impurity (phosphorus, arsenic or antimony) is added

to an intrinsic semiconductor, the four covalent bonds are still present.
However, it creates an additional fifth electron due to the impurity
atom. This remaining electron is relatively free to move within the
material.
2. When donor impurities are added to a semiconductor, allowable energy
levels are introduced a very small distance below the conduction band
. The energy band diagram of n -type semiconductor is shown in figure
below.
i. n
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3. If intrinsic semiconductor material is doped with n -type impurities,

not only does the number of electron increase, but the number of
hole decreases below that which would be available in the intrinsic
semiconductor. The reason for the decrease in the number of holes
is that the larger number of electron present increases the rate of
recombination of electron with holes.
.
w
w
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1.5.2
p -type Semiconductor
To increase the hole concentration, one can add either boron, gallium or
indium atoms to the Si crystal, these are the acceptor (hole-increasing)
dopants or p-type impurity. The p-type semiconductor is created by
introducing the acceptor impurities in an intrinsic semiconductor.
EFFECT OF ACCEPTOR IMPURITIES
1. If a trivalent impurity (boron, gallium or indium) is added to an

intrinsic semiconductor, only three of the covalent bonds can be filled;
and the vacancy that exists in the fourth bond constitutes a hole.
2. When acceptor or p-type, impurities are added to the intrinsic
semiconductor, they produce an allowable discrete energy level which
is just above the valence band. The energy band diagram of p-type
semiconductor is shown in figure below.
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Page 19
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS
1. In n -type semiconductor, the electrons are called the majority carriers,

and the holes are called the minority carriers.
2. In p-type material, the holes are the majority carriers and the electrons
are the minority carriers.
1.6
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COMPENSATED SEMICONDUCTOR
A compensated semiconductor is one that contains both donor and

acceptor impurity atoms in the same region. We classify the compensated
semiconductors as
1. An n -type compensated semiconductor occurs when Nd > Na .
2. A p-type compensated semiconductor occurs when Na > Nd .
3. If Na = Nd , we have a completely compensated semiconductor that has
the characteristics of an intrinsic material.
1.7
FERMI FUNCTION
The Fermi function f Ê h specifies how many of the existing states at the
energy E will be filled with an electron.
or
f Ê h specifies, under equilibrium conditions, the probability that an available
state at an energy E will be occupied by an electron.
Mathematically, the Fermi function is simply a probability distribution
function, defined as
1
f Ê h =
1 + eÊ - E h/kT
where
E = Any energy level
EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level
k = Boltzmann constant (k = 8.617 # 10-5 eV/k )
T = Temperature in kelvin (K )
F
1.7.1
Energy Dependence of Fermi Function

We analyse the energy dependence of Fermi function for the following two
cases:
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Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
CASE I: T
"0K
Let us begin by investigating the Fermi functions energy dependence for
T " 0.
For all energies E < EF ,
E - EF " - 3
kT
1
and
f Ê < EF h "
=1
1 + e- 3
For all energies E > EF ,
E - EF " + 3
kT
and
f Ê > EF h " 1/1 + e3 = 0
This result is plotted in figure below.
i. n
o
.c
Figure 1.3: Energy Dependence of Fermi Function for T " 0 K
a
i
d
>0K
Examining the Fermi function, we make the following observations.
1. If E = EF , then
CASE II: T
o
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2.
3.
f ÊF h = 1/2
If E $ EF + 3 kT , then
eÊ - E h /kT >> 1;

f Ê h , e-Ê - E h/kT
Consequently, above EF + 3 kT , the Fermi function or filled-state
probability decays exponentially to zero with increasing energy moreover,
most-states at energies 3 kT or more above EF will be empty.
If E # EF - 3 kT , then
F
eÊ - E h/kT << 1;

f Ê h - 1 - eÊ - E h/kT
F
Below EF - 3 kT , therefore, 61 - f Ê h@, the probability that a given

state will be empty, decays exponentially to zero.
For the above case, the Fermi function is plotted in figure below.
Figure 1.4: Energy Dependence of Fermi Function for T > 0 K
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Equilibrium Distribution of Carrier

In the following diagram, the equilibrium distribution of carrier is illustrated.
Page 21
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
in
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Figure 1.5: Equilibrium Distribution of Carrier
1.8
EQUILIBRIUM CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS
The distribution (with respect to energy) of electrons in the conduction

band is given by the density of allowed quantum states times the probability
that a state is occupied by an electron, i.e.
...(1.1)
n Ê h = gc Ê h f Ê h
where
f Ê h = Fermi-Dirac probability function
and
gc Ê h = Density of quantum states in the conduction band
Similarly, the distribution (with respect to energy) of holes in the valence
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Chap 1
Semiconductors in
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band is the density of allowed quantum states in the valence band multiplied
by the probability that a state is not occupied by an electron, i.e.
...(1.2)
p Ê h = gv Ê h61 - f Ê h@
Integrating the above two equations [(1.1) and (1.2)], we obtain the
electron and hole concentrations respectively.
Electron Concentration in Conduction Band
The total electron concentration per unit volume in the conduction band is
found by integrating the distribution function given in equation (1.1), i.e.
# g Ê hf Ê hdE
n0 =
f Ê h =
where
1+e
Ê - EF h/kT
- e-Ê - E h/kT
So, the thermal-equilibrium density of electron in the conduction band
is obtained as
F
n0 =
Ec
4p ^2m n* h
h3
3/2
E - Ec e-Ê - E h/kT dE
F
i. n
3/2
= 2 ;2pm n2 kT E e^^-Ec - E h/kT h

h
-Êc /E h/kT
n 0 = Nc e
F
or
o
.c
where the parameter Nc is called the effective density of states function in

the conduction band, given as
a
i
d
*
3/2
Nc = 2 ;2pm n2 kT E
h
o
n
NOTE :
Since gc _E i dE represents the number of conduction band states/ cm 3 lying in the E to
E + dE energy range, and f _E i specifies the probability that an available state as an energy
E will be occupied by an electron. So, gc _E i f _E i dE gives the number of conduction band
electrons/ cm 3 lying in the E to E + dE energy range. Thus, gc _E i f _E i dE integrated over
all conduction band energies must yield the total number of electrons in the conduction
band. A similar statement can be made relative to the hole concentration.
.
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Hole Concentration in Valence Band

The thermal equilibrium concentration of holes in the valence band is found
by
p0 =
where
1 - fE Ê h =
# g Ê h61 - f
v
Ê h@dE
1+e
ÊF - E h/kT
EF - E
- e-b kT l
So, the thermal equilibrium concentration of holes in the valence band is
p0 =
Ev
-3
4p ^2m p* h
h3
3/2
3/2
Ev - E e
-b
EF - E
kT l
dE
E -E
2pm p* kT
-b
l
o e kT
2
h
or
p 0 = Nv e-Ê - E h/kT
where Nv is called the effective density of states function in the valence
band, given as
= 2e
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Nv = 2 e
o
h2
1.8.1
Page 23
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

For an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the
conduction band is equal to the concentration of holes in the valence
band. These parameters are usually referred to as the intrinsic electron
concentration and intrinsic hole concentration, i.e.
ni = pi
Fermi energy level for the intrinsic semiconductor is called the intrinsic
Fermi energy, or EF = EFi . So, we have
...(1.3)
n 0 = ni = Nc e-Êc - E h/kT
-Ê - E h/kT
and
...(1.4)
p 0 = pi = ni = Nv e
Hence, multiplying equations (1.3) and (1.4), we get
Fi
Fi
n i2 = Nc Nv e-Êc - E h/kT e-Ê - E h/kT

n i2 = Nc Nv e-Êc - E h/kT = Nc Nv e-E /kT
Fi
or
or
Fi
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ni =
Nc Nv e
...(1.5)
-EG /2 kT
Temperature Dependence of Intrinsic Concentration
Substituting the values of Nc and Nv in equation (1.5), we have

n i2 = 2.33 # 10 43 e
3/2
m n* m p*
3 -EG /kT
o T e
m 02
...(1.6)
Since,
EG = EG0 - bT
where EG0 is the magnitude of energy gap at 0 K. So, by substituting this
relation into equation (1.6), we get
n i2 = A 0 T 3 e-E
G0
/kT
3/2
m*m*
where
A 0 = ^2.33 # 10 he n 2 p o e- b/k
m
and b has the dimension of electron volt per degree kelvin.
43
1.8.2
Extrinsic Carrier Concentration
Let us derive a general form of equations for the thermal-equilibrium

concentration of electrons and holes in extrinsic semiconductors. For an
extrinsic semiconductor, we have
n 0 = Nc e-Êc - E h/kT
If we add and subtract an intrinsic Fermi energy (EFi) in the exponent
of above equation, we can write
F
-Êc - EFi h + ÊF - EFi h
m
kT
n 0 = Nc ec
or
...(1.7)
n 0 = Nc e-Êc - E h/kT eÊ - E h/kT
Since, the intrinsic carrier concentration is given by [from equation (1.3)]
Fi
Fi
ni = Nc e-Êc - E h/kT
Hence, by substituting it in equation (1.7), we get the thermal equilibrium
electron concentration as
Fi
n 0 = ni eÊ - E h/kT
Similarly, we obtain the thermal equilibrium hole concentration as
F
p 0 = ni e-Ê
Fi
- EFi h/kT
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Chap 1
1.9
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM FOR INSULATOR, SEMICONDUCTOR, AND

METAL
Figure 1.6 shows the energy band diagram of an insulator, a semiconductor,

and a metal. The characteristic of these materials are described in the
following texts.
i. n
Figure 1.6: Energy Band Diagram of (a) an Insulator (b) a Semiconductor (c) a Metal
1.9.1
o
.c
Insulator
a
i
d
A very poor conductor of electricity is called an insulator. For insulator, the

width of the forbidden energy region is high (6 eV).
1.9.2
Semiconductor
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A substance whose conductivity lies between the metal and insulator is called
semiconductor. The width of the forbidden energy region for semiconductor
is relatively small ^. 1 eVh. The energy bandgap for silicon and germanium
semiconductor are tabulated below.
Table 1.1: Energy Bandgap of Semiconductors

Semiconductors
1.9.3
Energy bandgap at temperature (T )
Energy bandgap at room

temperature (T = 300 K)
Silicon
EG ^T h = 1.21 - 3.60 # 10-4 T
EG = 1.1 eV
Germanium
EG ^T h = 0.785 - 2.23 # 10-4 T
Eg = 0.72 eV
Metal
An excellent conductor is a metal. The band structure of a metal contains
overlapping valence and conduction bands, as shown in Figure 1.6 (c).
1.10 POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
We can now determine the position of the Fermi energy level as a function
of the doping concentration. The position of the Fermi energy level within
the bandgap can be determined by using the equations already developed
for the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentration.
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1.10.1 Fermi Energy Level for n -type Semiconductor

For an n -type semiconductor, we define the carrier concentration as
n 0 = Nc e-Êc - E h/kT
or
...(1.8)
Ec - EF = kT ln b Nc l
n0
F
Page 25
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
If the donor concentration,

Nd >> ni
then,
n 0 - Nd
Therefore, equation (1.8) becomes
Nd
Figure 1.7 (a) shows the position of Fermi energy level for n -type
semiconductor. Now, we may develop a slightly different expression for the
position of the Fermi level. Since,
n 0 = ni eÊ
So,
- EFi h/kT
EF - EFi = kT ln a n 0 k
ni
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Figure 1.7: Illustration of Fermi Energy Level for (a)

Semiconductor
n -type Semiconductor, (b) p -type
Following are some important points about position of Fermi level in an

n -type semiconductor.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FERMI LEVEL IN
n -TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
1. The distance between the bottom of the conduction band and the
Fermi energy is a logarithmic function of the donor concentration.
2. As the donor concentration increases, the Fermi level moves closer to
the conduction band.
3. If the Fermi level moves closer to the conduction band, then the
electron concentration in the conduction band is increasing.
4. If we have a compensated semiconductor, then the Nd term in
equation is simply replaced by Nd - Na , or the net effective donor
concentration.
5. The difference between the Fermi level and the intrinsic Fermi level is
a function of the donor concentration.
6. If the net effect donor concentration is zero, i.e. Nd - Na = 0 then
n 0 = ni and EF = EFi .
7. A completely compensated semiconductor has the characteristics of
an intrinsic material in term of carrier concentration and Fermi level
position.
8. For an n -type semiconductor, n 0 > ni , EF > FFi , and therefore the
Fermi level is above EFi .
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Semiconductors in
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1.10.2 Fermi Energy Level for p -type Semiconductor

For a p-type semiconductor, the carrier concentration is
p 0 = Nv e-Ê - E h/kT
or
EF - Ev = kT ln b Nv l
p0
F
...(1.9)
If the acceptor concentration, Na >> ni

then,
p 0 , Na
Therefore, equation (1.9) becomes
Na
Figure 1.7 (b) shows the position of Fermi energy level for p-type
semiconductor. Now, we may develop a slightly different expression for the
position of the Fermi level. Since,
p 0 = ni e-Ê
- EFi h/kT
p0
ni l
Following are some important points about position of Fermi level in a
p-type semiconductor.
So,
EFi - EF = kT ln b
i. n
o
.c
CHARACTERISTICS OF FERMI LEVEL IN
p -TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
1. The distance between the Fermi level and the top of the valence band
energy for a p-type semiconductor is a logarithmic function of the
acceptor concentration.
2. As acceptor concentration increases, the Fermi level moves closer to
the valence band.
3. If we have a compensated p-type semiconductor, then the Na term
in equation is replaced by Na - Nd or the net effective acceptor
concentration.
4. We can also derive an expression for the relationship between the Fermi
level and the intrinsic Fermi level in term of the hole concentration.
a
i
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p 0 = ni e-Ê
- EFi h/kT
p0
ni l
5. For a p-type semiconductor, p 0 > ni , EFi > EF , and therefore the
Fermi level is below EFi .
EFi - EF = kT ln b
1.10.3 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature

The Fermi energy level EF for a semiconductor varies with the temperature
in following manner:
1. The intrinsic concentration ni is a strong function of temperature, so
that EF is a function of temperature also.
2. As the temperature increases, ni increases, and EF moves closer to the
intrinsic Fermi level.
3. At high temperature, the semiconductor material begins to lose its
extrinsic characteristics and begins to behave more like an intrinsic
semiconductor.
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4.
5.
At the very low temperature, freeze-out occurs; the fermi level goes
above Ed for the n -type material and below Ea for the p-type material.
At absolute zero degrees, all energy states below EF are full and all the
energy states above EF are empty.
Page 27
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
1.11 CHARGE NEUTRALITY
In thermal equilibrium, the semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral.

The electrons are distributed among the various energy states, creating
negative and positive charges but the net charge density is zero. This charge
neutrality condition is used to determine the thermal equilibrium electron
and hole concentration as a function of the impurity doping concentration.
1.11.1 Determination of Thermal Equilibrium Electron Concentration as a

Function of Impurity Doping Concentration
We assume complete ionization. The charge neutrality condition is expressed
by equating the density of negative charges to the density of positive charges,
i.e.
or
in
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n 0 + Na = p 0 + Nd
n 0 + Na - p 0 - Nd = 0
...(1.10)
From mass action law, we have

2
p0 = n i
n0
Substituting it in equation (1.10), we get
2
n 0 + Na - Nd - n i = 0
n0
or
n 02 - ^Nd - Na h n 0 - n i2 = 0
Thus, by solving the above quadratic equation, we obtain the electron

concentration as
n0 =
^Nd - Na h + ^Nd - Na h2 + 4n i2
2
CASE I: Na = Nd = 0
Substituting Na = Nd = 0 in above expression, we get
n 0 = ! ni
Since, the electron concentration must be a positive quantity, so
n 0 = ni
Na = 0
For Na = 0 , the electron concentration becomes
CASE II:
n 0 = Nd +
N d2 + 4n i2
2
1.11.2 Determination of Thermal Equilibrium Hole Concentration as a Function

of Impurity Doping Concentration
Again, from mass action law, we have
2
n0 = n i
p0
Substituting it in the equation (1.10), we obtain the hole concentration as
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p 02 - ^Na - Nd h p 0 - n i2 = 0
Page 28
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
p0 =
or
^Na - Nd h + ^Na - Nd h2 + 4n i2
2
Na = Nd = 0
Substituting Na = Nd = 0 in above expression, we get
p 0 = ! ni
Since, the hole concentration must be a positive quantity, so
CASE I:
p 0 = ni
Nd = 0
For Nd = 0 , the hole concentration becomes
CASE II:
p 0 = Na +
N a2 + 4n i2
2
1.12 DEGENERATE AND NON DEGENERATE SEMICONDUCTORS
We may define the degenerate and non-degenerate semiconductors in

following ways:
1.12.1 Non-degenerate Semiconductor
i. n
o
.c
When the concentration of dopant atoms added is small compared to the

density of host or semiconductor atoms, the impurities introduce discrete,
non-interacting donor energy states in the n -type semiconductor and discrete
non-interacting acceptor states in the p-type semiconductor. These types of
the semiconductors are referred to as non-degenerate semiconductor.
a
i
d
o
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.
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1.12.2 Degenerate Semiconductor

When the donor concentration is increased, the band of donor states widens
and may overlap the bottom of the conduction band. This overlap occurs
when the donor concentration becomes comparable with the effective density
of states. The two types of degenerate semiconductors are defined as
Degenerate n -Type Semiconductor

When the concentration of electrons in the conduction band exceeds the
density of states Nc , the Fermi energy lies within the conduction band.
This type of semiconductor is called a degenerate n -type semiconductor.
Figure 1.8 (a) shows the energy band diagram for a degenerate n -type
semiconductor.
Figure 1.8: Energy Band Diagram for (a) Degenerate n -type Semiconductor, (b) Degenerate
p -type Semiconductor
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Degenerate p-Type Semiconductor

In a similar way, as the acceptor doping concentration increases in a p-type
semiconductor, the discrete acceptor energy states will split into a band of
energies and may overlap the top of the valence band. The Fermi energy
will lie in the valence band when the concentration of holes exceeds the
density of states Nv . This type of semiconductor is called a degenerate p
-type semiconductor. Figure 1.8 (b) shows the energy band diagram for a
degenerate p-type semiconductor.
Page 29
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
1.13 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND STANDARD CONSTANTS
Following are some important properties and standard values used in

determination of semiconductor parameters in the exercises of the chapter.
Table 1.2: Some Standard Constants
NA = 6.02 # 10+23 atoms per gram molecular

weight
Avogadros number
in
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k = 1.38 # 10-23 J/K = 8.62 # 10-5 eV/K
Boltzmanns Constant
-19
Electronic Charge (Magnitude)
e = 1.60 # 10
Free Electron Rest Mass
m 0 = 9.11 # 10-31 kg
Permeability of Free Space
m 0 = 4p # 10-7 H/m
Permittivity of Free Space
e 0 = 8.85 # 10-14 F/cm = 8.85 # 10-12 F/m
Plancks Constant
h = 6.625 # 10-34 J - s = 4.135 # 10-15 eV - s
Thermal Voltage
^T = 300 Kh
Vt = kT = 0.0259 volt , kT = 0.0259 eV

e
Table 1.3 : Properties of Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, and Germanium _T = 300 Ki

Property
Si
GaAs
Ge
Atoms ^cm-3h
5.0 # 1022
4.42 # 1022 4.42 # 1022
Dielectric Constant
11.7
13.1
16.0
Bandgap Energy (eV)
1.12
1.42
0.66
Effective Density of States in 2.8 # 1019

Conduction Band, Nc ^cm-3h
4.7 # 1017
1.04 # 1019
Effective Density of States in 1.04 # 1019

Valence Band, Nv ^cm-3h
7.0 # 1018
6.0 # 1018
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 1.5 # 1010

^cm-3h
1.8 # 106
2.4 # 1013
Electron Mobility, m n ^cm2 /V - sh 1350
8500
3900
Hole Mobility, m p ^cm2 /V - sh
400
1900
0.067
0.55
480
Effective Mass (Density of States) 1.08
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Chap 1
Table 1.4: Carrier Modeling Equation Summary

Density of States and Fermi Function
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
gc Ê h =
gv Ê h =
m n*
2m n* Ê - Ec h
, E $ Ec
p2 h3
2m p* Êv - E h
, E # Ev
p2 h3
m p*
f Ê h =
1+e
Ê - EF h/kT
Carrier Concentration Relationships
n = Nc eÊ
3/2
*
Nc = 2 ;m n kT
2ph2 E
- Ec h/kT
p = Nv eÊ - E h/kT
v
n = ni eÊ
3/2
m * kT
Nv = 2 = p 2 G
2p h
- Ei h/kT
p = ni eÊ - E h/kT
i
ni , np -Product, and Charge Neutrality

ni =
Nc Nv e-E
i. n
np = n i2
/2kT
p - n + Nd - Na = 0
o
.c
n , p , and Fermi Level Computational Relationships

1/2
2
n = Nd - Na + ;b Nd - Na l + n i2E
2
2
a
i
d
m*
Ei = Ec + Ev + 3 kT ln e p* o
2
4
mn
For Nd >> Na , Nd >> ni ;

n - Nd
p - n i2 Nd
EF - Ei = kT ln ^n/ni h =- kT ln ^p/ni h
For Na >> Nd , Na >> ni ;

p - Na
EF - Ei = kT ln ^Nd /ni h
Nd >> Na, Nd >> ni
n - n i2 /Na
Ei - EF = kT ln ^Na /ni h
Na >> Nd , Na >> ni
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Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
MCQ 1.1.1
SAN. SHARMA
428/21
MCQ 1.1.2
B.L.THERAJA
37/23
In intrinsic semiconductor at 300 K, the magnitude of free electron

concentration in silicon is about
(A) 15 # 10 4 per cm3
(B) 5 # 1012 per cm3
(C) 1.45 # 1010 per cm3
(D) 1.45 # 106 per cm3
Two initially identical samples A and B of pure germanium are doped with
donors to concentrations of 1 # 1020 and 3 # 1020 respectively. If the hole
concentration in A is 9 # 1012 , then the hole concentration in B at the same
temperature will be
(A) 3 # 1012 m-3
(B) 7 # 1012 m-3
(C) 11 # 1012 m-3
(D) 27 # 1012 m-3
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MCQ 1.1.3
Given the effective masses of holes and electrons in silicon respectively as

m p* = 0.56mo , m n* = 1.08mo
What will be the position of the intrinsic Fermi energy level with respect to
the center of the bandgap for the semiconductor at T = 300 K ?
(A) 0.0290 eV below the centre
(B) 0.0128 eV above the centre
(C) 0.0128 eV below the centre
(D) 0.0290 eV above the centre
MCQ 1.1.4
What will be the position of Fermi energy level, EFi with respect to the
center of the bandgap in silicon for T = 200 K ?
(A) 0.0085 eV below the centre
(B) 0.0128 eV above the centre
(C) 0.0128 eV below the centre
(D) 0.0085 eV above the centre
Common Data For Q. 5 and 6

The electron concentration in silicon at T = 300 K is n 0 = 5 # 10 4 cm-3 .
MCQ 1.1.5
What will be the hole concentration (in cm - 3 ) in silicon ?

(A) 9 # 10 15
(B) 3 # 10 9
(C) 4.5 # 10 15
(D) 3 # 10 5
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Chap 1
MCQ 1.1.6
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
MCQ 1.1.7
The material is
(A) p -type
(C) intrinsic
(B) n -type
(D) cant be determined
If the Fermi energy in silicon is 0.22 eV above the valence band energy, what
will be the values of n 0 and p 0 for silicon at T = 300 K ?
n0 (in cm - 3 )
p0 (in cm - 3 )
(A) 2.27 # 10 4
2.13 # 1015
(B) 2.13 # 1015 cm-3
2.27 # 10 4
(C) 1.04 # 10 4 cm-3
2.8 # 1015
(D) 2.8 # 1015
1.04 # 10 4

Consider Ec - EF = 0.25 eV in gallium arsenide (GaAs) at T = 400 K .
MCQ 1.1.8
i. n
What will be the electron and hole concentrations in the material at

T = 400 K ?
n 0 (in cm - 3 )
p 0 (in cm - 3 )
(A) 2.27 # 10 4
2.13 # 1015
(B) 2.13 # 1015 cm-3
2.27 # 10 4
(C) 5.19 # 1014 cm-3
2.08 # 10 4
(D) 2.08 # 10 4
5.19 # 1014
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MCQ 1.1.9
If the value of n 0 , obtained in above question, remains constant then, what

will be the hole concentration at T = 300 K ?
(A) 7 # 10-3 cm-3
(B) 9.67 # 10-3 cm-3
(C) 96.7 # 10-3 cm-3
(D) 2.08 # 10 4 cm-3
MCQ 1.1.10
If a germanium semiconductor is doped with the donor and acceptor

concentrations respectively as
Nd = 5 # 10 15 cm - 3 , Na = 0 .
What will be the thermal equilibrium concentrations, n0 and p 0 at T = 300 K
in the material ?
n 0 (in cm - 3 )
p 0 (in cm - 3 )
(A) 2.08 # 10 4
2.13 # 1015
(B) 1.15 # 1011 cm-3
5.0 # 1015
(C) 2.13 # 1015
2.08 # 10 4
(D) 5.0 # 1015
1.15 # 1011 cm-3
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MCQ 1.1.11
The doping concentrations in silicon semiconductor are Nd = Na = 10 15 cm - 3 .

What will be the concentrations of n0 and p 0 in the material at T = 300 K ?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
MCQ 1.1.12
n 0 (in cm - 3 )
1015
2.25 # 1010 cm-3
1.5 # 1010
1015
p 0 (in cm - 3 )
1015
1015
1.5 # 1010
2.25 # 1010 cm-3
Page 33
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Assume that gallium arsenide has dopant concentrations of Nd = 1 # 1013 cm-3

and Na = 2.5 # 1013 cm-3 at T = 300 K . The material is
(A) p -type with p 0 = 1.5 # 1013 cm-3, n 0 = 0.216 cm-3
(B) p -type with p 0 = 0.216 cm-3, n 0 = 1.5 # 1013 cm-3
(C) n -type with p 0 = 0.216 cm-3, n 0 = 1.5 # 1013 cm-3
(D) n -type with p 0 = 1.5 # 1013 cm-3, n 0 = 0.216 cm-3
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MCQ 1.1.13
A sample of silicon at T = 450 K is doped with boron at a concentration of

1.5 # 1015 cm-3 and with arsenic at a concentration of 8 # 1014 cm-3 . The
material is
(A) p -type with p 0 = 4.23 # 1011 cm-3, n 0 = 7 # 1014 cm-3
(B) p -type with p 0 = 7 # 1014 cm-3, n 0 = 4.23 # 1011 cm-3
(C) n -type with p 0 = 4.23 # 1011 cm-3, n 0 = 7 # 1014 cm-3
(D) n -type with p 0 = 7 # 1014 cm-3, n 0 = 4.23 # 1011 cm-3
MCQ 1.1.14
A particular semiconductor material is doped at Nd = 2 # 1013 cm-3 , Na = 0

, and the intrinsic carrier concentration is ni = 2 # 1013 cm-3 . The thermal
equilibrium majority and minority carrier concentrations will be, respectively
(Assume complete ionization)
(A) p 0 = 1.23 # 1013 cm-3, n 0 = 0.216 cm-3
(B) p 0 = 0.216 cm-3, n 0 = 3.24 # 1013 cm-3
(C) p 0 = 1.23 # 1013 cm-3, n 0 = 3.24 # 1013 cm-3
(D) p 0 = 3.24 # 1013 cm-3, n 0 = 1.23 # 1013 cm-3
MCQ 1.1.15
Consider germanium with an acceptor concentration of Na = 1015 cm-3 and

a donor concentration of Nd = 0 at T = 200 K . The Fermi energy of the
material will be
(A) 0.1855 eV below the intrinsic Fermi level
(B) 0.0128 eV above the intrinsic Fermi level
(C) 0.0128 eV below the intrinsic Fermi level
(D) 0.1855 eV above the intrinsic Fermi level
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Chap 1
MCQ 1.1.16
Consider germanium at T = 300 K with doping concentrations of

Nd = 1014 cm-3 and Na = 0 . What will be the position of Fermi energy level
with respect to the intrinsic Fermi level for these doping concentrations ?
MCQ 1.1.17
If silicon is doped with phosphorus atoms at a concentration of 1015 cm-3

then, what will be the position of the Fermi level with respect to the intrinsic
Fermi level in silicon at T = 300 K ?
MCQ 1.1.18
Gallium arsenide at T = 300 K contains acceptor impurity atoms at a density

of 1015 cm-3 . Additional impurity atoms are to be added so that the Fermi
level is 0.45 eV below the intrinsic level. The concentration and type of
additional impurity atoms will be respectively
(A) Na = 9.368 # 1014 cm-3 , acceptor
(B) Na = 6.32 # 1013 cm-3 , acceptor
(C) Nd = 9.368 # 1014 cm-3 , donor
(D) Nd = 6.32 # 1013 cm-3 , donor
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
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MILMAN
90/4.3
For a particular semiconductor, the effective mass of electron is m n* = 1.4 m

(where m is electron mass at rest).
MCQ 1.1.19
What is the effective density of states in the conduction band at T = 300cK .

(A) 4.15 # 1025 m-3
(B) 2.08 # 1025 m-3
(C) 4.27 # 1026 m-3
(D) 4.15 # 1020 cm-3
MCQ 1.1.20
If EC - EF = 0.25 eV at T = 300cK , then what is the concentration of

electrons in the semiconductor ?
(A) 1.33 # 1021 m-3
(B) 2.67 # 1021 m-3
(C) 2.67 # 1015 cm-3
(D) 2.67 # 1022 m-3
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MCQ 1.1.21
MILMAN
93/4.4
The effective masses of electron and hole in germanium are m n* = 0.55 m and
m p* = 0.37 m (where m is the electron rest mass) what will be the position
of the intrinsic Fermi energy lavel with respect to the centre of the bandgap
for the Germanium semiconductor at T = 300 K ?
(A) 0.0154 eV above the centre
(B) 0.0154 eV below the centre
(C) 0.0077 eV above the centre
(D) 0.0077 eV below the centre
Page 35
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Common Data For Q. 22 to 24

MILMAN
95/4.5
MCQ 1.1.22
MCQ 1.1.23
MILMAN
95/4.5
MCQ 1.1.24
MILMAN
95/4.5(C)
MCQ 1.1.25
PEIRRET
71/2.6(C)
For a particular material, NC = 1.5 # 1018 cm-3 , NV = 1.3 # 1019 cm-3 and
bandgap EG = 1.43 eV at T = 300c K .
What is the position of the Fermi level with respect to the top of the valence
band EV ?
(A) 0.028 eV above the valence band edge EV
(B) 0.743 eV below the valence band edge EV
(C) 0.028 eV below the valence band edge EV
(D) 0.743 eV above the valence band edge EV
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What is the position of the Fermi level with respect to the conduction band
edge EC ?
(A) 0.687 eV above EC
(B) 0.687 eV below EC
(C) 0.743 eV below EC
(D) 0.743 eV above EC
What are the effective masses m n* and m p* of electron and hole respectively ?
m n*
m p*
(A) 1.35 # 10-31 kg
6.46 # 10-31 kg
(B) 1.23 # 10-21 kg
6.46 # 10-31 kg
(C) 1.35 # 10-31 kg
5.88 # 10-31 kg
(D) 1.23 # 10-31 kg
5.88 # 10-31 kg
The probability that an energy state is filled at EC + KT , is equal to the

probability that a state is empty at EC + KT . Where is the Fermi level ÊF h
located ?
(A) EF = EC + 2KT
(B) EF = EC - 2KT
(C) EF = EC + KT
(D) EF = EC - 2KT
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Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
MCQ 1.1.26
PIERRET
73/2.16(A)
A silicon wafer is uniformly doped p-type with acceptor impurity

NA = 1015 per cm3 . At T , 0cK what is the equilibrium electron concentration ?
(A) 1015 /cm3
(B) 105 /cm3
(C) 1010 /cm3
MCQ 1.1.27
PIERRET
73/2.16(C)
MCQ 1.1.28
PIERRET
183/7
(D) , 0
In a non-degenerate germanium sample maintained under equilibrium

conditions near room temperature, it is known that intrinsic concentration
ni = 1013 /cm3, n = 2p and NA = 0 . What are the values of n (electron
concentration) and ND (Donor concentration) ?
n
ND
(A)
7.07 # 1012 per cm3
1.414 # 1013 per cm3
(B)
1.414 # 1013 per cm3
0.707 # 1013 per cm3
(C)
2.828 # 1013 per cm3
0.707 # 1013 per cm3
(D)
1.414 # 1013 per cm3
1.414 # 1013 per cm3
i. n
Which of the following sketches best describes the DN versus ND dependence

of electrons in silicon at room temperature ?
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ANDERSON
109/2.34
MCQ 1.1.29
MCQ 1.1.30
At room temperature ^T = 300 Kh, the probability that an energy state in

the conduction band edge ÊC h of silicon is 10-4 .
The type of semiconductor is

(A) n -type
(C) intrinsic
(B) p-type
(D) cant be determine
Assume the effective density of states function NC,V = 2.86 # 1019 cm-3 .
What is the value of doping concentration ?
(A) ND - NA = 1.26 # 1010 cm-3
(B) NA - ND = 1.26 # 1010 cm-3
(C) ND - NA = 2.8 # 1015 cm-3
(D) NA - ND = 2.8 # 1015 cm-3
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MCQ 1.1.31
MCQ 1.1.32
MCQ 1.1.33
An unknown semiconductor has bandgap Eg = 1.1 eV and Nc = Nv . It is

doped with 1015 cm-3 donors, where the donor level is 0.2 eV below EC .
Given that EF is 0.25 eV below EC at T = 300 K .
Page 37
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
What is the concentration of electrons ?

(A) 8.733 # 1014 cm-3
(B) 1.27 # 1014 cm-3
(C) 1015 cm-3
(D) 105 cm-3
What is the value of effective density of electron ^NC h ?

(A) 1.97 # 1018 cm-3
(B) 1.359 # 1019 cm-3
(C) 4.82 # 1018 cm-3
(D) 2.85 # 1019 cm-3
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What is the value of intrinsic carrier concentration ?

(A) 3.10 # 109 cm-3
(B) 6.62 # 1019 cm-3
(C) 7.59 # 10 4 cm-3
(D) 8.142 # 109 cm-3

BHATTACHARYA 119/3.14
A piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature is kept at thermal equilibrium.

The position of energy level, Ex is set exactly 0.6 eV above the intrinsic level
and band gap of intrinsic silicon Êg h = 1.1 eV .
MCQ 1.1.34
What is the type of semiconductors if the probability of capture of an energy

state by an electron at Ex is 50%.
(A) p-type, non degenerate
(B) n -type, non degenerate
(C) p-type, degenerate
(D) n -type, degenerate
MCQ 1.1.35
What is the doping concentration

(A) 1.725 # 1016 cm-3
(B) 1.725 # 1020 cm-3
(C) 2.879 # 1019 cm-3
(D) 2.879 # 1016 cm-3
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EXERCISE 1.2
Page 38
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
QUES 1.2.1
The intrinsic carrier concentration, ni at T = 200 K for silicon is_____

4
-3
# 10 cm .
QUES 1.2.2
The intrinsic carrier concentration, ni for germanium at T = 400 K is ____

4
-3
# 10 cm .
QUES 1.2.3
The intrinsic carrier concentration, ni at T = 600 K for GaAs is____

12
-3
# 10 cm .
QUES 1.2.4
QUES 1.2.5
i. n
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The intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon is to be no greater than

ni = 1 # 1012 cm-3 . What will be the maximum temperature (in K) allowed
for the silicon ?
a
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Two semiconductor materials have exactly the same properties except that
material A has a bandgap energy of 1.0 eV and material B has a bandgap
energy of 1.2 eV. The ratio of intrinsic concentration of material A to that
of material B for T = 300 K will be _____
.
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QUES 1.2.6
The hole concentration in silicon at T = 300 K is 1015 cm-3 . The concentration

of electrons in the material will be_____# 10 4 cm-3 .
QUES 1.2.7
Given the acceptor and donor concentrations in a germanium semiconductor

respectively as Na = 10 13 cm - 3 , Nd = 0 . The thermal equilibrium hole
concentration in the material at T = 300 K will be_____# 1013 cm-3 .
QUES 1.2.8
A silicon semiconductor is doped with the donor and acceptor concentrations

respectively as Nd = 2 # 1015 cm-3 and Na = 0 . The thermal equilibrium
hole concentration in the material at T = 300 K will be_____ # 105 cm-3 .
QUES 1.2.9
A silicon semiconductor has the dopant concentrations Nd = 0 , Na = 1014 cm-3 .

The thermal equilibrium electron concentration in the material at T = 400 K
will be_____# 1010 cm-3 .
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QUES 1.2.10
In a sample of GaAs at T = 200 K , we have experimentally determined that

n 0 = 5p 0 and Na = 0 . What will be the concentration of electrons (in cm-3
) in the material ?
QUES 1.2.11
Silicon at T = 300 K is uniformly doped with phosphorus atoms at a

concentration 2 # 1015 cm-3 and boron atoms at a concentration of
3 # 1016 cm-3 . The thermal equilibrium concentration (in cm - 3 ) of minority
carriers will be_____# 103 cm-3 .
QUES 1.2.12
In silicon at T = 300 K , we have experimentally found that n 0 = 4.5 # 10 4 cm-3

and Nd = 5 # 1015 cm-3 . The acceptor impurity concentration in the material
will be _____# 1016 cm-3 .
QUES 1.2.13
A GaAs device is doped with a donor concentration of 3 # 1015 cm-3 . For the
device to operate properly, the intrinsic carrier concentration must remain
less than 5 percent of that electron concentration. What is the maximum
temperature (in K) that the device may operate ?
QUES 1.2.14
Silicon at T = 300 K contains acceptor atoms at a concentration of

Na = 5 # 1015 cm-3 . Donor atoms are added forming an n -type compensated
semiconductor such that the Fermi level is 0.215 eV below the conduction
band edge. The concentration of donor atoms added is ____# 1016 cm-3 ?
Page 39
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
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Silicon at T = 300 K is doped with acceptor atoms at a concentration of

Na = 7 # 1015 cm-3 .
QUES 1.2.15
The difference between Fermi energy and valence band energy, EF - Ev

equals to_____eV.
QUES 1.2.16
The concentration of additional acceptor atoms that must be added to

move the Fermi level a distance kT closer to the valence-band edge will be
_____# 1016 cm-3 .
QUES 1.2.17
If silicon is doped with boron atoms at a concentration of 1015 cm-3 then, the
change in Fermi level, EF - EFi will be_____eV.
QUES 1.2.18
Consider intrinsic germanium at room temperature (300 K). By what percent

does the conductivity increase per degree rise in temperature ?
MILINANS
87/4.1
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Semiconductors in
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QUES 1.2.19
MILMAN
102/4.8
QUES 1.2.20
PEIRRET
44/2.2
QUES 1.2.21
PEIRRET
71/2.6
QUES 1.2.22
In an n -type silicon, the donor concentration is 1 atom per 2 # 108 silicon

atoms. Assume that the effective mass of the electron equals the true mass
and the density of atoms in the silicon is 5 # 1022 atoms/cm3 . At what
temperature în cKh will the Fermi level coincide with the edge of the
conduction band ?
What is the ratio of the probability that a state is filled at the conduction
band edge ÊC h to the probability that a state is empty at the valence band
edge ÊV h if the Fermi level is positioned at midgap ?
If Fermi energy level EF is positioned at EC (edge of the conduction band),

then the probability of finding electrons in states at the EC + KT will be___
For a non-degenerate semiconductor, the peak in the electron distribution

versus energy inside the conduction band occurs at EC + KT/2 . What is
the ratio of the electron population in a non-degenerate semiconductor at
E = EC + 5KT to the electron population at the peak energy ?
i. n
PIERRET
71/2.8
QUES 1.2.23
PIERRET
73/2.16(D)
QUES 1.2.24
ANDERSON
76/2.2
o
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For a silicon sample maintained at T = 300 K , the Fermi level is located 0.259
eV above the intrinsic level and intrinsic concentration ni = 1010 per cm3 .
The hole concentration is_____# 105 per cm3 .
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The probability of occupancy of a state at the bottom of the conduction

band in intrinsic silicon at room temperature is _____# 10-10 (assume at
room temperature KT = 0.026 V ).
QUES 1.2.25
ANDERSON
109/2.36
QUES 1.2.26
QUES 1.2.27
Two semiconductors A and B have the same density of states effective

masses. Semiconductor A has a bandgap energy of 1.0 eV and semiconductor
B has a bandgap energy of 2 eV . The ratio of intrinsic concentration of
semiconductor A to semiconductor B for T = 300 K will be_____# 108 .
For a piece of GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) having a band gap Eg = 1.43 eV

. The minimum frequency of an incident photon that can interact with a
valence electron and elevate the electron to the conduction band is_____
14
# 10 Hz .
A piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature is kept at thermal equilibrium.

The position of some random level Ex is to be fixed at 0.9 eV above the
valence band edge. The doping concentration such that the probability of
capture of an energy state by an electron at Ex is 50% is ___# 1016 cm-3 ?
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Chap 1
Semiconductors in
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MCQ 1.3.1
SAN. SHARMA
26/4
MCQ 1.3.2
B.L.THERAJA
36/1
MCQ 1.3.3
B.L.THERAJA
36/4
MCQ 1.3.4
B.L.THERAJA
36/8
MCQ 1.3.5
B.L.THERAJA
36/9
MCQ 1.3.6
B.L.THERAJA
36/11
The mobility of charge-carriers has the unit

(A) m/volt-sec2
(B) m volt-sec
3
(C) m /volt-sec
(D) m2 /volt-sec
The total energy of a revolving electron in an atom can

(A) have any value above zero
(B) never be positive
(C) never be negative
(D) not be calculated
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Electronic distribution of an Si atom is

(A) 2, 10, 2
(B) 2, 8, 4
(C) 2, 7, 5
(D) 2, 4, 8
Major part of the current in an intrinsic semi-conductor is due to

(A) conduction-band electrons
(B) valence-band electrons
(C) holes in the valence band
(D) thermally-generated electron
Conduction electrons have more mobility than holes because they

(A) are lighter
(B) experience collisions less frequently
(C) have negative charge
(D) need less energy to move them
Current flow in a semiconductor depends on the phenomenon of

(A) drift
(B) diffusion
(C) recombination
(D) all of the above
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Semiconductors in
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MCQ 1.3.7
B.L.THERAJA
36/12
MCQ 1.3.8
B.L.THERAJA
37/24
MCQ 1.3.9
SANJEE GUPTA
2.24/6
MCQ 1.3.10
SANJEE GUPTA
2.24/10
The process of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is called

(A) mixing
(B) doping
(C) diffusing
(D) refining
Hall effect is observed in a specimen when it (metal or a semiconductor) is

carrying current and is placed in a magnetic field. The resultant electric field
inside the specimen will be in
(A) a direction normal to both current and magnetic field
(B) the direction of current
(C) a direction antiparallel to the magnetic field
(D) an arbitary direction depending upon the conductivity of the specimen
An n -type semiconductor as a whole is

(A) positively charged
(B) negatively charged
(C) positively or negatively charged depending upon doping
(D) electrically neutral
i. n
o
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a
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In p-type semiconductor, there are

(A) no majority carriers
(B) electrons as majority carriers
(C) immobile negative ions
(D) immobile positive ions
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MCQ 1.3.11
SANJEE GUPTA
3.29/1
MCQ 1.3.12
S SALIVAHANA
2.76/16
MCQ 1.3.13
B.P.SINGH
49/4
Fermi level represents the energy level with probability of its occupation of
(A) 0
(B) 50%
(C) 75%
(D) 100%
The resistivity of a semiconductor depends on the

(A) shape of the semiconductor
(B) atomic nature of the semiconductor
(C) width of the semiconductor
(D) length of the semiconductor
An electron in conduction band has

(A) no charge
(B) higher energy than electron in the valance band
(C) lower energy than the electron in the valance band
(D) All of these
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51/38
MCQ 1.3.15
B.P.SINGH
52/45
MCQ 1.3.16
B.P.SINGH
52/57
MCQ 1.3.17
B.P.SINGH
55/100
MCQ 1.3.18
B.P.SINGH
55/105
MCQ 1.3.19
G.K. MITHAL
84/2.10
MCQ 1.3.20
G.K. MITHAL
85/2.24
In an intrinsic silicon the band gap is

(A) 1.12 eV
(C) 2 eV

(B) 0.7 eV
(D) 0.2 eV
Page 43
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Mobility of holes in intrinsic Si is

(A) 0.048 m2 /Vs
(B) 0.135 m2 /Vs
(C) 1350 m2 /Vs
(D) 480 m2 /Vs
Fermi level in the intrinsic Si or Ge is

(A) in the middle of the band gap
(B) near the valance band
(C) near the conduction band
(D) none of these
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The diffusion constant and the mobility of electron are related as

(A) Dn /m n = KT/q
(B) Dn /m n = q/KT
(C) Dn /m n = KTq
(D) Dn /m n = qKT
Electron population in silicon is not

(A) zero in the forbidden band
(B) zero in the conduction band at 0 K
(C) zero at the conduction band edge EC
(D) zero in the conduction band at room temperature
Acceptor impurity atom in germanium results in

(A) increased for bidden energy gap
(B) reduced for bidden energy gap
(C) new narrow energy band slightly above the valence level
(D) new discrete energy level slightly above the valence level
If ND and NA are the donor and acceptor concentrations respectively and

ND > NA , then net impurity concentration is
(A) ND - NA
(B) ND + NA
(C) NA - ND
(D) ND .NA
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MCQ 1.3.21
B.P.SINGH
86/2.27
MCQ 1.3.22
G.K. MITHAL
131/3.5
If donor concentration ND equals acceptor concentration NA , the resulting

semiconductor is
(A) n -type
(B) p-type
(C) both p and n type
(D) intrinsic
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of free electrons in the

conduction band is given by
(A) Nc eÊ - E h/kT
(B) Nc eÊ - E h/kT
c
(C) Nc eÊ
MCQ 1.3.23
G.K. MITHAL
131/3.6
MCQ 1.3.25
G.K. MITHAL
131/3.8
- Ev h/kT
G.K. MITHAL
131/3.7
(D) Nc eÊ - E h/kT

v
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of holes in the valence band

is given by
(A) Nv eÊ - E h/kT
(B) Nv eÊ - E h/kT
(C) Nv eÊ
MCQ 1.3.24
- EF h/kT
(D) Nv eÊ
- Ev h/kT
i. n
o
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In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of charge carriers equals

(A) A 0 T 2 eE /kT
(B) A 0 T 3 eE /kT
(C) A 0 TeE /kT
(D) A 0 T 3/2 eE /kT
G0
G0
a
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G0
G0
o
n
In an intrinsic semiconductor, forbidden energy gap EG equals

(A) EG0 - bT1/2
(B) EG0 + bT
(C) EG0 - bT
(D) EG0 + bT1/2
where b is a positive number
.
w
w
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SOLUTIONS 1.1
Page 45
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
SOL 1.1.1
Correct option is (C).

At 300 K, intrinsic carrier concentration is
ni = 1.5 # 1010 /cm3
Hence, free electron concentration is
ne = 1.5 # 1010 /cm3
SOL 1.1.2
Correct option is (A).

Since, sample A and B are identical. So, by using mass action law, we have
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
nA pA = nB pB
The donor impurity in sample A is
NA = 1 # 1020 m-3
Donor impurity in sample B is
NB = 3 # 1020 m-3
The hole concentration in sample A is
pA = 9 # 1012
So, the hole concentration in sample B is
^1 # 1020h # ^9 # 1012h
pB =
3 # 1020
= 3 # 1012 m-3
SOL 1.1.3

The concentration of electrons and holes are defined as
Êc - EF h
n 0 = Nc exp ;E
kT
ÊF - Ev h
p 0 = Nv exp ;E
kT
At Fermi level position, the electron and hole concentrations are equal. So,
we have
Êc - EF h
ÊF - Ev h
Nc exp ;E = Nv exp ;- kT E
kT
If we take natural log of both sides, then
...(1)
EF = 1 Êc + Ev h + 1 kT ln b Nv l
2
2
Nc
Also, we know that
1 E +E = E
midgap
vh
2^ c
Substituting it in equation (1), we get
...(2)
EF - E midgap = 1 kT ln b Nv l
2
Nc
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Again, we have
Page 46
Chap 1
3/2
Nc = 2 c 2pm n2 kT m
h
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Nv = 2 e
and
3/2
2pm p* kT
o
h2
Therefore, we obtain
3/2
*
Nv = m p
e *o
Nc
mn
Thus, by substituting the above expression in equation (2), we get
m*
EF - E midgap = 3 kT ln e p* o
4
mn
= 3 kT ln c 0.56mo m
1.08mo
4
= 3 # 0.0259e # ^- 0.656h
4
=- 0.0128 eV
The negative sign indicate the Fermi Energy level is 0.0128 eV below the
centre of the band gap.
SOL 1.1.4
i. n
o
.c

The concentration of electrons and holes are defined as
Êc - EF h
n 0 = Nc exp ;E
kT
ÊF - Ev h
p 0 = Nv exp ;E
kT
At Fermi level position, the electron and hole concentration are equal, i.e.
Êc - EF h
ÊF - Ev h
Nc exp ;E = Nv exp ;- kT E
kT
If we take natural log of both sides, then
EF = 1 Êc + Ev h + 1 kT ln b Nv l
2
2
Nc
1 44midgap
2 44 3
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
EF - E midgap = 1 kT ln b Nv l
2
Nc
At T = 300c for silicon, we have
or
...(1)
Nc = 2.8 # 1019
and
Nv = 1.04 # 1019
Nv = 1.04
2.8
Nc
Since the ratio does not depend on temperature, so at T = 200 , we get
Nv = 1.04
2.8
Nc
Substituting it in equation (1), we have
EF - E midgap = 1 # 0.0259e b 200 l ln b 1.04 l
2
300
2.8
=- 0.0085 eV
Thus, the intrinsic Fermi level is 0.0085 eV below the centre of the bandgap.
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SOL 1.1.5

At T = 300 K the electron concentration is
n 0 = 5 # 10 4 cm-3
At T = 300 K intrinsic carrier concentration for silicon is
ni = 1.5 # 1010
By using mass action law, we obtain the hole concentration as
or
Page 47
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
n 0 p 0 = n i2
2
p0 = n i
n0
2
^1.5 # 1010h
5 # 10 4
= 4.5 # 1015 cm-3
SOL 1.1.6

We have the electron and hole concentrations for the silicon as
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
n 0 = 5 # 10 4 cm-3
and
p 0 = 4.5 # 1015 cm-3
So, we conclude that
p0 > n0
i.e. the concentration of hole is greater the concentration of electron. It
means hole are in majority in this material, hence it is p-type material.
SOL 1.1.7

Given that Fermi energy in silicon is 0.22 eV above the valence band energy,
i.e.
EF - Ev = 0.22 eV
So, we obtain the hole concentration as
ÊF - Ev h
E
kT
= 1.04 # 1019 exp :- 0.22e D
0.0259e
p 0 = Nv exp ;-
= 2.13 # 1015 cm-3

Now, the energy bandgap for silicon is 1.12 eV, i.e.
Eg = Ec - Ev = 1.12 eV
Ec - EF + ÊF - Ev h = 1.12 eV
or
Ec - EF = 1.12 - 0.22 = 0.90 eV
Hence, the hole concentration is
Êc - EF h
n 0 = Nc exp ;E
kT
= 2.8 # 1019 exp :- 0.90e D
0.0259e
= 2.27 # 10 4 cm-3
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Page 48
Chap 1
SOL 1.1.8
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium

Given the difference between conduction energy level and Fermi energy level
as
Ec - EF = 0.25 eV
At T = 300 K , for GaAs,
Nc = 4.7 # 1017
So, at T = 400 K , we obtain
3/2
Nc = 4.7 # 1017 b T l
300
Therefore, the electron concentration is
Êc - EF h
n 0 = Nc exp ;E
kT
3/2
0.25e
= 4.7 # 1017 # b 400 l exp 300
> 0.025e # b 400 lH
300
= 7.24 # 1017 exp b- 0.025 l
0.03453
= 5.19 # 1014 cm-3

Again, we have the energy bandgap for GaAs
i. n
Eg = Ec - Ev = 1.42
So,
Ec - EF + EF - Ev = 1.42
or
EF - Ev = 1.42 - 0.25 = 1.17 eV
Also, At T = 400cK , we obtain
3/2
Nv = 7.0 # 1018 b T l
300
3/2
= 7.0 # 1018 # b 400 l
300
o
.c
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
= 1.08 # 1019 cm-3

Therefore, the hole concentration is obtained as
ÊF - Ev h
p 0 = Nv exp ;E
kT
1.17e
= 1.08 # 1019 exp > 0.0259 # 400 e H
300
= 2.08 # 10 4 cm-3
SOL 1.1.9
Correct option is (B).

Since, the electron concentration n 0 obtained in previous question should
remain constant, so we have
n 0 = 5.19 # 1014 cm-3
At T = 300 K ,
kT = 0.0259 eV
and
Nc = 4.7 # 1017
Since, the electron concentration is defined as
Êc - EF h
n 0 = Nc exp ;E
kT
So,
n0
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= 0.0259 ln c 4.7 # 10 14 m
5.19 # 10
= 0.176 eV
Page 49
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Therefore, we get
EF - Ev = Eg - Êc - EF h
= 1.42 eV - 0.176 eV
= 1.244 eV
Hence, the hole concentration is given as
p 0 = 7 # 1018 exp :- 1.244 eV D
0.0259 eV
= 9.67 # 10-13 cm-3
SOL 1.1.10
Correct option is (D).

Given the doping concentrations,
Nd = 5 # 1015 cm-3 , Na = 0
At thermal equilibrium, we have
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
Nd + p 0 = Na + n 0
2
p0 = n i
n0
2
Nd + n i = n 0
n0
...(1)
(given Na = 0 )
or
n 02 - n 0 Nd - n i2 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, we obtain the electron concentration as
2
2
n 0 = ND ! N D + 4n i
2
5 # 1015 +
2
2
^5 # 1015h + 4 ^2.4 # 1013h
2
= 5 # 1015 cm-3
Hence, the hole concentration is given as
2
^2.4 # 1013h
5 # 1015
= 1.15 # 1011 cm-3
2
p0 = n i =
n0
SOL 1.1.11

At thermal equilibrium, we have
or
Nd + p 0 = Na + n 0
2
Nd + n i = Na + n 0
n0
(mass action law, p 0 = n i2 /n 0 )
or
n 02 - ^Nd - Na h n 0 - n i2 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, we have the electron concentration as
^Nd - Na h + ^Nd - Na h2 + 4n i2
2
Since, the doping concentrations are same, i.e.
Nd = Na
n0 =
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Therefore, we get
Page 50
Chap 1
n 0 = ni
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
and
p 0 = ni
For silicon, the intrinsic concentration at T = 300 K is
ni = 1.5 # 1010 cm-3
n 0 = p 0 = ni = 1.5 # 1010 cm-3
Hence,
SOL 1.1.12

Given the dopant concentrations for GaAs (Gallium arsenide) as
Nd = 1 # 1013 cm-3
and
Na = 2.5 # 1013
Since, the acceptor concentration is greater than donor concentration, i.e.
Na > Nd
So, the material is p-type.
Now, the intrinsic concentration of GaAs at T = 300 K is
ni = 1.8 # 106
Again, at thermal equilibrium, we have
i. n
^Na - Nd h >> ni
^Na - Nd h + ^Na - Nd h2 + 4n i2
p0 =
2
o
.c
a
i
d
(Na - Nd >> ni )
= Na - Nd
o
n
= 2.5 # 1013 - 1 # 1013

= 1.5 # 1013 cm-3
Also, we obtain the electron concentration using mass action law as
.
w
w
w
SOL 1.1.13
2
2
^1.8 # 106h
n0 = n i =
p0
1.5 # 1013
= 0.216 cm-3

Boron is acceptor atom and arsenic is donor atom. So, we have the dopant
concentrations in silicon as
Na = 1.5 # 1015 cm-3
and
Nd = 8 # 1014 cm-3
Therefore, we conclude that
Na > Nd
i.e. the material is p-type.
Now, for silicon at T = 300 , we have
Nc = 2.8 # 1019
and
Nv = 1.04 # 1019
So, the intrinsic concentration of silicon at T = 450 is given as
Eg
n i2 = Nc Nv e- kT
E
= 2.8 # 1019 # 1.04 # 1019 # b T l e- 0.0259e # ^T/300h
300
g
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= 2.8 # 1019 # 1.04 # 1019 # b 450 l # e- 0.0259e #

300
2
1.12 eV
450
300
or
ni = 1.72 # 1013 cm-3
Hence, we obtain the hole concentration as
Page 51
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
^Na - Nd h + ^Na - Nd h2 + n i2
p0 =
2
= ^Na - Nd h
14
(Na - Nd >> ni )
-3
= 7 # 10 cm
Using mass action law, the electron concentration (n 0) is obtained as
2
^1.72 # 1013h
7 # 1014
= 4.23 # 1011 cm-3
2
n0 = n i =
p0
SOL 1.1.14

Given the doping concentration for the semiconductor,
Nd = 2 # 1013 cm-3 , Na = 0
So, the donor atom impurity is greater than acceptor impurity, i.e.
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
Nd > Na
i.e. this is the n -type material.
Again, we have the intrinsic concentration of the semiconductor as
ni = 2 # 1013 cm-3
Therefore, the electron concentration (majority carrier) is obtained as
n 0 = Nd +
=
N d2 + 4n i2
2
2 # 1013 +
2
2
^2 # 1013h + 4 # ^2 # 1013h
2
= 3.24 # 1013 cm-3

Hence, the thermal equilibrium concentration of minority carriers (holes) is
2
2
^2 # 1013h
n
i
p0 =
=
n 0 3.24 # 1013
= 1.23 # 1013 cm-3
SOL 1.1.15

At T = 200 K , we have
kT = 0.0259 b 200 l eV
300
= 0.01727 eV
So, the intrinsic concentration is obtained as
Eg
n i2 = Nc Nv e- kT
= 1.04 # 1019 # 6.0 # 1018 b 200 l e- 0.01727
300
3
0.66
or
ni = 2.16 # 1010 cm-3
Now, we have the concentration of dopants as
Na = 1015 , Nd = 0
So,
Na >> ni
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Therefore, the hole concentration in the germanium atom is given as
Page 52
Chap 1
^Na - Nd h + ^Na - Nd h + 4n i2
2
p0 =
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
N a2 + 4n i2
2
= Na +
= Na
(Na >> ni )
= 1015 cm-3
Again, the hole concentration is defined as
ÊF - Ev h
p 0 = Nv exp ;E
kT
EFi - EF - ÊFi - Ev h
= Nv exp ;
E
kT
ÊFi - Ev h
E -E
= Nv exp ;E exp : FikT F D
kT
or
or
Put ni = Nv exp ;p 0 = ni exp b EFi - EF l

kT
p
1015
EFi - EF = kT ln b 0 l = 0.01727 ln c
ni
2.16 # 106 m
ÊFi - EF h
E
kT
i. n
Hence,
EFi - EF = 0.1855 eV
i.e. Fermi energy is 0.1855 eV below the intrinsic Fermi level.
SOL 1.1.16
o
.c
a
i
d

For germanium, the intrinsic concentration at T = 300 K is
ni = 2.4 # 1013 cm-3
o
n
.
w
w
Nd = 1014 cm-3
Na = 0
So,
Nd - ni
Therefor, we obtain the electron concentration as
N d2 + 4n i2
2
n 0 = Nd +
=
2
2
^1014h + 4 ^2.4 # 1013h
2
1014 +
= 1.05 # 1014 cm-3

Again, we defined the electron concentration as
n 0 = Nc e-Ê - E h/kT
= Nc e6-Ê - E h + Ê - E h@/kT
= Nc e-Ê - E h/kT eÊ - E h/kT
1 444 2
444 3
n
c
Fi
Fi
Fi
Fi
ÊF - EFi h/kT
or
n 0 = ni e
So,
ni
(ni = Nc e-Ê - E
c
Fi
h/kT
14
= 0.0259 ln c 1.05 # 1013 m

2.4 # 10
= 0.0382 eV
i.e. position of Fermi energy level is 0.0382 eV above the intrinsic Fermi
level.
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SOL 1.1.17

Since. the phosphorus atom is a donor atom, so the donor concentration is
Nd = 1015 cm-3
Page 53
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
ni = 1.5 # 1010 cm-3

So,
Nd >> ni
Therefore, the electron concentration is
n 0 , Nd
= 1015 cm-3
Since, we define the electron concentration as
n 0 = ni e ^
EF - EFi h/kT
ni
So,
= 0.0259 ln c
1015
1.5 # 1010 m
= 0.2877 eV
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
i.e. position of Fermi level is 0.2877 eV above the intrinsic Fermi level.
SOL 1.1.18

Given the concentration of acceptor atom,
Na = 1015
and
EFi - EF = 0.45 eV
For GaAs, the intrinsic concentration at T = 300 K is
ni = 1.8 # 106
So, we obtain the hole concentration as
p
EFi - EF = kT ln b 0 l
ni
p
or
0.45 eV = 0.0259 ln b 0 l eV
ni
or
0.45
p 0 = ni eb 0.0259 l
= 6.32 # 1013 cm-3

Hence,
p 0 < Na
Therefore, the donors must be added with concentration
Nd = Na - p 0
= 1015 - 6.32 # 1013
= 9.368 # 1014 cm-3
SOL 1.1.19

The effective density of states in the conduction band is given by
where m n*
3/2
2pm n* KT
E
h2
is effective mass of electron, given as
NC = 2 ;
...(1)
m n* = 1.4 m = 1.4 # 9.1 # 10-31 kg

and h is the Planks constant, given as
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h = 6.62 # 10-34 J - sec
Page 54
Chap 1
At T = 300cK , we have
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
KT = 0.0259 eV
So, by substituting the values in equation (1), we get
NC = 2 >
2p ^1.4 # 9.1 # 10-31h # 0.0259 eV

H
^6.62 # 10-34h2
3/2
2p # ^1.4 # 9.1 # 10-31h # 0.0259 # 1.6 # 10-19

H
^6.62 # 10-34h2
= 4.15 # 1025 m-3
3/2
= 2>
SOL 1.1.20

The concentration of electrons in the semiconductor is given by
ÊC - EF h
no = NC exp ;- KT E
In previous question, we have determined
i. n
NC = 4.15 # 1025 m-3

Also, we have
o
.c
EC - EF = 0.25 eV
and
KT = 0.0259 eV
Hence, the concentration of electrons in the semiconductor is
no = 4.15 # 1025 exp :- 0.25 eV D
0.0259 eV
a
i
d
o
n
= 2.67 # 1021 m-3
SOL 1.1.21
.
w
w

3/2
2pm n* KT
E
NC = 2 ;
h2
The effective density of state in the valence band is given by
...(1)
3/2
2pm p* KT
G
h2
So, from equations (1) and (2), we get
NV = 2 =
...(2)
3/2
NC = m n*
e *o
NV
mp
In case of intrinsic material, we have
or
ni = pi
ÊC - EF h
ÊF - EV h
NC exp ;= NV exp ;E
KT
KT E
Taking the logarithm of both sides, we obtain

ln c NC m = EC + EV - 2EF
NV
KT
or
EF = EC + EV - KT ln c NC m
2
2
NV
Since, for intrinsic material, we know
E midgap = EC + EV
2
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Hence, the position of Fermi level with respect to the middle of the bandgap
is
EF - E midgap =- KT ln c NC m
2
NV
Page 55
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
3/2
m n*
KT
e
o
=ln
2
m p*
m n*
3
KT
e
o
=ln
4
m p*
0.55 m
=- 3 # 0.0259 eV ln b 0.37 m l =- 7.7 # 10-3 eV
4
i.e. the Fermi level is located at 7.7 # 10-3 eV below the middle of the
forbidden gap the intrinsic germanium at 300cK .
SOL 1.1.22

The Fermi energy level is defined as
2
2
NV
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
= EC - EV + 2EV - KT ln c NC m
2
2
NV
= EC - EV + EV - KT ln c NC m
2
2
NV
Substituting EG ^bandgaph = EC - EV in the above equation, we obtain
EF - EV = EG - KT ln c NC m
2
2
NV
18
= 1.43 eV - KT ln d 1.5 # 1019 n

2
2
1.3 # 10
= 0.715 + 0.028 = 0.743 eV
Hence, the Fermi level is located at 0.743 eV above the valence band edge
EV .
SOL 1.1.23

Again, the Fermi energy level is given as
2
2
NV
= 2EC + EV - EC - KT ln c NC m
2
2
NV
= EC - EG - KT ln c NC m
2
2
NV
So, we obtain
EF - EC =- EG - KT ln c NC m
2
2
NV
=- 1.43 eV + 0.028 eV
2
=- 0.687 eV
which implies that the Fermi level is located at 0.687 eV below EC .
SOL 1.1.24

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Page 56
Chap 1
3/2
NC = 2 <2pm n2KT F
h
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
3/2
m*
= 4.82 # 10 .T c mn m
Hence, we obtain the effective mass of electron as
2/3
NC
m n* = )c 4.82 1021 m 1 3 m
T
#
21
= )c
3/2
1.5 # 1024 2/3 1

m
003 m
4.82 # 1021
3
= 0.135m = 0.135 # 9.1 # 10-31

= 1.23 # 10-31 kg
Similarly, we define the effective density of states in the valence band as
3/2
m*
NV = 4.82 # 1021 .T 3/2 c mp m
Hence, the effective mass of hole is
2/3
NV
1 m
*
c
m
m p = ( 4.82 1021
T2
#
= )d
2/3
1.3 # 1025 n
4.82 # 1021
1
300 3 m
i. n
o
.c
-31
= 0.646m = 0.646 # 9.1 # 10

= 5.88 # 10-31 kg
SOL 1.1.25
a
i
d
o
n

The probability that an energy state is filled at EC + KT is given by
1
...(1)
f ÊC + KT h =
1 + exp 8ÊC + KT - EF h /KT B
.
w
w
The probability that a state is empty at EC + KT is given by

1
1 - f ÊC + KT h = 1 1 + exp 8ÊC + KT - EF h /KT B
...(2)
Given that the two probabilities are equal, i.e.

f ÊC + KT h = 1 - f ÊC + KT h
1
1
or
[From eqs (1) and (2)]
= 1Ê + KT - E h/KT
Ê + KT - E h/KT
1+e
1+e
C
or
or
or
or
Hence,
SOL 1.1.26
1 + e^
EC + KT - EF h/KT
1+e
ÊC + KT - EF h/KT
=
=
e^
E
1 + e^
EC + KT - EF h/KT
C
+ KT - EF h/KT
6EF - ÊC + KT h@/KT
1+e
EC + KT - EF = EF - ÊC + KT h
KT
KT
2EF = 2 ÊC + KT h
EF = EC + KT

At temperature T " 0cK , the thermal energy available in the system is
insufficient to release the weakly bound electron or hole in donor or acceptor
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atom. Hence, the electron concentration is

n = 0 at T = 0cK
Page 57
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
SOL 1.1.27

np = n i2
Given the intrinsic concentration,
...(1)
ni = 1013 /cm3
and the relation,
n = 2p
or
p = n/2
n
2
^n h a 2 k = n i
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
2 # 1013
= 1.414 # 1013 per cm3
Now, we have the charge neutrality relationship as
or
or
or
n =
2 ni =
p + ND = n + NA
n +N = n+0
D
2
ND = n
2
=
(Given p = n/2 , NA = 0 )
2 ni
2
(put n =
2 ni )
13
= ni = 10 = 0.707 # 1013 per cm3
2
2
SOL 1.1.28
The graph exhibits the observed doping dependence of the electron and
hole mobilities in semiconductor. At low doping concentrations below
approximately 1015 /cm3 in Si, the carrier mobilities are essentially
independent of doping concentration. For dopings in excess of - 1015 /cm3
, the mobilities monotonically decrease with increasing NA or ND , and we
know that
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Page 58
Chap 1
DN = c KT m m n
q
Hence, the DN versus ND curve is same as m n versus ND .
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
SOL 1.1.29

Given, the probability that an energy state in the conduction band edge
ÊC h of silicon,
...(1)
f ÊC h = 10-4
Since, the probability that an energy state in the conduction band edge ÊC h
of silicon can also be expressed as
1
...(2)
f ÊC h =
E
^
1 + exp 8 C - EF h /KT B
i. n
o
.c
So, from equations (1) and (2), we get

EC - EF = KT ln c 1-4 - 1m
10
= 0.026 eV ln ^9, 999h = 0.24 eV
Now, the bandgap of silicon at room temperature is
a
i
d
o
n
Eg = 1.12 eV
Eg
So,
= 0.56 eV
2
Therefore, we may sketch the energy band diagram for the semiconductor as
.
w
w
From the energy band diagram, we observe that the Fermi level lies above
the midgap energy level, hence it is an n -type semiconductor.
SOL 1.1.30

It is n -type semiconductor and Fermi level is well above the intrinsic level.
So, we have
ND - NA >> ni
Therefore, we may express
ND - NA = no = NC exp 8-ÊC - EF h /KT B
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= 2.86 # 1019 exp :- 0.24 eV D

0.026 eV
= 2.8 # 1015 cm-3
SOL 1.1.31
Page 59
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium

For the given problem, we sketch the energy band diagram as
The energy band diagram shows the incomplete ionization. So, we have
1
f ÊD h =
= 0.1267
1 + exp b 0.05 eV l
0.0259 eV
Therefore, the concentration of electron is
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
n = [1 - f (Ed )]Nd
= ^1 - 0.1267h 1015 = 8.733 # 1014 cm-3
SOL 1.1.32

The electron concentration is defined as
n = NC e-^
Hence, we get
EC - EF h/KT
h/KT
NC = ne^
= 8.733 # 1014 e0.25/0.0259
= 1.359 # 1019 cm-3
EC - EF
SOL 1.1.33

In previous solution, we have obtained
NC = NV = 1.359 # 1019 cm-3
p = NV e-^
EF - EV h/KT
= 1.359 # 1019 e-^

= 7.591 # 10 4 cm-3
Using mass action law, we obtain
or
or
SOL 1.1.34
1.1 - 0.25h eV/0.0259 eV
n i2 = np
n i2 = (8.733 # 1014) # (7.591 # 10 4) = 6.62 # 1019
ni = 8.142 # 109 cm-3

Probability of capture of an energy state by an electron at Ex is 50% means
that Ex is actually the Fermi level. Hence, the Fermi level is 0.6 eV above
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intrinsic level. Therefore, we may easily analyze that the Fermi level has
moved into the conduction band, as shown below.
Page 60
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Thus, the semiconductor is n -type degenerate semiconductors.
SOL 1.1.35

The doping concentration for n -type degenerate semiconductor is equal to
the electron concentration, i.e.
Doping concentration = Electron concentration
Since, we have the energy band diagram for the semiconductor as
i. n
o
.c
a
i
d
o
n
Hence, we obtain
.
w
w
no = ni exp 8ÊF - Ei h /KT B

= 1.5 # 1010 exp : 0.6 eV D
0.0259 eV
= 1.725 # 1020 cm-3
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SOLUTIONS 1.2
Page 61
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
SOL 1.2.1
Correct answer is 7.68.

Intrinsic carrier concentration is given by
E
n i2 = Nc Nv exp b- g l
kT
For silicon, at T = 300cK
Nc = effective density of state in conduction band ^cm-3h
= 2.8 # 1019 cm-3
Nv = effective density of states in valence band ^cm-3h
= 1.04 # 1019 cm-3
Eg = bandgap energy = 1.12 eV
kT = kT = 25.9 mV
q
e
Intrinsic carrier concentration is a very strong function of temperature. So,
we obtain the parameters at T = 200cC as
kT = 25.9m 200
# 300
e
3/2
3/2
Nc = 2.8 # 1019 b 200 l , Nv = 1.04 # 1019 b 200 l
300
300
Hence, the intrinsic carrier concentration, at T = 200 K for silicon is obtained
as
3
1.12
n i2 = 2.8 # 1019 # 1.04 # 1019 b 200 l exp 300
f 25.9m # 200 p
300
1
.
12
= 0.2876 # 1038 exp c25.9m # 2/3 m
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
or
SOL 1.2.2
ni = 0.8628 # 1038 # 6.753 # 10-29

= 7.68 # 10 4 cm-3

E
kT
For Ge (germanium), at T = 300cK (room temperature)
Nc = effective density of state in conduction band (cm-3 )
= 1.04 # 1019 cm-3
Nv = effective density of state in valence band
= 6.0 # 1018 cm-3
Eg = bandgap energy
= 0.66 eV
kT = 0.0259 eV
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kT = 0.0259e # 400
300
So, the intrinsic concentration at T = 400 K for Ge is obtained as
3
0.66e
n i2 = 1.04 # 1019 # 6.0 # 1018 b 400 l exp 300
f 0.0259e # 400 p
300
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
= 6.24 # 1037 # b 400 l # 5.009 # 10-9

300
3
Hence,
SOL 1.2.3
= 7.409 # 1029
ni = 8.608 # 1014 cm-3

Eg
n i2 = Nc Nv e- kT
For GaAs (Gallium arsenide), at T = 300cK
Nc = effective density of state in conduction band
i. n
= 4.7 # 1017 cm-3

Nv = effective density of state in valence band ^cm-3h
= 7.0 # 1018 ^cm-3h
Eg = bandgap energy = 1.42 eV
kT = 0.0259 eV
kT = 0.0259e # 600
300
So, the intrinsic concentration at T = 600 K for GaAs is obtained as
3
1.42e
n i2 = 4.7 # 1017 # 7.0 # 1018 # b 600 l e- 0.0259e # 600
300
300
o
.c
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
Hence,
SOL 1.2.4
= 2.632 # 1037 # 1.24 # 10-12

= 3.2636 # 1025
ni = 5.72 # 1012 cm-3
Correct answer is 381.

E
kT
For silicon, we obtain
3/2
Nc = 2.8 # 1019 # b T l
300
3/2
Nv = 1.04 # 1019 # b T l
300
kT = 0.0259e # T
300
Given the intrinsic concentration for silicon,
...(1)
ni = 1 # 1012 cm-3
Substituting the values in equation (1), we get
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2
T 3 exp 1.12e
^1012h = 2.8 # 1019 # 1.04 # 1019 # b 300
l
f 0.0259e # T p
300
3
1.12 # 300
or
= 2.912 # b T l # 1014
exp b 0.0259
l
T
300
#
Now, we solve the above equation using hit and trial method. Checking for
the given options, we get
Page 63
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
T = 381 K
SOL 1.2.5

Eg
n i2 = Nc Nv e- kT
At constant temperature,
Nc Nv = constant
Therefore, we have
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
Nc Nv exp b- 1.0e l
0.0259e
n i2 Âh
=
2
.2e
n i ^B h
Nc Nv exp b- 0.10259
el
1 - 1.2
0.0259 0.0259 lE
= exp b 0.2 l
0.0259
= exp ;-b
= 2257.48
or
SOL 1.2.6
ni Âh
= 47.5
ni ^B h

Given the hole concentration at T = 300 K as
n 0 = 1015
At T = 300 K , for silicon, we have
kT = 0.0259 eV
and
Nv = 1.04 # 1019
Since, the hole concentration is defined as
p 0 = Nv e-Ê
So,
- Ev h/kT
p0
19
= 0.0259e ln c 1.04 #1510 m

10
= 0.24 eV
Ec - EF = Eg - ÊF - Ev h
= 1.12 - 0.24
= 0.88 eV
Hence, the concentration of electron is
Êc - EF h
n 0 = Nc exp ;E
kT
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= 2.8 # 1019 exp b- 0.88e l

0.0259e
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
= 4.9 # 10 4 cm-3
SOL 1.2.7

Given the acceptor and donor concentrations,
Na = 1013 , Nd = 0
At thermal equilibrium the magnitude of the positive charge density must
equal that of the negative concentration, i.e.
...(1)
Nd + p 0 = Na + n 0
where
Nd = Donor concentration
Na = acceptor concentration
n 0 = electron concentration
p 0 = hole concentration
Substituting Nd = 0 , equation (1) becomes
...(2)
p 0 = n 0 + Na
2
n0 = n i
p0
Again, substituting it in equation (2), we obtain
2
p 0 = n i + NA
p0
i. n
o
.c
2
0
a
i
d
2
i
or
p - Na p 0 - n = 0
Solving the quadratic equation, we get
o
n
.
w
w
w
SOL 1.2.8
p 0 = Na !
=
1013 +
N a2 + 4n i2
2
2
2
^1013h + 4 ^2.4 # 1013h
2
= 2.95 # 1013 cm-3

Nd = 2 # 1015 and Na = 0
At T = 300 K , intrinsic concentration for silicon is
ni = 1.5 # 1010
Since, we have
Nd >> ni
Therefore, the electron concentration will be same as donor concentration,
i.e.
n 0 = Nd = 2 # 1015 cm-3
Hence, using mass action law, we obtain
2
p0 = n i
n0
2
^1.5 # 1010h
=
= 1.125 # 105 cm-3
15
2 # 10
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SOL 1.2.9

For silicon, we have the energy bandgap
Page 65
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Eg = 1.12 eV
At T = 400 K , we obtain
kT = 0.0259e # b T l = 0.0259e # 400
300
300
= 0.0345 eV
So, the intrinsic concentration at T = 400 K is given as
E
kT
3
= ^2.8 # 1019h^1.04 # 1019hb 400 l exp :- 1.12e D
300
0.0345e
or
ni = 2.38 # 1012 cm-3
Now, for thermal equilibrium, we have
or
or
Na + n 0 = Nd + p 0
Na + n 0 = p 0
2
Na + n i = p 0
p0
(given Nd = 0 )
n2
c mass action law, n 0 = pi m
0
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
or
p 02 - Na p 0 - n i2 = 0
Hence, we obtain the hole concentration as
p 0 = Na +
=
1014 +
N a2 + 4n i2
2
2
2
^1014h + 4 ^2.38 # 1012h
2
= 1.0 # 1014 cm-3

Again, using mass action law, we obtain the electron concentration as
2
n0 = n i
p0
2
^2.38 # 1012h
1014
= 5.66 # 1010 cm-3
SOL 1.2.10

At T = 300 K , for GaAs, we have
kT = 0.0259 eV ;
Nc = 4.7 # 1017 ;
Nv = 7 # 1018
So, we obtain these parameters for GaAs at T = 200 K as
kT = 0.0259 eV b 200 l = 0.01727 eV
300
3/2
Nc = 4.7 # 1017 # b 200 l
300
3/2
Nv = 7 # 1018 # b 200 l
300
Therefore, the intrinsic concentration at T = 200 K is obtained as
Eg
n i2 = Nc Nv e- kT
= 4.7 # 1017 # 7 # 1018 b 200 l e- 0.01727
300
3
1.42
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Page 66
Chap 1
or
ni = 1.38 cm-3
Now, from mass action law, we have
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
or
n 0 p 0 = n i2
5p 02 = n i2
p 0 = ni
5
or
(given, n 0 = 5p 0 )
or
p 0 = 0.617 cm-3
Hence, the electron concentration is given as
n 0 = 5p 0
= 3.09 cm-3
SOL 1.2.11

ni = 1.5 # 1010
Since, boron is acceptor atom and phosphorous is donor atom, so we have
the doping concentrations as
i. n
Na = 3 # 1016 cm-3
and
Nd = 2 # 1015 cm-3
So,
Na > Nd
Therefore, the material is p-type. Hence, the concentration of majority
carrier (hole concentration) is given as
(Na - Nd >> ni )
p 0 = Na - Nd
o
.c
a
i
d
o
n
= 3 # 1016 - 2 # 1015
= 2.8 # 1016 cm-3
So, by using mass action law, we obtain the concentration of minority carriers
(electron concentration) as
2
n0 = n i
p0
.
w
w
w
SOL 1.2.12
2
^1.5 # 1010h
2.8 # 1016
= 8.04 # 103 cm-3
ni = 1.5 # 1015
Given the electron concentration,
n 0 = 4.5 # 10 4 cm-3
It is very low compared to intrinsic concentration. So, majority (hole)
concentration will be high with respect to intrinsic concentration, i.e.
p 0 >> ni
Hence, by using mass action law, we obtain
2
p0 = n i
p0
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2
^1.5 # 1010h
=
4.5 # 10 4
= 5 # 1015 cm-3
Therefore, we obtain the concentration of acceptor atoms in the semiconductor
as
p 0 = Na - Nd
or
5 # 1015 = Na - 5 # 1015
or
Na = 1016 cm-3
SOL 1.2.13
Page 67
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium

Given the donor concentration,
Nd = 3 # 1015 cm-3
For maximum temperature, we have
ni = 0.05n 0
So, the electron concentration is given as
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
n 0 = Nd +
=
or
or
or
or
So,
...(1)
Nd +
N d2 + 4n i2
2
N + 4 ^0.05n 0h
2
2
d
^2n 0 - Nd h2
4n 02 + N d2 - 4n 0 Nd
3.99n 02 - 4n 0 Nd
n 0 ^3.99n 0 - 4Nd h
= N d2 + 0.0025n 02
= N d2 + 4 # 0.0025n 02
=0
=0
n 0 = 4 Nd
3.99
= 3.0075 # 1015 cm-3

ni = 0.05n 0 = 1.504 # 1014 cm-3

Since, the intrinsic concentration is defined as
E
kT
2
T 3 exp 1.42
or
^1.504 # 1014h = 4.7 # 1017 # 7 # 1018 # b 300
l
f 0.0259 # T p
300
Checking the above equation for given options, we get
T - 762 K
SOL 1.2.14

At T = 300 K , for silicon, we have
and
Given that
Nc = 2.8 # 1019
kT = 0.0259 eV
Ec - EF = 0.215 eV
So, the electron concentration is given as
Êc - EF h
n 0 = Nc exp ;E
kT
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= 2.8 # 1019 exp ;-b 0.215 eV lE
0.0259 eV
Page 68
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
= 6.95 # 1015 cm-3

Hence, we obtain the donor concentration as
or
n 0 = Nd - Na
Nd = n 0 + Na
= 6.95 # 1015 + 5 # 1015
= 1.2 # 1016 cm-3
SOL 1.2.15

ni = 1.5 # 1015
and
Nv = 1.04 # 1019
Given the acceptor concentration,
Na = 7 # 1015 cm-3
So,
Na >> ni
Therefore, the hole concentration is
i. n
o
.c
p 0 , Na
p 0 = 7 # 1015
Since, the hole concentration is also given as
ÊF - Ev h
p 0 = Nv exp ;E
kT
So, we obtain
p0
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
SOL 1.2.16
19
= 0.0259 eV # ln c 1.04 # 10
7 # 1015 m
= 0.0259 ln ^1.49 # 103h
= 0.189 eV

In the previous problem, we obtained the difference between Fermi energy
level and valence band energy as
EF - Ev = 0.189 eV
Now, Fermi level is moved a distance kT closer to the valence-band edge, so
the difference between Fermi energy and valence band energy becomes
EF - Ev = 0.189 eV - kT
= 0.189e - 0.0259e
= 0.1633 eV
ÊF - Ev h
p 0 = Na = Nc exp ;E
kT
or
Na = 1.04 # 1019 exp b- 0.1633e l
0.0259e
= 1.90 # 1016 cm-3
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Hence, concentration of acceptor impurities that must be added to get the

desired value, is
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
TNa = 1.90 # 1016 - 7 # 1015

= 1.2 # 1016 cm-3
SOL 1.2.17
Page 69
Chap 1
Correct answer is - 0.2877 .

ni = 1.5 # 1010 cm-3
Since, boron is an acceptor atom, so we have
Na = 1015 cm-3
or
Na >> ni
Therefore, the hole concentration is
p 0 = Na
Hence, we obtain
p0
ni l
= kT ln b Na l
ni
EFi - EF = kT ln b
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
= 0.0259 ln c
or
SOL 1.2.18
EF - EFi
1015
1.5 # 1010 m
= 0.2877 eV
=- 0.2877 eV

The intrinsic concentration is defined as
EGo
n i2 = Ao T 3 e- KT
EGo
or
ni = Ao T 3/2 e- 2KT
So, the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is
s i = e ^m n + m p h ni
EGo
= e ^m n + m p h Ao T 3/2 e- 2KT
Taking logarithm of both sides, we have
E
log s i = log $e ^m n + m p h Ao . + 3 log T - G
2
2KT
Again, differentiating above expression with respect to T , we get
ds i = 0 + 3 dT + EG dT
si
2T
2KT 2
ds
b s il
E
i
or
= 3 + G 2
2
T
dT
2KT
At T = 300cK , we have
o
...(1)
KT = 0.0259 eV
and forbidden energy or bandgap energy of germanium at 0 K is
EG = 0.785 eV
So, by substituting these values in equation (1), we get
o
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ds
b s il
3
0.785 eV
i
=
+
= 0.0556/cK
dT
2 # 300cK 2 # 0.0259 eV # 300cK
Page 70
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
ds
b s il
i
or
100% = 5.56% per degree (Kelvin)
dT #
i.e, conductivity of intrinsic germanium increase by 5.56% per degree
(Kelvin) rise in temperature.
SOL 1.2.19

The concentration of donor atom per cm3 is given by
1
22
3
ND =
# ^5 # 10 h atoms/cm
2 # 108
= 2.5 # 1014 atoms/cm3
Since, the Fermi level coincides with the edge of the conduction band, so we
have
NC
EF - EC = 0 = KT ln b N l
D
i. n
or
NC = ND
or
NC = 2.5 # 1014 cm-3 = 2.5 # 1020 m-3
Given that the effective mass is equal to true mass, i.e.
o
.c
a
i
d
*
n
m =m
So, we get
or
NC = 4.82 # 1021 T 3/2

NC
T 3/2 =
4.82 # 1021
o
n
.
w
w
2/3
20
T = d 2.5 # 10 21 n = 0.14 K
4.82 # 10
This is the temperature at which the Fermi level coincides with the edge of
the conduction band.
Hence,
w
SOL 1.2.20
The Fermi function, f Ê h specifies the probability of electrons occupying
states at a given energy Ê h. The probability that a state is empty (not
filled) at a given energy E is equal to 1 - f Ê h. The Fermi function, f Ê h
is expressed as
1
f Ê h =
Ê - EF h
1 + exp ;
KT E
or
f ÊC h =
1
ÊC - EF h
1 + exp ;
KT E
or 1 - f ÊV h = 1 -
1
ÊV - EF h
1 + exp ;
KT E
exp 8ÊV - EF h /KT B

1 + exp 8ÊV - EF h /KT B
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=
1
1 + exp 8ÊF - EV h /KT B
...(1)
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
Given that the Fermi level is positioned at midgap, i.e.

EF = EC + EV
2
So, by substituting it in equation (1), we get
1
1 - f ÊV h =
EF - ^2EF - EC h
1 + exp ;
E
kT
or
or
Page 71
Chap 1
1 - f ÊV h =
1
1 + exp 6ÊC - EF h /KT @
f ÊC h = 1 - f ÊV h
f ÊC h
=1
1 - f ÊV h
Hence, we have
probability that a state is filled at the conduction band edge (EC )
=1
probability that a state is empty at the valence band edge (EV )
or
SOL 1.2.21
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w

The desired probability is given by the Fermi function,
1
F Ê h =
Ê - EF h
1 + exp ;
KT E
At, E = EC + KT , we have
1
f ÊC + KT h =
1 + exp 8ÊC + KT - EF h /KT B
...(1)
Given that EF is positioned at EC , i.e.

EF = EC
Applying it to equation (1), we get
1
1
f ÊC + KT h =
=
= 0.269
+
1
(1)
exp
+
E
KT
E
^
h
C /KT B
1 + exp 8 C
SOL 1.2.22

The electron population at any energy level is given by
n (E ) = gC Ê h f Ê h
Since, the semiconductor is non degenerate, so we have
E - E h/KT
1
f Ê h =
b e- ^
Ê - E h/KT
1+e
F
for all E > EC
Therefore, the electron population at E = EC + 5KT is

n (EC + 5KT ) = gC ÊC + 5KT h f ÊC + 5KT h
Again, the peak in the electron distribution occurs at EC + KT/2 . So, we
have the peak electron population as
KT
n (EC + KT/2) = gC bEC + 2 l f bEC + KT l
2
Hence, the required ratio is
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gC ÊC + 5KT h f ÊC + 5KT h
n (EC + 5KT )
=
KT
n (EC + KT/2)
gC bEC + KT l f bEC + 2 l
2
Page 72
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
5KT e-^
KT e-bE
2
EC + 5KT - EF h/KT
SOL 1.2.23
+ KT - EF l/KT
2
= 10 e-4.5 = 0.0351

Given that the Fermi level is located 0.259 eV above the intrinsic level, i.e.
EF - Ei = 0.259 eV
KT = 0.0259 eV
ÊF - Ei h
p = ni exp ;KT E
= ^1010h exp :- 0.259 eV D
0.0259 eV
i. n
= 4.54 # 105 per cm3
SOL 1.2.24
o
.c

The band gap of silicon at room temperature is
a
i
d
Eg = 1.12 eV
We have to determine the probability of occupancy of a state at the bottom
of the conduction band, i.e.
o
n
.
w
w
E = EC
Since, the Fermi level is approximately at midgap for intrinsic materials, so
we may write
E
EC - E f b g = 1.12 eV = 0.56 eV
2
2
Now, the probability of electron to occupy any energy band Ê h is
1
f Ê h =
Ê - E h/KT
1+e
Therefore, the probability of occupancy of a state at bottom of the conduction
band Ê = EC h is given by
1
f ÊC h =
E
1 + exp 8^ C - EF h /KT B
1
=
1 + exp 60.56 eV/0.026 eV@
1
=
1 + 2.26 # 109
= 4.4 # 10-10
SOL 1.2.25

Intrinsic concentration in semiconductor is given by
ni = NC NV exp 6- Eg /2KT @
Given the bandgap energy,
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EgA = 1 eV
EgB = 2 eV
So, the ratio of intrinsic concentration of semiconductor A to semiconductor
B is obtained as
Page 73
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
NC NV exp 6- EgA /2KT @

NC NV exp 6- EgB /2KT @
= exp 8-ÊgA - EgB h /2KT B
-^1 - 2h eV
= exp ;
2 # 0.026 eV E
= 2.2 # 108
niA =
niB
SOL 1.2.26

By using Planks equation, we have
E = hn
Hence, the frequency of incident photon is
-19
n = E = 1.43 # 1.6 #-10
h
6.62 # 10 34
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
14
= 3.454 # 10 Hz
SOL 1.2.27

Probability of capture of an energy state by an electron at Ex is 50% means
that Ex is actually the Fermi level. The bandgap of Si is 1.1 eV. So, we
sketch the energy band diagram as
From the energy band diagram, we observe that the Fermi level is 0.2 eV
below the bottom of conduction band edge, i.e.
E
EF - Ei = 0.9 eV - g
2
= 0.9 eV - 1.1 eV
2
= 0.9 eV - 0.55 eV = 0.35 eV
Also, the intrinsic concentration of silicon at room temperature is
ni = 1.5 # 1010
Hence, the electron concentration is obtained as
no = ni exp 8ÊF - Ei h /KT B
= 1.5 # 1010 exp : 0.35 eV D
0.0259 eV
= 1.109 # 1016 cm-3
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SOLUTIONS 1.3
Page 74
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
SOL 1.3.1

As we know that,
So,
vd = mE
m/ sec
m = vd =
E
V/m
= m2 /V - s
SOL 1.3.2

Total energy of a revolving electron in an atom is
E =- 13.26 êVh
n
Hence, it can never be positive.
i. n
SOL 1.3.3
SOL 1.3.4
SOL 1.3.5
o
.c
a
i
d

The atomic number of Si is 14.
Hence, electronic distribution of an Si atom is 2, 8, 4.
o
n
.
w
w
SOL 1.3.6

Under normal operating conditions, the three primary types of carrier action
occurring inside semiconductors are drift, diffusion and recombinationgeneration.
Hence, current flow in a semiconductor depends on all the three effect drift,
diffusion and recombination-generation.
SOL 1.3.7

The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased
by adding some impurity in the process of crystallization. The added
impurity is very small. Such semiconductor is called impurity or extrinsic
semiconductor. The process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is known
as doping.
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SOL 1.3.8

When a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current I is placed
in a transverse magnetic field B , then an electric field E is induced in the
direction perpendicular to both I (current) and B (magnetic field).
SOL 1.3.9

Although n -type semiconductor has excess of electrons but it is electrically
neutral. This is due to the fact that electrons are created by the addition
of neutral pentavalent impurity atoms to the semiconductor there is no
addition of either negative chargers or positive charges.
SOL 1.3.10

A p-type semiconductor is formed by the addition of trivalent atoms as
aluminium gallium, indium, etc. This result in an additional holes in the
crystal lattice. The holes move away from the parent atoms and the atoms
acquire negative charges. A negatively charged atom is known as acceptor
atom and its position is fixed in the crystal lattice. The acceptor ion (immobile
ion) can not take part in conduction. Therefore, p-type semiconductor may
be regarded as it consists of acceptor ions, i.e. immobile and holes.
SOL 1.3.11
Page 75
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w

By using Fermi-Dirac distribution function,
1
f Ê h =
1 + eÊ - E h/kT
At Fermi level,
F
E = EF
f Ê h = 1 0 = 1/2
1+e
Hence, Fermi level represents the energy level with probability of its
occupation of 50%.
SOL 1.3.12
SOL 1.3.13
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Page 76
Chap 1
Semiconductors in
Equilibrium
From the figure, we can deduce that an electron in conduction band has
higher energy than electron in the valence band.
SOL 1.3.14

Band gap of intrinsic silicon is
Eg = ^1.21 - 3.6 # 10-4 T h eV

At T = 0 K , the bandgap of Si is Eg = 1.21 eV . At room temperature
T = 300 K , the bandgap of Si is Eg = 1.1 eV .
SOL 1.3.15

In intrinsic Si, the hole mobility is
m n = 500 cm /V - s
= 0.05 m2 /V - sec
SOL 1.3.16
i. n
o
.c
a
i
d

Fermi level in the intrinsic Si or Ge is in the middle of the band gap.
o
n
.
w
w
w
SOL 1.3.17

By using Einstein relation,
D = kT
m
q
For electrons, we may write
Dn = kT
mn
q
SOL 1.3.18
SOL 1.3.19

Acceptor impurity atom in germanium results in new discrete energy level
slightly above the valence band, as shown in figure below.
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SOL 1.3.20

A compensated semiconductor is one that contains both donor and acceptor
impurity atoms in the same region, if Na = Nd , we have a completely
compensated semiconductor that has the characteristics of an intrinsic
material. For ND > NA , then net impurity concentration is
ND - NA
in
.
o
c
.
a
i
d
o
n
.
w
w
w
SOL 1.3.21

If donor concentration ND equals acceptor concentration NA , the resulting
semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor.
SOL 1.3.22
SOL 1.3.23
SOL 1.3.24
SOL 1.3.25

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Eighth Edition

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

NODIA & COMPANY

GATE Electronics & Communication Vol 4, 8e

Copyright By NODIA & COMPANY

NODIA & COMPANY

B 8, Dhanshree Ist, Central Spine, Vidyadhar Nagar, Jaipur 302039

Preface to the Series

Energy Band Model

Energy Dependence of Fermi Function

EQUILIBRIUM CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Extrinsic Carrier Concentration

ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM FOR INSULATOR, SEMICONDUCTOR, AND METAL

POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL

Fermi Energy Level for n -type Semiconductor

Fermi Energy Level for p-type Semiconductor

Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature

Determination of Thermal Equilibrium Electron Concentration as a Function of Impurity

Determination of Thermal Equilibrium Hole Concentration as a Function of Impurity

DEGENERATE AND NON DEGENERATE SEMICONDUCTORS

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND STANDARD CONSTANTS

SEMICONDUCTORS IN NON EQUILIBRIUM

Motion of Carriers in a Crystal

Mobility due to Lattice Scattering

Mobility due to Ionized Impurity Scattering

Mobility Variation Due to Electric field

Diffusion Current Density for Electron

Diffusion Current Density for Hole

TOTAL CURRENT DENSITY

THE EINSTEIN RELATION

OPTICAL PROCESSES IN SEMICONDUCTORS

Applications of Hall effect

BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE

Space Charge Region in pn junction

ZERO APPLIED BIAS

Energy Band Diagram for Zero Biased pn junction 134

Built-in Potential Barrier for Zero Biased pn junction

Electric Field in Space Charge Region 135

Space Charge Width

REVERSE APPLIED BIAS

Energy Band Diagram for Reverse Biased pn Junction

Potential Barrier for Reverse Biased pn Junction

Space Charge Width

FORWARD APPLIED BIAS

Energy Band Diagram for Forward Biased pn Junction

Excess Carrier Concentration

Ideal pn Junction Current

Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship

SMALL-SIGNAL MODEL OF THE

Small-Signal Admittance 140

COMPARISON BETWEEN PN JUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS FOR ZERO BIAS, REVERSE BIAS,

JUNCTION BREAKDOWN 141

SOME SPECIAL PN JUNCTION DIODE

PIN Diode 144

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

BASIC STRUCTURE OF BJT

Typical Doping Concentrations for BJT

Depletion Region 234

Reverse Active Region or Inverse Region

OPERATION OF BJT IN ACTIVE MODE

Transistor Current Relation

MINORITY CARRIER DISTRIBUTION

Minority Carrier Distribution in Forward Active mode