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Chapter Outline
Three Great Milestones in Genetics
DNA as the Genetic Material
Genetics and Evolution
Levels of Genetic Analysis
Genetics in the World: Applications of
Genetics to Human Endeavors
What is a Gene?
Genes are made of nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are made of building
blocks called nucleotides
Nucleotides have three components
Sugar molecule (ribose or
deoxyribose)
Phosphate molecule
Nitrogen-containing molecule
(adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine, uracil)
A Milestone in Genetics:
X174, the First DNA Genome
Sequenced
X174 is a virus that
has single-stranded
DNA as its genetic
material.
Frederick Sanger
sequenced the
genome of X174 in
1977
Key Points
Gregor Mendel postulated the existence of
particular factorsnow called genesto
explain how traits are inherited.
Alleles, the alternate forms of genes, account
for heritable differences among individuals.
James Watson and Francis Crick elucidated
the structure of DNA, a macromolecule
composed of two complementary chains of
nucleotides.
Key Points
DNA is the hereditary material of all life forms
except some types of viruses, in which RNA is
the hereditary material.
The Human Genome Project determined the
sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of the
human genome.
Sequencing the DNA of a genome provides
the data to identify and catalogue all the
genes of an organism.
DNA Replication
DNA Replication
Based on the complementary nature of the two
strands of duplex DNA molecules.
When the two parental strands are separated, the
separated strands can serve as template for the
synthesis of new strands.
New strands are assembled by incorporating
nucleotides according to base-pairing rules.
At the end of replication, each template strand is
paired with a newly synthesized partner strand.
DNA replication is catalyzed by enzymes.
Gene Expression:
Using Genetic Information
Gene Expression
During transcription, an RNA molecule is
synthesized from a DNA template.
This messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules
contains the information needed to synthesize
a polypeptide.
During translation, the triplet codons in the
RNA specify the incorporation of particular
amino acids into a polypeptide chain.
The Proteome
Proteomethe collection of all the
different proteins in an organism.
Humans have between 20,000 and
25,000 genes in the genome and
hundreds of thousands of proteins in the
proteome.
Proteomicsthe study of all the
proteins in cells.
Mutation:
Changing Genetic Information
Key Points
When DNA replicates, each strand of a duplex
molecule serves as the template for the
synthesis of a complementary strand.
When genetic information is expressed, one
strand of a genes DNA duplex is used as a
template for the synthesis of a complementary
strand of DNA.
For most genes, RNA synthesis (transcription)
generates a molecule (the RNA transcript) that
becomes a messenger RNA (mRNA).
Key Points
Coded information in an mRNA is
translated into a sequence of amino
acids in a polypeptide.
Mutations can alter the DNA sequence
of a gene.
The genetic variability created by
mutation is the basis for biological
evolution.
A phylogenetic tree
A phylogenetic
tree, or phylogeny,
represents the
historical
relationships among
organisms.
Key Points
Evolution depends on the occurrence,
transmission, and spread of mutant
genes in groups of organisms.
DNA sequence data provide a way of
studying the historical process of
evolution.
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TO UNDERSTAND GENETIC
ENGINEERING
CONCEPT #1: What is DNA?
DNA is the recipe for life. DNA is a molecule found
in the nucleus of every cell and is made up of 4
subunits represented by the letters A, T, G, and C.
The order of these subunits in the DNA strand
holds a code of information for the cell. Just like the
English alphabet makes up words using 26 letters,
the genetic language uses 4 letters to spell out the
instructions for how to make the proteins an
organism will need to grow and live.
TO UNDERSTAND GENETIC
ENGINEERING
CONCEPT #2: Why are proteins important?
Proteins do the work in cells. They can be part
of structures (such as cell walls, organelles,
etc). They can regulate reactions that take
place in the cell. Or they can serve as
enzymes, which speed-up reactions.
Everything you see in an organism is either
made of proteins or the result of a protein
action.
TO UNDERSTAND GENETIC
ENGINEERING
How is genetic engineering done?
Genetic engineering, also called
transformation, works by physically
removing a gene from one organism and
inserting it into another, giving it the ability
to express the trait encoded by that gene. It
is like taking a single recipe out of a
cookbook and placing it into another
cookbook.
Genetics in Agriculture:
Selective Breeding
Genetics in Agriculture:
Genetically Modified Organisms
Genetically
Modified
Organisms (GMOs)
are have been
altered by the
introduction of
foreign genes.
Genetics in Medicine
Inborn Errors of
Metabolism are metabolic
abnormalities caused to
mutant alleles.
Genetic Counselors
advise people about
inheritance of genetic
diseases.
Molecular genetics
Genetics in Society
Economic impactbiotechnology
industry, pharmaceutical industry.
Legal impactpaternity testing,
forensics, identification
Philosophical impact
Key Points
Discoveries in genetics are changing
procedures and practices in agriculture
and medicine.
Advances in genetics are raising
ethical, legal, political, social, and
philosophical questions.