COMPILED BY: T. CURRAN BROUGH Wrenn STRESS OFFICE ‘TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE MODULE 2 AIRFRAME DESIGN ‘CONSIDERATIONS ISSUE 1 MAY 1990 C. DUNHILL B. RIDEHALGH KINGSTON WARTON (6 d - fi. lilyBROUGH KINGSTON WARTON BRITISH AEROSPACE (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD INDEX INTRODUCTION MAINTENANCE GRADING OF PARTS IDENTIFIABLE PARTS ULTIMATE AND PROOF REQUIREMENTS ATRCRAFT LOADS AIR LOADS Plight Envelope Gust Loads Combined Roll and Pitch INERTIA LOADS Combined Loading Constant nW¥ OTHER LOADS Cabin Pressure Crash Loads Bird Strike Landing Gear Loads Power Plant Loads In Plight Refuelling Emergency Arresting Hooks STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE PAGE NUMBER ISSUEBRITISH AEROSPACE BROUGH KINGSTON (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD > WARTON LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Aircraft Loads Table 2. Typical Accelerations Table 3. Hawk Nose Undercarriage Loads Table 4 Hawk Main Undercarriage Loads LIST _OF FIGURES Figure 1 Tornado Wing skin Access Panels Figure 2. The Basic Flight Envelope Figure 3. Gust Envelope Figure 4 Combined Flight-Gust Envelope Figure 5 Normal Accelerations in Roll Manoeuvres Figure 6 Symmetric Flight Balance Figure 7 Combined Aerodynamic and Inertia Loading Figure 8 Typical Cabin Pressure v Altitude Plot Figure 9 In-Flight Refuelling Probe and Drogue Figure 10 Emergency Arresting Hook Figure 11 BAK-13 Arresting Loads 2 MODULE NUMBER, STRESS OFFICE 2 PAGE NUMBER TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE 1 ISSUEBRITISH AEROSPACE (By et (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD __ WARTON INTRODUCTION The Stress Office strives to reduce the afreraft structural weight. So long as this reduction in weight can be effected without unduly sacrificing safety, it is good design; but immediately we overstep the mark good design changes into dangerous design. In nearly all countries Governnents have found it necessary to frame requirements in the form of rules and regulations which prevent designers fron overstepping this mark. These requirements are man made and based on the information available at the time. In view of this they are subject to change as new information becomes available. The requirements generally apply to loading but also apply to grading of parts, maintenance, factors of safety etc. When the type of aircraft is defined, reference is made to the requirements of the customer and the Licensing authority. As detailed in Module 1, these requirements can be either DEF. STANDARDS, MIL-SPECS, or other sources, such as various European requirements. In fact in some cases multi national projects are designed to unique criteria defined by the nations specifying the project. The above requirements all lead to different structural design criteria. As a result, at the Warton site alone flight refuelling probes on Lightning, Jaguar, Tornado IDS, Tornado ADV and EFA are all designed to different criteria. All the criteria Were correct for the particular project at that time. In view of this it is not practical to give concise details in this module and consequently it is only qualitative not quantitative, although examples of values will be given vhen appropriate. This module will not be updated at regular intervals, whereas Mil-Specs. etc. are updated regularly. For these reasons this module should not be used as a Design Manual. Details applicable to a particular project are always given by the relevant Group Leader. Before starting to stress certain aspects should be considered. Has the designer shovn the access that is needed for servicing? How important is the part - is a full scale analysis justified? These aspects are covered below in the paragraphs on Maintenance, Grading and Identifiable Parts. (These later two reflecting the importance of the part). MAINTENANCE DEF-STAN 00-970, Chapter 800 gives General Maintenance Requirements. STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER: Senos se an PAGE NUMBER ISSUEBRITISH AEROSPACE «a, BROUGH KINGSTON (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD hz WARTON 4n aeroplane is always designed to reduce to a minimum the need for servicing or inspection, During the early stages of an aeroplane special attention has to be given to ensure (amongst other things) that © inspection, maintenance and repair of parts can easily be accomplished. © removal and replacement of damaged items is easy. These vould appear to the Design Office responsibilities - which they undoubtedly are. Hovever, an aircraft requires a lot of access. A typical example is Figure 1, which shows the access panels on the Tornado upper wing skin. clearly the provision of such panels adds considerable mass and the mass prediction section in particular needs to ensure that any access being provided is really necessary. Further, the customer carries-out rigorous inspections of aircraft at the proto-type stage and if the above requirenents are not met insists on the provision of further access panels and the use of removable fittings rather than integral designs. These the Design Office can provide at the "stroke of a pencil". Such changes cause enormous problems to the Stress Office, hovever, since they invalidate static and fatigue testing and possibly give unacceptable mass increases. For these reasons the Stress Office alvays undertakes the consideration of maintenance as a prime activity at all stages of the aircraft's life. GRADING OF PARTS It is a requirement to classify or grade parts according to their importance. This is necessary in order that the material and processes used in the manufacture of a part are of suitable quality and that the quality control and testing is appropriate to the design requirements and the application of the part. Since material suppliers work to British Standards the tendency is for BAe to classify or grade parts to AvP 970 or DEP-STAN 00-970 rather that MIL-SPECS. AvP 970 classified components whereas DEF-STAN 00-970 grades them. AvP 970 has been superseded by DEF-STAN 00-970 but still applies to the older projects. Group leaders vill clarify. AvP 970 classified parts as follows: Class 1 - A Class 1 part is defined as a stressed part whose failure in flight, landing or take-off might be the direct cause ° 2 MODULE NUMBER STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING 4 PAGE NUMBER COURSE 4 ISSUEBROUGH KINGSTON WARTON BRITISH AEROSPACE (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD i) Structural collapse, ii) Loss of control, iii) Failure of motive power, iv) Unintentional operation of or inability to operate any services or equipment essential to the safety or operational function of the aeroplane, or v) Injury if any occupant. Class 2 - A Class 2 part is defined as a stressed part not covered by the terns of Class 1. Class 3 - A Class 3 part is defined as an unstressed or only lightly stressed part. DEF-STAN 00-970 has almost the same definition for Grade A as AvP 970 had for Class 1 but with the important addition of vi) Unacceptable unserviceability or maintainability. DEF-STAN 00-970 has replaced AvP 970 Class 2 and 3 by one definition, namely Grade B- "A part may be Grade B at the designers discretion if none of the above provisions apply". There is hovever, a more fundamental change than these changes in definitions. That is that DEF-STAN 00-970 stipulates that there shall be no permanent deformation under proof loads and no collapse under ultimate loads for Grade A components only. AvP 970 infers that these conditions must be satisfied for both Class 1 and Class 2 components. The companion DEF-STN 05-123 endorses this reduced requirement by stating that Reserve Factors can be less than 1. TRACEABILITY OF IDENTIFIABLE PARTS When a part fails in service or a fault occurs in design, manufacture, or servicing, which affects airworthiness or operational effectiveness it is essential to make a judgement as to what action should be taken on other similar material which may be suspect. There are important safety, operational and economic benefits if the possibility of occurrence can be confined to identifiable material batches, components, equipment, or aircraft. To achieve this, traceability will be required for selected parts. STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER TECHNICAL TRAINING ae ISSUEBROUGH BRITISH AEROSPACE saueetok (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD > WARTON A list of Identifiable Parts must be prepared for inclusion in Design Records. DEF-STAN 05-123 Chapter 244 states:- "The list shall include those parts most likely, in the case of a fault, to affect airworthiness or operational effectiveness. Thus all Grade A parts shall be included and other parts involving materials and processes for which satisfactory in-service experience has not been achieved." It should be noted that AvP 25, now superseded by DEF-STAN 05-123, but still applicable to older projects, quotes different requirements. ULTIMATE STRENGTH AND PROOF REQUIREMENTS Factors of safety are necessary in order to cover for variations in physical properties of materials, variations in inspection and fabrication standards, approximations used in aerodynamics and stress theory, pilot error and excessive unaccounted for turbulent conditions etc. The design limit load is the greatest that is expected to occur during the specified life in any particular design case. The design proof load is the product of the design limit load and the proof factor. The design ultimate load is the product of the design limit load and the ultimate factor. DEF-STAN 00-970 Chapter 200 states:— "In general the ultimate factor shall be 1.5 and the proof factor shall be at least 1.125. Other factors are applied to special loading conditions such as dynamics, crash or pressure cases". Until the design proof load is reached, no Grade A itens shall sustain deformation detrimental to safety, and noving parts essential to safety shall function satisfactorily. After removal of the design proof load no effects of loading shall remain that night reasonably cause the aeroplane to be deened unserviceable. Until the design ultimate load is exceeded, no Grade A item shall collapse, and the stress, load or strain at each detail shall not exceed the static allovable value." Other specifications such as MIL-SPECS and AvP 970 have similar but different requirements. 2 MODULE NUMBER STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING 6 PAGE NUMBER COURSE 1 ISSUEBROUGH KINGSTON WARTON BRITISH AEROSPACE (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD AIRCRAFT LOADS The major load categories experienced by an aircraft are shown in Table 1. One of these will dominate for each structural menber of the aircraft. Only the more significant ones will be considered in this module, i.e. this module deals with the loads that are necessary to Design and Stress appreciable parts of the structure. It also deals with the loads generated by outside equipment suppliers that have a significant impact on the aircraft design. AIRLOADS/FLIGHT ENVELOPE The greatest loads on an aircraft are usually generated during high g manoeuvres. Load factor n expresses the manoeuvre of an aircraft as a multiple of g. the maximum load factor is defined in the aircraft specification and for combat aircraft approaches the capacity of the pilot to vithstand the load. The basic flight envelope from Defence Standards 00-970 Chapter 202 is shown in Figure 2. It should be noticed that the Mil-Spec flight envelope Reference MIL 8861B would be similar but not identical. It should also be noted that the value of VD as well as nl vill be given in the aircraft specification. At lower speeds the highest load factor an aircraft may experience is limited by the maximum lift available. This is called the stall boundary and is generated in the following manner. The curves OA and OA, correspond to the stalled condition of the aircraft and are obtained from the relationship. = nW = &/ V's CL MAK = total aircraft aerodynamic lift aircraft lift co-efficient = wing area equivalent airspeed (B.A.S) density at sea level NeoBer There are in fact an infinite number of flight conditions within the boundary of the flight envelope although structurally, those represented by the boundary are the most severe. In general the corner points are the most critical, other critical points being evaluated by Aerodynamics and Stress Office working in unison. STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE PAGE NUMBER ISSUEBRITISH AEROSPACE BROUGH i (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD h_— WARTON Gust_Loads The loads experienced when an aircraft encounters a gust can in some cases exceed the manoeuvre loads and hence fall outside the flight envelope. When an aircraft experiences a gust, the effect is an increase (or decrease) in angle of attack. This increase in angle of attack effects the lift on the aircraft and hence the load factor n. DEF STAN 00-970 Chapter 204 specifies gust velocities for specified aircraft speeds betveen sea level and 20,000ft which must be catered for. Gust velocities decreasing above 20,000ft are also specified. Figure 3 depicts the gust load factors for varying speeds of vertical and lateral gusts. It is assumed that the aircraft is in a 1g level flight when the gust is experienced. The load factors betveen VG, VH and VD are assumed to follow straight Lines as shown. The gust load factors can be plotted onto the basic flight envelope as depicted in Figure 4, From this the critical limit factors can be clearly seen. It should be noted hovever, that since combat aircraft are designed to high g levels, the gust loads usually fall vithin the basic flight envelope and are therefore not critical for static loading. This method for estimation of gust loads is not as complete or accurate as the methods used at most large aircraft companies. However, the methods presented are useful for initial analysis and provide an introduction of the more detailed techniques. Combined Roll and Pitch Manoeuvres Maximum symmetric normal acceleration requirements combined vith anti-symmetric roll requirements are indicated for Defence Standards in Figure 5, for full deflection and half deflection of the roll motivator. the pilot must fly the aircraft vithin this reduced flight envelope when combining rolling and pitching. INERTIA LOADS Inertia loads reflect the resistance of mass to acceleration. The various accelerations due to manoeuvre and gust, described above, establish the stresses for the aerodynamic surfaces. Every object in the aircraft experiences a force equal to the object weight times the local acceleration level. This creates additional stresses throughout the aircraft. this local acceleration, such as vertical g and pitching effect can be as much as a 50% increase on vertical g alone. This effect is indicated in Table 2, for a particular aircraft. 2 MODULE NUMBER STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING 8 PAGE NUMBER COURSE 1 ISSUEBROUGH KINGSTON WARTON BRITISH AEROSPACE (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD Combined Loading The aerodynamic and inertia forces are combined to give aircraft balance. Figure 6 shows a very simple representation of a balance for vertical g neglecting rotational inertia. Note this simple balance ignores intake and fuselage lift which can be significant. The wing and other aerodynamic surfaces are designed by aerodynamic loads with inertia relief. The fuselage is designed by inertia loads vith aerodynamic loads giving some relief. The basis of the combination is shown in Figure 7. From cases derived from these loadings overall fuselage and wing shear and bending moments can be calculated vhich are used for the design of these items. Constant nW The maximum specified value of nl for military aircraft corresponds to the combat veight which relates to a particular fuel and weapon state. It is a normal design aim to maintain a constant nV requirement, hence at weights greater than combat weight nl reduces and visa versa. However, the nW load relationship is not directly linear and Aerodynamics take account of other items such as aircraft incidence and store configuration. OTHER LOADS There are many other loads on an aircraft. Some are applicable to all Bae Military Aircraft, such as cabin pressure, crash and bird strike. Some are applicable to all Bae aircraft but are generally dealt with by the supplier, such as Landing Gear and Power Plant Loads. Others are special loads that occur on only some aircraft, such as In flight Refueling and Emergency Arresting Hooks. These seven examples are detailed belov. Cabin Pressure The British requirements are given in DEF-STAN 00-970 Chapter 716. The main points of which are:~ The type of cabin pressurisation system required will be stated in the aeroplane specification as one of two basic types as follows: STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER: euneees TRAINING eae NUMBERS EHEECH| ISSUEBRITISH AEROSPACE (B, BROUGH ABA KINGSTON (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD —~ WARTON i) Low differential pressure system - normally applicable to short duration aeroplanes with the crew in fixed positions and using oxygen routinely. ii) High differential pressure system - normally applicable to long duration multi-seat aeroplanes where the crew do not use oxygen routinely and are free to move around. Since BAe Military Division deal primarily with the lov pressure system, this will be the one considered in this module. Cabin pressures are defined by crew comfort and the ability to undertake missions. Figure 8 shows pressure v altitude. The DEF-STAN 00-970 rules are as follows: - i) No pressurisation takes place below an altitude of 1500n. ii) A minimum cabin pressure of 42 KPa corresponding to a cabin altitude of 6700m must be maintained at the aeroplane ceiling. iii) The maximum differential pressure must be reached at a minimum cabin pressure of 54 Kpa corresponding to a cabin pressure of 5000m. Thus ensuring a comfortable cabin environment in the normal aircraft vorking area. Between these values the variations are as shown in Figure . Note that all these variations are linear when comparing cabin pressure with atmospheric pressure. iv) The minimum differential pressure to be 28 Kpa. Note - typical value of differential pressure is 36 Kpa. The pressure cabin and local structure vill have proof and ultimate factors of not less that 1.125 and 1.5 respectively. These factors will apply to the maximum cabin pressure combined with any relevant inertia and flight loads. Both static and fatigue tests vill be carried out on representative pressure cabins. Other specifications ‘have different requirements. In particular it should be noted that such as AvP 970 vhich is applicable to BAe’s older projects quotes higher factors. Crash Loads The British requirements are given in DEF-STAN 00-970 Chapter 307 of vhich the following are the main points. MODULE NUMBER STRESS OFFICE 10 TECHNICAL TRAINING PAGE NUMBER COURSE ISSUEBRITISH AEROSPACE pout (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD hh WARTON = The main objectives of Design for Crash Landing for Bae Combat Aircraft are: i) To preserve the lives of, and minimise injury to, the occupants during impact. ii) To enhance survivability after impact. ii) To minimise damage to the aircraft and its equipment. iv) To ensure ejection capability at all times. Th structure shall be designed to provide a protective shell for seated occupants. Deformation shall be limited, as far as is reasonably practical, to provide maxinum survivability and possibility of post-crash exit. The possibility of local penetration of the structure, by external parts of the aeroplane which might cause injury to the occupants, must be considered. Proposals to use composite materials in this structure must be discussed with the Aeroplane Project Director. Static strength requirements apply to the seats, restraint harnesses and attachments and local supporting structure. They also apply to all items of aircraft equipment and their attachments which can, if they broke loose during a crash landing or ditching, cause injury or other hazard. All items listed above have an ultimate static strength factor of not less than 1.0 under the inertia loads arising from any single mean acceleration or combination of mean accelerations within a half ellipsoid defined by the values given below. INERTIA DIRECTION FACTORS (g) Longitudinal 25 Fvd. Longitudinal 10 Aft Lateral 10 Vertical dovn 25 Vertical Up 10 STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER 2 TECHNICAL TRAINING a COURSE PAGE NUMBER ISSUEBRITISH AEROSPACE yy BROUGH KINGSTON (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD > WARTON Demonstration of compliance with Def-Standard requirements is by analysis supported by such tests as are practical. Other crash load requirements such as Mil-Specs are similar but not identical. Birdstrike An airframe must be shown to be resistant to damage from birdstrike in relation to its theatre of operation. Birdstrikes are a hazard to aircraft. the consequences of induced engine failure are well known, but hits on the airframe can also inflict damage which makes control difficult or impossible, windscreens may fail and canopies shatter, bird remains can penetrate into cockpits, liquidised birds splatter visors and control runs become trapped. Vital areas require adequate protection. The ateas of risk being windscreen, canopy, front fuselage structure including radomes, engine air intakes, leading edges of flying surfaces etc. Studies have shovn that incidents involving both military and civil aircraft over the U.K. shoved that 1.0kg covers 98% of birds of knovn weight. This corresponds to the average weight of a Herring Gull. Birds encountered in other parts of the world may be much heavier. However, the bulk of RAF flying will continue to be in North West Europe. DEP STAN 00-970 Chapter 209 states the maximum threat to be a single strike by a bird of lkg mass at a speed of up to 480 knots (T-A.S.), and up to an altitude of 762 meters (2500£t). The RAF predominantly train over densely populated North West Europe and 480 knots represents the highest speed that is environmentally acceptable. Also since nearly all strikes are at low level a height band of 2500ft was chosen. It must be appreciated that these requirements may differ for aircraft designed for vorld-vide operation. Radars’ and canopies are often designed by other requirements. As a consequence of this, birdstrike is sometimes not met and a compromise is agreed, increasing the probability of failure. Modes and extent of testing required to demonstrate compliance vith these requirements is established by agreement between the aircraft Project Directors and the Contractor. MODULE NUMBER STRESS OFFICE 2 page eeu TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE ISSUEBROUGH KINGSTON WARTON BRITISH AEROSPACE (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD Landing Gear Loads The specified nature of Landing Gear design has meant that an extensive library of structural and performance analysis Programmes has had to be developed by the landing gear manufacturers. In general all landing gear analysis is carried out by the manufacturer. The Stress Office however, must understand the loading in order to liaise and assess the effect of such loading on the aircraft structure. The landing gears main purpose is to reduce the landing load to a level that can be withstood by the aircraft. That is, to absorb the energy of landing in the specified landing conditions. To analyse all the possible gear loads a number of load cases must be examined. these include level landing, a tail dovn landing, one wheel landing, crabbed and spin up and spring back cases. Because an aircraft does not land symmetrically, significant side loads result. Dynamic cases can also be significant. When the tyres contact the ground they are not rotating, during the fraction of a second it takes for them to spin up, they exert a large rearvard force by friction with the runway. When the tyre is rotating at the correct speed, the rearvard force is relieved and the gear strut springs back (forward) producing a spring back deflection load equal to or greater than the spin up load. Other landing gear loads such as taxiing and turning are of lesser importance but must be considered during detail design of the landing gear and supporting structure. For certification the landing gear will be subjected to drop tests. The gear will be dropped from a predetermined height onto inclined planes in order to simulate side and drag loads. Static, Dynamic and Fatigue Tests will also be carried out on the landing gear. The specifications may state a requirement for the aircraft to operate from rough or soft ground or operation from damaged or repaired runvays. If so dynamic and fatigue assessment vill need to be considered. The DEF-STAN 00-970 primary stressing cases are defined in Table 1 of chapter 304. For Mil. Spec aircraft MIL-A-008662 ‘airframe Strength and Rigidity, Landing and Ground Handling Loads’ should be consulted. Tables 3 and 4 show typical design loads on a Hawk T Mk 1 for the main and nose undercarriage. Design landing veight is 4720 kg, vertical decent velocity is 3.96 m/s. If the landing weight increases, then the velocity of decent vould need to be reduced. STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER: 2 ange Eat PAGE NUMBER 13 ISSUE 1BRITISH AEROSPACE (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD BROUGH KINGSTON WARTON Pover Plant Loads The engine mounts must be able to withstand the thrust of the engine as well a its drag when stopped or windmilling. The mounts must be able to support the vertical weight of the engine during all accelerations, pitches, rolls etc. The mounts must also withstand the gyroscopic loads caused by the machinery. For a jet engine, air loads within the inlet duct must be considered. A pressure surge known as hammershock is especially severe. If an existing engine is used on a new project it is sometimes necessary to modify the engine or specification. It is not the aim of this module to deal with engine loads in any detail. It is the responsiblity of the Stress Engineer to closely liaise vith the engine manufacturers at the start of a new project, to ensure that the engine mounts are acceptable to all concerned. Because there are several methods of mounting engines it is not realistic to give meaningful examples in this module. In Flight Refuelling Almost all Bae Military Aircraft are now equipped with an in-flight refuelling probe. The probe and drogue system is the only one being adopted by the U.K. services. A typical example is shown in Figure 9. The loads in most common use on current projects are taken from MIL-SPECS. These loads have been subjected to some change during recent years as in-service experience has accumulated. Currently MIL-A-8865B states in part:— "In-Plight Refuelling Loads The following specified loads apply for a probe-and-drogue in-flight refuelling system. Impact The loads shall be those resulting from a closing speed of 10 knots. The effective weight at the tip of the probe-mast shall be 100 pounds. Gust The loads including dynamic loads on the mast probe shall be those resulting from encountering a 30-foot-per-second-EAS gust. The gust shall be considered to act at all positions from 0° to 360° in a direction normal to the flight path. 2 MODULE NUMBER STRESS OFFICE vi [mses wawsen | TECHNICAL TRAINING ISSUEBROUGH KINGSTON WARTON BRITISH AEROSPACE (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD Probe and Drogue Loads The design limit loads for the probe, other than the drogue impact loads are 1000 pounds tension, 1000 pounds radial, and 2000 pounds compression. ‘The tension and radial loads shall act separately, and alternately, shall act in combination.” MIL-SPECS quote proof and ultimate factors of 1.0 and 1.5 respectively. DEF-STAN 00-970, Chapter 704, states that "the probe shall be provided with a weak link so that the nozzle will break avay in the event of excessive loads recurring due to instability of the hose or of failure of the nozzle and coupling to release under normal operating conditions”. Such a veak link has generally been provided on BAe aircraft. In most instances the impact and radial load have been the most important design cases but this cannot be taken for granted since probe geometry is obviously also of importance. The probe and the supporting structure are given airvorthiness clearance by means of a comprehensive static test progranne. Emergency Arresting Hooks A typical Emergency Arresting Hook is shovn in Figure 10. A large amount of data on these are contained in DEF-STAN 00-970, Chapter 730 and MIL-A-83136. The main points are reproduced below. The arresting hook installation is designed and constructed to successfully engage a runvay arresting system and decelerate the aircraft to a stop. the aeroplane specification vill state vhether the system is to be designed for use with a particular arresting gear or a number of arresting gears. In the event that such a designation is not made, it is assumed that the installation is designed for use with a BAK-13 system. Vertical damping or other means shall be provided to prevent the arresting hook skipping over the arresting cable. this energy absorbing device has to prevent hook bounce in excess of 2% inches on a smooth surface. The device shall absorb the energy generated by the hook point contacting normal runvay discontinuities, such as expansion joints and concrete slab mismatch, so that hook bounce is held to a minimum. These anti bounce ‘criteria are generally satisfied by meeting the requirements of MIL-A-83136 which gives an equation for a "hold dovn" moment about the hook attach point. It is specified that this hold down moment has to produce at least 1001b force at the hook contact point. STRESS OFFICE MODULE NUMBER TECHNICAL TRAINING PAGEBER COURSE ISSUE 15BRITISH AEROSPACE «, BROUGH KINGSTON (MILITARY AIRCRAFT) LTD hE WARTON The principal operational failure cases for vhich the arresting gear is expected to be used will be stated in the aeroplane specification. These vill consist of: i) Failure cases of normal severity - those arising from failures under conditions where it can reasonable be expected that the aeroplane mass and speed will be within normal limits. The proof and ultinate factors are 1.125 and 1.5 respectively. ii) Failure cases of exceptional severity - those high speed or high mass cases vhere some structural damage to removable parts of the arresting hook and its suspension system is acceptable. The complete aeroplane structure will have proof and ultimate factors of 1.125 and 1.5 respectively. Hovever, in this case the ultinate factor reduces to 1.0 for the hook beak and associated parts which are designed as replaceable after a specified number of arrests (or vhen bent or worn out). It is assumed that the arresting system is engaged after landing impact has been completed and the aircraft is in a stabilised roll with all wheels on the runway. Approximate maximum hook loads for all masses and speeds can be obtained from Figure 11. These design loads usually result from consideration of the BAK 13 system. When the aeroplane enters the arresting gear it will not necessarily be moving along the runvay centreline. This results in side loads which MIL SPECS states shall equal the maximum load obtained in Figure 12 applied at an angle of 20° from the aircraft centreline in a horizontal plane. The DEF-STAN 00-970 requirement is similar but not identical. The customer will clarify which of the above requirements is applicable. In addition to the above the dynamic stresses in the arm as the hook "bounces" down the runvay have to be considered - this involves the use of computer dynamic analysis. The snatch-load on the shoe during cable pick-up has also to be determined and analysed. The necessity for static strength tests are considered and are usually undertaken. A programme of taxiing tests and flight tests designed to explore as full: as possible all the factors, is agreed with the Aeroplane Proje: : Director. 2 MODULE NUMBER STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING 16 PAGE NUMBER COURSE ISSUEAIRCRAFT LOADS ATRLOADS, ~ Manoeuvre = Gust ~ Control Induced INERTIA LOADS ~ Linear Acceleration ~ Angular Acceleration LANDING Level Landing Spring Back - Taildown Landing ~ Arrested ~ One Vheel ~ Braking - Crabbed ~ Bumps ~ Spin Up - Turning POWER PLANT - Thrust ' Inertia Torque Gyroscopic DYNAMIC. Buffet Vibration Flutter Acoustic STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 OTHER AND SPECIAL ~ Cabin Pressure ~ Crash ~ Birdstrike ~ In Plight Refuelling ~ Arrestor Hook - Towing ~ Jacking ~ Actuation = Gun ~ anti Spin ~ Ground Gusts ~ Intake Tank’ Pressure ~ Fuel Tank Pressure ~ Ete. TABLE 1Typical Accelerations FORWARD IRADAR BAY) CENTRE FUSELAGE (ING. INTAKE) + VAUIES QUOTED IM CASE 7, TO AE ULTTWATE VALUES AND ARE NOT 20 act srwuitaneousLy, STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - HODULE 2 TABLE 2) ' \ 1 1 1 ! 1 TEESE PETE tee : ) HAWK TMk 1 Nove Underenrioge et a Castor Ultimate Ground Loads (kN) cae no Conditions angie en er (S00 "Notation"? EES, 1201 [Landing wnhout Drag ° “7 ° 102 2 [Landing winout Drag ° 407 ° -102 2 [Lenoing win Dregand Sidsioed ° 387 97 « [Lancing win Orapand Siaetoad ° 307 188 07 3 [Lancing win Orag and Sideiond-End Post ° | as ° vos «6 [Lancing win Orag an Sdelosc:End Peak ° “3 ° -108 7 [Landing with High Orag (Spin-Up) 0 200 208 ° ® [Senng.ece ° 700 “208 ° [8 Dynamic Braking o 40 136 | ° 10 Jerseataxvng 10 280 130 os 19 [erates Texving - 280 130 os 12 | Brekaa Texving ° 280 130 os 12 | braked Taxrng ° 760 130 08 14 [erated taxving as 280 130 -s 15 | anes texrng 0 20 130 6s 16 | Roting Bac ° 98 67 ° STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 TABLE 3HAWK T Mk1 Main Undercarriage SEE EEE EE EE EES EE ECE eae ere aa timate Ground Leds iN) Coreno Condnions Arutude ronere Up) Posie Ri appa ot 12 1041 | Landing wahout Drag 1307 ° 2 | Longing without Orog 1767 ° 3. | Lansing without rag 04 ° 4 | Conaing wanent Brag oo0 ° + | Landing with Drag end Sideioad a6 5 | ending with Orag end Sideloed a6 > | Uanaing wth Drag and Sidetond 308 | Lancing with Drag and Sideiond 308 9 | Lending wan High Drag (Spun Up! sae 10 | Landing with High Oreg (Spin Up} “62 11 | Spring ace a0 “saa 17_| Spring Beex se | a0? 792 32 208 208 1073 Seren os ° ate ° “a7 “aan Grom ° 1927 ° m2 22 | Enareans wa? ° 22 3a | EnaPeoke 1300 ° 325 ta_| End reaie (1300 ° 8 75 | One wheel Longing without Drag Tall Down te ti ay 26_|_One Whee! Lending without Drag. To Down a4 ° “m4 77] De Begging "end 20°10 ACG.UF.- 20) State 98 TEemoaaa e J TABLE 4 STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2‘TORNADO WING SKIN ACCESS PANELS STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 FIGURE 1‘THE BASIC FLIGHT ENVELOPE VD = design diving speed (E.A.S) nl = maximum positive normal acceleration co-efficient For Military Aircraft design Ve = 0.8 VD ve = 0.7 vw n2~ 1-03 nl n3 = -0.6 (nl-1) né = 0.75 nl For aircraft designed for supersonic flight VC = VD therefore né = al For aircraft designed for dive bombing or ground attack VC = VE = VD therefore n4 = nl and n2 = n3 SPEED OF FLIGHT, Vor.s.s) NORMAL ACCELERATION 7 NEGATIVE Az | 2 Ye STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 FIGURE 2 STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 FIGURE 2GUST LOAD FACTOR, n GUST ENVELOPE STRESS OPFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE ~ MODULE 2 VG = Speed determined by nission requirenents, by agreement vith the Project Director VH = Maximum Speed in level flight VD = Diving Speed FIGURE 3COMBINED FLIGHT-GUST ENVELOPE High g aircraft Lov g aircraft V Dive STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE ~ MODULE 2 FIGURE 4NORMAL ACCELERATIONS IN ROLL HANOBUVRES STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2SYMMETRIC FLIGHT BALANCE L = Lift acting at aerodynamic centre of wing D = Aireraft drag Mo ~ Aerodynamic pitching moment of aircraft less horizontal tail jorizontal tail load Aircraft weight acting at centre of gravity P v T = Engine Thrust fn = Manoeuvre load factor f = Similar factor giving the horizontal inertia force: STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 Por Equilibrium L+eP4TSINY-nv=0 TCS Y+fw-D#o La - Db - Te ~ Mo - PZ = 0 FIGURE 6(COMBINED AERODYNAMIC AND INERTIA LOADING WING LOADING High Positive g Lifting Airload Weight of wing Fuselage Veight FUSELAGE LOADING Since most of the aircraft veight is lifted by the ving, fuselage load comprises mostly of inertia. L wing High Positive g aw STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 FIGURE 7.10 7 ‘TYPICAL CABIN PRESSURE V ALTITUDE PLOT Presaure (KPa) Aeroplane altitude (1000) STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 FIGURE 8IN FLIGHT REPURLLING PROBE AND DROGUE AAFLIGHT REFUBLLING PROBE AND DROGUE After contact STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 FIGURE 9EMERGENCY ARRESTING HOOK STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE - MODULE 2 FIGURE 10BAK - 13 ARRESTING SYSTEM Aircraft Weight (pounds) 0 + 7 | [ 90,000 + EAT] 80,000 70,000 100 rt Ty 4 60,000 S |_| 50, 8 { L 4 40,000 x Lt 14 30,000 g % 44 Lot] a i- ce F-4 _20,000 3 a Tre Ee Be ¥ 60 I x 3 tet 2 40 ct = it 20 ° 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 Aircraft Ground Speed at Cable Engagement (Knots) STRESS OFFICE TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSE ~ MODULE 2 FIGURE 11