Term biotechnology is composed of two words

Bio-means life and Technologia means

systematic treatment.
It is the science of applied biological processes.
Biotechnology is the branch of biology which
deals with the techniques of using live
organisms, enzymes on biological processes to
produce products and provide services for
human welfare.
Biotechnological processes are nearly 5000
years old.
It began with the discovery of fermentation and
the consequent production of alcoholic
beverages.
Making curds or breads which involves
microorganisms can be considered as the oldest
form of biotechnology.
Biotechnology has helped the bio-industries in
producing alcohols, organic acids, enzymes,
single cell proteins, hormones, vitamins and
antibiotics etc.
It includes branches like molecular biology,
genetic engineering, tissue culture and
plant pathology.
The European Federation of Biotechnology
(EFB) in 1978 defined biotechnology as, “The
integration of natural science and
organisms,cells, parts thereof and molecular
analogues for
products and services."
3.1 Recombinant DNA Technology :
The manipulation of genetic make up of living
cells by inserting desired genes through a DNA
vector is thgene cloning, or rDNA technology.
For the First time Stanley Cohen and Herbert
Boyer in 1973, isolated the antibiotic resistant
gene from plasmid which was responsible for
conferring antibiotic resistance.
They successfully link a antibiotic resistant gene
with plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium with
the vector plasmid and then cloning in E.coli
bacteria.
A recombinant DNA molecule is produced by
joining together two or more DNA fragments
usually originating from different organisms.
Recombinant DNA is a hybrid DNA. It is called
rDNA or chimericDNA (DNA).
Recombinant DNAs are constructed for the
following reasons.
1) To make the foreign DNA replicate along with
the vector DNA.
II) To have genetic markers helping us for the
selection of recombinants.
III) To enhance the expression of the desired
foreign gene in the recipient cells.
Tools used for rDNA technology
1) Enzymes : following enzymes are used in
recombinant DNA technology,
i) Exonucleases :- These enzymes act upon
genome. It cut the single strand of DNA. It
digest the base pairs on 5' to 3' end or single
stranded nick of a DNA Strand.
ii) Endonuclease - It occurs naturally in some
bacterial cells. It cuts both the strands of DNA at
any point except the ends.
iii) DNA Ligases - DNA ligase was firstly
discovered by Dr. Khorana. DNA ligase can join
together two individual fragments of double
stranded DNA.
iv) DNA Polymerases - Enzymes that synthesizes
a new strand of DNA complementary to an
existing DNA or RNA template.
v) Reverse transcriptase- It was discovered by
Temin and Baltimore. Reverse transcriptase is
very useful in the synthesis of cDNA.
2) Cloning Vectors-
Vectors are known as the vehicle DNAs.
Based on the nature and sources the vectors
are grouped into bacterial plasmids,
bacteriophages, cosmids and phasmids.
Properties of Good vector :
a) It should be able to replicate autonomously
i.e. should have an origin of DNA replication
(ORI).
b) It should be easy to isolate and purify.
c) It should be easily introduced into the host
cells.
d) The vectors should have suitable marker
genes that allow easy detection or selection of
the transformed host cells.
e) The cells transformed with the vector
molecules containing the DNA insert.
f) Vectors need to have restriction
endonuclease recognition sites.
Methods for transfer of chimeric vectors into
the host cells -
I) Transformation : Insertion of a vector into the
target cell is called transformation
The uptake of DNA fragments in the medium by
bacterial cells.
II) Transfection : It is a laboratory technique
used for direct transfer of a gene into the host
cells.
The uptake of DNA fragments in the medium by
eukaryotic cells (Plant and animal cells
III) Transduction : The transfer of a foreign DNA
into the host cell by phage infection is called
transduction.
This method involves in the transfer of
bacteriophage vector DNA in to the host
bacterial cell.
Examples of Some cloning vectors : TABLE IS
MISSING

Steps in recombinant DNA Technolo

1) Isolation of the desired genomic DNA of a
donor cell or organism.
2) Cleaving or fragmenting the vector DNA by
using restriction enzymes.
3) Screening the fragments for a desired gene.
4) Selection of the suitable cloning vector.
5) Insertion of desired gene into vector DNA so
as to develop rDNA or chimeric DNA.
6) Introducing the recombinant vector into a
competent host cells, such as E. coli.
7) Transformed bacterial cells can be cultured
to multiply (amplify) the desired fragments of
DNA.
Process : The desired DNA is obtained from the
source.
Making the fragments of donor DNA by enzyme
restriction endonuclease.
A Suitable vector is required for r-DNA
technology.
Plasmids are more common vectors in genetic
engineering
Vector is cleaved with a restriction enzyme that
has a single unique target site located in the
sequence where the DNA insert is to be
integrated.
The insertion of isolated gene into the cleaved
vector DNA and rejoining of their sticky ends
which carry complementary base sequences
This rejoining of DNA segments is called DNA
ligation or gene splicing. It requires enzyme
DNA Ligase.
The recombinant DNA is then inserted into the
suitable host bacterium which is then said to be
transformed
E. Coli. is mostly preferred as host.
r- DNA in host cell goes on multiplying with
multiplication of host cell therefore clones of
rDNA carrying bacteria are produced within
shorter duration.
Cloning can be done in vitro via the PCR or in
vivo by using unicellular prokaryotes (E. Coli.)
or eukaryotes (Yeast) or mammalian tissue
culture cells.
• Examples of the threrapeutic products
made by rDNA technology
Product
Examples
1) Blood Proteins - Erythropotein, factor VII,
VIII, IX, Tissue plasminogen activator,
Urokinase
2) Human Hormones - Epidermal growth
factor, Follicle stimulating hormones, Insulin,
nerve growth factor, relaxin, somatotropin.
3) Immune Modulators - a - Interferon, B-
interferon, colony stimulating factor,
lysozyme, Tumor necrosis factor.
4) Vaccines - Cytomegalovirus, Hepatitis B,
Measles. Rabies etc.

3.2 Trasposons, Plasmids and Bacteriophages

:
Trasposons :
The DNA sequences that move from one place
to another within a genome are called
transposable elements
It is known as jumping gene or selfish gene.
The first transposons were discovered in
maize by Barbara McClintock in 1948.
Transposons can not replicate independently.
When plasmid carrying a transposon is
introduced into a bacterial cell containing a
plasmid that lacks the transposon, in the
progeny cells, both plasmid will contain
transposons.
The more common form of transposon in
humanbeing is called “Alu" sequence.
It is about 300 bases long.
> Types of transposons :
1) Retrotranposons
They copy in two stages first from DNA to
RNA by transcription, and then from RNA to
DNA by reverse transcription.
The DNA copy is then inserted in the new
position (Copy and paste).
2) DNA Transposons
The enzyme transposase makes a staggered
cut at the target site producing sticky ends,
cut out the transposon and ligates in new
position (Cut and Paste).
They do not involve RNA intermediate.
Significance of transposons
1) It help to transfer DNA segment from one
organism to another.
2) It help to restructure a genome.
3) It helps in the construction of the rDNA.
4) It helps in cloning of genes.
Plasmids :
Plasmids are the extrachromosomal, self
replicating, double stranded, closed and
circular DNA molecules found in many
prokaryotes and some eukaryotes.
The term plasmid was first introduced by
Joshua Lederberg in 1952.
A Chang and N. Cohen (1973) first proved the
use of plasmids as gene cloning vectors.
A number of host properties are specified by
plasmids such as antibiotic resistance, toxin
production, colicin factors etc.
The number of copies of plasmid and a cell is
referred as copy number.
Plasmid size varies from 1 to 1000 Kbp.
Plasmids have the following characteristics
Plasmids replicate independently.
They are usually nonessential for growth of
the cell.
They can acquire chromosomal genes by
several mechanisms.
They possesses a single restriction site for
one or more restriction enzymes.
Plasmids have high transformation efficiency.
They have the ability to clone reasonably
large pieces of DNA.
They are of low molecular weight.
Cosmid :
Cosmid is a hybrid DNA formed by the joining
of plasmid and lambda phage DNA carrying a
cos site.
The cosmid is not naturally found in living
cells.
It is a constructed vector.
In brief, cosmid is a plasmid carrying the cos
site of A Phage DNA.
COL E I Cosmid is a typical cosmid used in
genetic engineering.
Cosmid is a circular double stranded DNA.
For the first time cosmid was developed by
Collins and Hahn (1978) pBR 322 is a
plasmid discovered by Bolivar and Rodriguez,
who designated it as 322,
pUC19 plasmid was discovered in university
of California.
Bacteriophages :
Bacteriophages are viruses infecting bacteria.
The genetic material of bacteriophage can be
ss RNA, ds RNA, ss DNA or ds DNA.
Phages introduces their DNA in to the
bacterial cell and start producing copies of
their own DNA. Their property of transfering
DNA into the bacterial cell is used for using
Bacteriophages as vectors.
The cloning of single gene is usually carried
by using plasmid.
Large DNA molecules can be injected in to the
host bacterial cells by phages.
Following are the common phage vectors.
i. Lambda phage ii. Bacteriophage M 13
vectors.
iii. Ca MV vectors.
Lambda Phage vectors :
A phage is a bacterial virus that infects the
Ecoli.
The phage DNA is packed inside the head
(capsid).
k Phage was first isolated by Lederberg in
1951.
The DNA of A phage is 48.5 Kb in length.
It is with cos sites of 12 bp at the ends. The
lifecycle of h phage is Lysogenic, in which the
host bacterium is not broken.
The Phage DNA replicates along With the
bacterial chromosome.
Inside the host cell, the linear lambda DNA
becomes Circular due to The complementary
base pairing between the cohesive ends.
The curcular DNA then integrates into
chromosomal DNA of E. coli by homologous
recombination.
The phage DNA is expressed in the host
bacterium. In this condition the phage DNA is
called Prophage or Provirus
Replication of Bacteriophages
Replication of bacteriophages occurs inside
the bacterial cell
Following steps are involved in replication of
bacteriophages.
i. Attachment: Phages attach to the
specific receptors on the surface of bacteria.
ii. Penetration: After the attachment the
tail contracts Injecting the genetic material
through the bacterial membrane. The protein
coat left outside is called ghost.
 iii. Synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids:
Due to the phage infection the normal
synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids in
bacterium is disrupted, and it forced to
manufacture viral DNA and proteins.
Large number of virions are formed in side
the bacterial cell.
iv. Virion assembly : Base plates are
assembled with the tails first.
The DNA is packed efficiently within the
protein head. This process requires about 15
minutes,
v. Release of Virions : Enzyme endolysin
breakdown the cell wall and virions are
released from the bacterium.

Do You Know?
Bacteriophage M13
It is an example of filamentous phage and it is
completely different in structure from A
phage. M 13 DNA Molecule is much smaller
than the A genome.
It is 72 Nucleotides in length.
It is circular and single stranded DNA
M 13 Phage can infect E. coli cells

3.3 Restriction fragments :

Genetic engineering involves cutting of DNA
strands in a specific sites into fragments and
joining the desired fragments.
The cutting of DNA Strands at specific sites
into fragments is called restriction.
The restriction is brought about by a set of
enzymes called restriction enzymes.
Steward Linn and Werner Arbet isolated two
enzymes which restricted the growth of
bacteriophage in E. coli.
These enzymes naturally occurs in bacteria
like E. coli and Bacillus etc.
Restriction enzymes belongs to larger class of
enzymes called nucleases.
The nucleases are of two types.
1. Exonucleases - They cut the DNA at the
ends by removing nucleotides.
2. Endonucleases - They make cuts at specific
points in the DNA throughout its length.
The sequence recognised by the restriction
enzyme to cut the DNA is called restriction
site or recognition site.
The recognition site consist of 4-8
nucleotides.
Types of Restriction endonucleases
The restriction endonucleases are of three
types.
1. Type I restriction endonucleases.
2. Type II restriction endonucleases.
3. Type III restriction endonucleases.
The type I and III restriction enzymes
recognises specific sequences in the duplex
DNA but cut the DNA far away from the
recognition sites. So they are not useful for
genetic engineering / rDNA technology.
The type II restriction endonucleases
recognises specific sites and cut the DNA at
the recognised sites. Therefore are used in
rDNA technology.
Example. Eco R l. Hind Ill etc.
At present about 350 type II restriction
endonucleases are isolated from various
bacterial strains bacterial strains.
Nomenclature of restriction endonuclease
The first letter comes from the genus and
second letter comes from the first two letter
of the species of organism from which they
are isolated.
If there are more than one restriction enzyme
in a strain, they are designated in Roman
numeral.
Example
1. Eco R l is isolated from Escherichia coli
strain Ry 13. The final number I indicates that
it is the first enzyme isolated from the strain.
2. Hind Ill enzyme is isolated from
Haemophilus influenzae strain Rd.
3. Bam H I is isolated from Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens.

Recognition sequences :The sequences

recognised by the restriction enzyme to cut
the DNA is called recognition site or
recognition sequence.
A sequence of nucleotides on DNA that reads
the same from right to left in one strand and
left to right on the other strand is called
Palindrome.
The Palindromic sequence consist of 4-8
Nucleotides.

Fig. 3.4 Palindtomic sequence -Diagram

Missing
In palindromic sequences, the nucleotides of
one strand goes in one direction and in the
other strand it goes in the opposite direction.
Most restriction sites are palindromes.
An axis which cuts the palindromic sequence
into two identical halves is called axis of
symmetry.
Cleavage Pattern or plane of cutting
After recognition of specific sequence, the
restriction enzyme makes two cuts, one in
each stand. This produce 3‘-0H end and 5'-P
end (Phosphoryl end).
The cuts produce two types of DNA
fragments, namely fragments with blunt ends
and fragments with cohesive or sticky ends.
The end of duplex DNA that has no single
stranded extension is called blunt end.
Sticky ends are complementary single
strands of DNA that produce from opposite
ends of a DNA duplex.
The sticky ends of DNA fragments produced
by a restriction enzyme are complementary
to each other.
When ligase is added to a mixture of DNA
fragments, the comptementary sticky ends
rejoin.

DIAGRAM MISSING
Separation and isolation of DNA fragments :
The cutting of DNA by restriction
endonucleases results in the formation of
fragments of DNA.
Fragments of DNA can be separated by gel
electrophoresis.
The restriction fragments of DNA are placed
at the one end of agarose gel column. An
electric current is passed through the gel.
DNA fragments are negatively charged
moelcules they can be separated by forcing
them to move towards the anode through a
agarose gel.
Agarose is a natural polymer extracted from
sea weeds.
The smaller length fragments travel longer
distance and move further, towards the other
end of the column.
The longer length fragments travel
comparatively shorter distance through the
gel. This results in the separation of
restriction fragments.
The separated DNA fragments can be
visualised only after staining the DNA with a
compound known as ethidium bromide and
then exposed to UV light.
Bright orange coloured bands of DNA are
formed in ethidium bromide stained gel.
The DNA fragments are then used in
construction of rDNA through vectors.
FLOWCHART MIssing
3.4 Preparing and cloning a DNA library :
A clone means an exact duplicate gene,
cloning refers to production of multiple
copies of a desired genes.
Gene library is the exhaustive collection of
cloned genes of an individual.
There are two types of gene / DNA libraries
i.e. Genomic library and cDNA library.
1. Genomic library :
A collection of recombinant molecules which
contain all of the DNA sequences of an
individual genome is called genomic library.
Genomic libraries of many organism such as
bacteria, yeast, drosophila and man are
constructed for research work.
Construction of genomic library :
Isolation of total DNA or entire genome of an
organism.
DNA is broken into fragments of appropriate
size by using suitable restriction
endonucleases.
Insertion of fragments into a suitable vector
(usually phage)V ).
Introduction of recombinant DNA into the
host cell to get a large number of
independant clones.
Selection of desired clones.
The genomic library is produced by shotgun
cloning method.
Importance of genomic library :
1. Genomic library is store house of genes of
an organism.
2. It provide genes for gene manipulation
whenever required.
3. It is the source of information about genes
of organisms.
Do You Know ?
The number of fragments of DNA required for
construction of genomic library depends
upon the organismg involved.
Example : E. Coli1500, Yeast = 4600,
Drosophila = 48000, Main 800,000,
Cloning all DNA fragments of an organism
into bacteria at a time by a single gene
cloning experiment is called shotgun cloning.
It is used to construct genomic libraries of
different organisms.

2. cDNA Library :
CDNA is a complementary DNA produced
from mRNA by the process of reverse
transcription. The process is also called
Teminism.
Enzyme reverse transcriptase is required for
E synthesis of DNA from mRNA.
CDNA library is mainly constructed for
eukaryotic organisms.
The library constructed by using CDNA is
called cDNA library.
The mRNA carrying only the transcribed
coding sequences is translated into protein.
mRNA of different cells, tissues and organs at
different phases in the life cycle of an
organism are isolated and by using reverse
transcriptase it is converted into CDNA.
CDNA can be inserted into suitable vectors
like phage or plasmid and then cloned in a
proper host such as E. coli.
Importance of cDNA library :
1. Single stranded cDNA with radioactive
labelling is very useful in genetic engineering.
2. Eukaryotic cDNA can express itself in
bacterial cell.
3. Production of human proteins such as
interferon, insulin, blood clotting factor VIII
can be produced due to cDNA.

3.5 Gene amplilication (PCR) :

The amplification of DNA by repeated cycles
of strand separation and polymerization is
called Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
PCR was, invented by Katy Mullis (1983). He
was awarded the Nobel Prize (1993) for this
work.
PCR is a technique of gene amplification.
Making more copies of DNA from a single
copy of DNA is called gene amplification.
PCR is a in vitro technique of gene
amplification.
It is an extremely powerful recent technique
used for gene cloning.
Requirements for PCR :
l. A short segment of DNA which is to be
amplified.
2. Two types of oligonucleotide primers
which can work in both reverse and forward
directions.
3. Four types of deoxyribonucleotides. i.e.
dATP,’ dCTP, dGTP, d'ITP. They are collectively
called dNTPs
4. Thermostable enzyme Taq polymerase.
5. Reagents include Tris-HCL buffers,
magnesium chloride and potassium chloride.
The Tris-HCL buffer maintains the pH
between 6. 8 and 7. 8 during the thermal
cycles.
Steps involved in PCR technique :
Following three steps are involved in PCR
technique
1. Heat denaturation.
2. Annealing.
3. Polymerisation.
1.Heat denaturation :
The process of denaturation involves heating
the target DNA at high temperature i.e. at
about 91°C. DNA having more G=C pairs need
relatively high temperature.
Due to the breakage of weak hydrogen bonds
two strands of DNA are separated.
Each separated strand acts as the template
for DNA Synthesis.
2.Annealing :
It is pairing of primers to the ssDNA segment.
The primers have to be designed as per the
requirement. This step requires temprature
at about 55° C.
3.Polymerisation
At 72° C temperature the thermosmble DNA
polymerase. i.e. Taq DNA polymerase helps in
extension of the primer. (Taq polymerase is
obtained from a bacterium Thermus
aquaticus.)
The DNA polymerase adds activated free
nucleotides ((d NTPs) one at a time to one
end of the each primer and synthesizes a long
strand of complementary DNA.
The end of first cycle produces 2 copies of the
target DNA, it takes about 3-5 min.
After 28 to 30 cycles millions copies are
produced.
Applications of PCR :
1. PCR is used to propagate DNA for
constructing DNA libraries and for gene
manipulation.
2. It is used to amplify DNA fragments
isolated from organisms.
3. PCR is employed for the amplification of
DNA to detect the criminals in forensic
sciences (DNA fingerprinting.)
4. PCR technique is used for the diagnosis of
hereditary diseases.
5. PCR technique is helpful in DNA based
phylogeny or functional analysis of genes.
6. PCR is helpful in detection and diagnosis of
infectious diseases.

3.6 Applications of biotechnology in

agriculture - Bt crops :
Biotechnology has caused a revolution in
agriculture.
The application of biotechnology has
potential to improve agricultural production
to meet the demands of the growing
population.
To increase food production there are three
options.
1. Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
2. Use of biofertilizers and biopesticides.
3. Use of genetically engineered crop plants.
Genetically modified plants or transgenic
plants
The plants in which a functional desirable/
foreign gene that generally is not present has
been incorporated by any biotechnological
method are called transgenic plants or
genetically modified plant (GMP) and the
functional foreign gene is called transgene.
A number of transgenic plants carrying genes
for traits of economic importance like disease
resistance, herbicide resistance, pest and
insect resistance, for improving nutritional
quality, for male sterility, for restoration of
fertility, for longer life, for flower colour are
produced.
Transgenic plants with improved storage
proteins, enriching the carbohydrate content,
enhancing the photosynthetic efficiency,
more nitrogen fixing ability are produced.
In future we need the transgenic plants for
molecular farming. i.e. for the production of
novel biomedical drugs such as growth
hormones, vaccines, antibodies, interferon
etc.
Agrochemicals cause soil pollution and are
expensive for the farmets therefore insect
resistant Bt crops are produced.
Existing varieties of crop will not help in
increasing the yield. Instead genetically
modified crop plants will be more useful.
Transgenic crop plants are also called
genetically modified plants or genetically
engineered crops.
Some of the transgenic plants have been
released for commercial cultivation e.g. flavr
savr (tomato), Roundup ready (soyabean).
Corn (maximizer), Bt cotton (Boll guard) are
the insect resistant varieties.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) :
Bacillus thuringiensis is aerobic soil borne
bacterium.
It is spore forming bacterium and produces
several exo and endotoxins.
The cry gene of B thunngiensis produce
proteins that kill certain insects such as
lepldopterans (tobacco budworm)
coleopierans (beetles) and dipterans (flies)
The crystal protein has natural insecticidal
effects.
Cry proteins on ingestion by the insects. are
transformed into soluble, active form by the
alkaline pH of . gut.
The activated toxin binds to the surface of
midgut epithelial cells and create pores that
cause cell swelling and lysis which results in
death of insects. ‘
The Bt toxin genes (Bi genes) were isolated
from Bacillus thuringiensis and incorporated
into the crop plants.
Bt cotton is resistant to Bollworm.
Bt cotton is the first genetically modified crop
of the country.
The Bt genes are also incorporated into com.
rice. soyabean. potato. brinjal etc.
B thunngiensis has been used since the world
war I particulariy in Europe to control some
pests and insects.
Additional information :
Bi cotton has been developed by MAHYCO in
collaboration with American company.
The Cry l proteins are insecticidal to
lepidopteran insects.
The Cry IIA proteins are insecticidal to
Lepidoptera and diptera.
Cry IIB Protein is specific to Diptera.
Cry Ill proteins are active against coleoptera
species
Cry IV proteins are active against Diptera.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens :
It is soil borne bacterium causing crown gall
disease in dicot plants.
It is gram negative bacterium and rod shaped.
It infects the crown and stem of several
dicotyledonous and gymnospermic plants
through fresh wounds The tumerous growth
in the crown of plants is called crown galls
and the disease is called crown gall disease.
The tumour induction by Agrobacterium is
correlated with a large tumour inducing
plasmid (Ti plasmid) in the bacterium.
A portion of Ti plasmid is transferred to
chromosomal DNA of the infected cell, and is
called T DNA.
Ti plasmid naturally transfers their T DNA
segment in to host plant genome hence
Agrobacterium is known as natural genetic
engineer.
The T DNA of a plasmid gets integrated into
chromosomal DNA of the infected cell.
Tumour producing gene becomes the marker
gene. Therefore A. tumifaciens is most widely
used for gene transfer.
Cry gene from Bacillus thuringiensis, Nif gene
from Rhizobium and other foreign genes are
cloned inside the A. tumifaciens and
transferred to other plants.

Flaw savr tomato :

Flavr savr a transgenic tomatoes have been
developed in USA.
A DNA for antisense RNA of
polygalacturonase RNA was chemically
synthesized and introduced into tomato
through Ti plasmid.
The transgenic tomatoes do not produce
polygalacturonase responsible for fruit
softening So the fruits can show delayed
ripening and softening.
The plants can retain the fruit for one more
day after ripening.
The fruits have higher level of sugars and
acids that add flavour to the tomatoes, such
transgenic tomatoes are called Flavr savr
(flavr sour).

Golden rice :
It is also called Miracle rice.
It is a genetically modified crop (GMC).
Plant canying genes to produce betacarotene.
The seeds are rich in starch, iron and vitamin-
A and this it is more nutritious and valuable
from health point of view.
Prof. lngo Potrykus and Peter Beyer produced
the golden rice.
It is golden coloured transgenic rice.
It is developed by introducing three genes
associated with biosynthesis of beta carotene.
Thus by adding the nutrients to food supply
the intensity of malnutrition effects would be
reduced.

3,7 Bio-Safety issues :

The commercialization of genetically
modified corps has sparked off intensive
debates world wide regarding the biosafety,
ethical issues and the impact of this powerful
technology on agriculture, human health and
environment.
The ethical issues related to organisms
obtained by biotechnology are given below.
1. Genetic modification of organisms can have
unpredictable results when such organisms
are introduced to ecosystem.
2. The modification of living organisms of
public services has also created problems
with patents granted for the same
3. Plant products like enzymes produced by
transgenic gene may cause allergy.
Therefore Genetic Engineering Approval
committee (GEAC) make decisions about the
validity of GM research and the safety of
introducing GM organisms for public
services.

Biopatent :
A government protection to an inventor of a
biological material, securing to him for a
manufacturing, exploiting, using and selling
an invention is called biopatent.
The biopatents are awarded for GM strains of
microorganisms, plants, animals, cell lines,
DNA sequences, industrial processes and
biotechnological procedures etc.
The rights to protect this property are called
Intellectual property rights (IPR),
The duration of patent in India is five years
from date of grant of patent or seven years
from date of filling the application, which
ever is less.
Intellectual property right include patents
copy right, trade marks and trade secrets.
Genetically engineered Pseudomonas (Super
bug) is the first biopatent.

Examples of Biopatents
The genetically engineered Pseudomonas
called‘ ‘super bug” used for cleaning up oil
spills was first to be patented under US
patent (first biopatent).
A Texas base company got patent rights on
Basmati rice through the US patent and Trade
mark office.
Patent granted by US patent office for
medicinal use of turmeric powder as an
antiseptic, wound healing agent.
BioPatent for use of neem seed oil as a
fungicide.
Bio-Piracy (Biocolonialism) :
The illegal exploitation or the use of the
bioresource already awarded biopatent and
also biopatenting of bio-resource of other
nation without proper permission of the
concerned nation is called bio piracy.
Reasons of biopiracy:
The nation should be rich in biodiversity and
bioresources.
The developing nations have traditional
knowledge of useful bioresources.
Most of the countries do not have financial
power and technological resources to make
use of the available bioresources.

Biopiracy of Neem :
Patenting of seed oil from Indian neem by US
Department of Agriculture and W. R. Grace in
1992 was a case of biopiracy.
For generations, Indians had use Neem oil as
a medicine and pest controlling agent.
In 2000 after a long legal battle, the European
Patent office revoked the patent of USDA.

Biopiracy of Basmati rice :

Basmati is actually communal property of
rice growers in the northern sub Himalayas
in India.
A Texas based company patented a strain of
Basmati rice crossed with semi dwarf variety.
Actually the new variety of rice “Texmati” is
derived from Indian Basmati rice. There fore
it is a case of biopiracy.

Biopiracy of turmeric (Haldi) :

In 1995, University of Missisippi Medical
Centre in USA had taken patent on turmeric
powder as a wound healing agent.
In 1997, this patent was revoked due to
objections of CSlR because for a longtime,
turmeric powder is used as a wound healing
agent in India and it was not a discovery of
US government.
Biopiracy of PGRs :
The companies present Northern countries
are dealing directly with agencies where
Plant genetic resources are located rather
than dealing with countries of origin of those
PGRs.
This is also a case of biopiracy through gene
banks and botanical gardens.