Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2008

CHAPTER 7:
ELECTRICITY
7.1

Electric Fields and Charge Flow

7.1.1 Charge

There are two types of charges:

Positive charge
Negative charge
Like charges repel whereas opposite charges attract.

7.1.2 Static electricity

Stationary electric charges are known as static electricity

Electrostatics is the study of static electricity

7.1.3 Electric fields

An electric field is the region in which an electric charge experiences a force

Positive charge

Negative charge

Two opposite charges

Two like charges

Two non-uniform fields

Two uniform fields

Chapter 7: Electricity

Page 1 of 8

Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2008

7.1.4 Activity to observe the pattern of electric fields

When the power supply is turned on, the talcum powder will map the electrical field
lines
Sesame oil is used because it conducts electricity only at extremely high potential
difference
The density of the field lines represent the intensity of the electric field

7.1.5 Ping pong ball coated with conducting material

A ping pong ball coated with metallic point is placed centrally between two metallic
plates connected to a very high voltage source.
The ball is suspended with nylon string which is an electrical insulator.
When the power supply is turned on, the ball will not move as it is initially neutral.
The charges on both sides neutralize each other.
When the ball is pushed to one of the plates, the ball will oscillate between the plates
until the power supply is turned off.

The frequency of oscillation increases if:

Potential difference of voltage source is increased.
The metallic plates are closer.

Chapter 7: Electricity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2008

7.1.6 Flame of a candle

A candle is placed centrally between two metallic plates connected to a high voltage
power source.
The candle flame splits into two opposite directions and is biased towards the
negative plate.
This is because negative ions are lighter and move more quickly than the positive
ions. Negative ions are attracted towards the positive plate whereas the positive ions
are attracted towards the negative plate.

7.1.7 Lightning formation

During cloud formation, the friction of movement creates a lot of excess charge. This
induced positive charges on the objects below it.
If the forces of attraction are strong enough, the negative charges in the clouds will be
attracted towards the positive charges of the objects, resulting in lightning.

Chapter 7: Electricity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2008

7.1.8 Photocopiers

A lightsensitive
plate (or
drum) is
charged

7.2

An image of the
original document
is projected onto
the plate. The
bright areas lose
their charge.

Powdered ink
(toner) is
attracted to the
charged areas
on the plate

A blank sheet of
paper is pressed
against the plate
and picks up the
powdered ink

The paper is
heated so that
the powdered
ink melts and
sticks to the
paper

Current and Potential Difference

7.2.1 Current
Current: The rate of charge flow
Q = It
where Q = charge [Coulomb]
I = current [Ampere]
t = time [seconds]

7.2.2 Potential difference

Potential difference: Work done to move 1 Coulomb of charge from one point to
another in an electric field.

V=

E
Q

where V = potential difference [Volt]

E = energy released / work done [Joule}
Q = charge [Coulomb]

Charges move from high potential to low potential

Potential difference can be measured with a voltmeter connected in parallel across
two points within an electric circuit

Chapter 7: Electricity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2008

7.2.3 Ohms Law

Ohms Law: Potential difference across an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to
the current if the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant
V/V

V I

V
= Constant = Resistance
I
V = IR

I/A

where V = potential difference [V]

I = current [A]
R = resistance []
Non-ohmic conductors:
Non-ohmic conductors are conductors which do not obey Ohms
Law.
E.g., a light bulb whose resistance increases over time due to
temperature increase (heating effect of current)

Note: In this whole chapter, all conductors and light bulbs are assumed to follow Ohms
Law. There are no non-ohmic problems at this level.

7.2.4 Factors that affect resistance

Factor
Length of conductor
Cross-section area of conductor
Temperature
Material

Influence
Length Resistance
Cross-section Resistance
Temperature Resistance
Depends on material

7.2.5 Superconductors

Superconductors are conductors with zero resistance

Superconductors conduct electricity with no loss of energy
The conductors are cooled down to critical temperatures
Special properties:
Allows the flow of electric current with minimal loss of
energy
Negates any applied external magnetic fields
Superconductors are used in transportation, electronic
components, energy storage, power cables, etc.

Chapter 7: Electricity

Magnet

Superconductor

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Hoo Sze Yen

7.3

Physics SPM 2008

Series and Parallel Circuits

Series

Parallel

Circuit

I1

R1

I
I1

R1

I2

V1

R2
I2

V1

R2

V2
V2

Resistance

R = R1 + R2

Potential difference
Current

V = V1 + V2
I = I1 = I2

7.4

1
1
1
=
+
R R1 R2
V = V1 = V2
I = I1 + I2

Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance

7.4.1 Electromotive force and Potential difference

Electromotive force is the work done by a source in driving a unit charge around a
complete circuit

Electromotive force
Usually used for voltage sources
E.g. dry cells, batteries

Potential difference
Usually used for electric loads
E.g. light bulbs, resistors, heating elements,
motors
Electrical energy that is supplied by the Electrical energy lost or transformed due to
source
the load on the circuit
E.m.f. = sum of potential difference across the whole circuit

7.4.2 Internal resistance

V
r

Before the switch is turned on

The battery does not supply current to the light bulb
Voltmeter reading = E.m.f. of battery
R
After the switch is turned on
The battery supplies current which flows around the circuit
Voltmeter measures the potential difference across the terminals of the battery
The voltmeter reading drops due to internal resistance of the battery

Chapter 7: Electricity

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Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2008

EMF = IR + Ir
EMF = V + Ir
EMF = I (R + r)
where EMF = electromotive force [V]
I = current flowing through the circuit [A]
R = total resistance of the circuit []
r = internal resistance of the batteries []
V = potential difference of the circuit [V]

Circuit setup

7.5

Graph of V against I

Electric Energy and Power

7.5.1 Electric power

Electric power: rate of transfer of electric energy

P=

E
t

where P = power [Watt]

E = electric energy used / dissipated [Joule]
t = time [seconds]
P = IV
where P = power [Watt]
I = current [Ampere]
V = potential difference [Volt]
From P = IV and V = IR,

Chapter 7: Electricity

P = I2 R
V2
P=
R

Page 7 of 8

Hoo Sze Yen

Physics SPM 2008

Electrical appliances are usually labeled by its voltage and power rating
Voltage required potential difference to operate the appliance
Power rating energy dissipated by the appliance when the correct voltage is
supplied

7.5.2 Power rating of appliances

A light bulb labeled 12 V, 36 W:

When connected to a 12 V voltage source, the light bulb will shine with normal
intensity. Power dissipated is 36 W
When connected to a voltage less than 12 V, the light bulb will shine with less
intensity and power is less than 36 W
When connected to a voltage more than 12 V, the light bulb will shine with
brighter intensity and power is more than 36 W. Life span of the light bulb will be
shortened and the light bulb is burned out

7.5.3 Cost of using electricity

Total cost = Units Cost per unit
where 1 unit = 1 kW-hour = 1 kW 1 hour
Example:
Air conditioner with a power rating of 1 500 W is used for 20 hours. Cost per unit is
RM0.20.
Number of units = 1.5 kW 20 hours = 30 kW-hours
Total cost = 30 RM0.20 = RM6.00

7.5.4 Efficiency
Efficiency =

Chapter 7: Electricity

Output power
100%
Input power

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