Table 1: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Series

+
X

x(t) =

jk0 t

ak e

k=

1
ak =
T
Property

Periodic Convolution

jk0 t

x(t)e

ak ejk(2/T )t

k=

1
dt =
T

x(t)ejk(2/T )t dt

Periodic Signal

x(t)
y(t)
Linearity
Time-Shifting
Frequency-Shifting
Conjugation
Time Reversal
Time Scaling

+
X

Fourier Series Coefficients

Periodic with period T and

fundamental frequency 0 = 2/T

Ax(t) + By(t)
x(t t0 )
ejM 0 t = ejM (2/T )t x(t)
x (t)
x(t)
x(t),
> 0 (periodic with period T /)
Z
x( )y(t )d

ak
bk
Aak + Bbk
ak ejk0t0 = ak ejk(2/T )t0
akM
ak
ak
ak
T ak bk

Multiplication

+
X

x(t)y(t)

al bkl

l=

Differentiation

dx(t)
Z dt
t

Integration

x(t)dt

(finite-valued and
periodic only if a0 = 0)

Conjugate Symmetry
for Real Signals

x(t) real

Real and Even Signals

x(t) real and even

Real and Odd Signals

x(t) real and odd

Even-Odd Decomposition of Real Signals

2
jk0 ak = jk ak
T



1
1
ak =
ak
jk(2/T )
jk0
ak = ak

e{ak } = e{ak }
m{ak } = m{ak }

|ak | = |ak |

<
) ak = <
) ak
ak real and even
ak purely imaginary and odd

xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real]

xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real]
Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals
Z
+
X
1
2
|x(t)| dt =
|ak |2
T T
k=

e{ak }
jm{ak }

Table 2: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Series

X
X
x[n] =
ak ejk0n =
ak ejk(2/N )n
k=<N >

1
N

ak =

Property

Time Scaling

Periodic Convolution

x[n]ejk0 n =

n=<N >

1
N

x[n]ejk(2/N )n

n=<N >

Periodic signal

x[n]
y[n]
Linearity
Time shift
Frequency Shift
Conjugation
Time Reversal

k=<N >

Fourier series coefficients

Periodic with period N and fundamental frequency 0 = 2/N

Ax[n] + By[n]
x[n n0 ]
ejM (2/N )n x[n]
x [n]
x[n]

x[n/m] if n is a multiple of m
x(m) [n] =
0
if n is not a multiple of m
(periodic with period mN )
X
x[r]y[n r]

x[n]y[n]

First Difference

x[n] x[n 1]
n

X
finite-valued and
x[k]

Periodic with
period N

Aak + Bbk
ak ejk(2/N )n0
akM
ak
ak
viewed as
1
ak periodic with
m
period mN

Nak bk

r=hN i

Multiplication

ak
bk

al bkl

l=hN i

Running Sum

k=

periodic only if a0 = 0

Conjugate Symmetry
for Real Signals

x[n] real

Real and Even Signals

x[n] real and even

Real and Odd Signals

x[n] real and odd

Even-Odd Decomposition of Real Signals

(1 ejk(2/N ) )ak


1
ak
(1 ejk(2/N ) )

ak = ak

e{ak } = e{ak }
m{ak } = m{ak }

|a | = |ak |

k
<
) ak = <
) ak
ak real and even
ak purely imaginary and odd

xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real]

xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real]

e{ak }
jm{ak }

Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals

X
1 X
|x[n]|2 =
|ak |2
N
n=hN i

k=hN i

Table 3: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Transform

Z
1
x(t) =
X(j)ejtd
2
Z
X(j) =
x(t)ejt dt

Property

Aperiodic Signal

Fourier transform

x(t)
y(t)

X(j)
Y (j)

Linearity
Time-shifting
Frequency-shifting
Conjugation
Time-Reversal

ax(t) + by(t)
x(t t0 )
ej0 t x(t)
x (t)
x(t)

Time- and Frequency-Scaling

x(at)

Convolution

x(t) y(t)

Multiplication

x(t)y(t)

aX(j) + bY (j)
ejt0 X(j)
X(j( 0 ))
X (j)
X(j)
 
j
1
X
|a|
a
X(j)Y (j)
1
X(j) Y (j)
2

Differentiation in Time

d
x(t)
Zdt
t

Integration

x(t)dt

Differentiation in Frequency

tx(t)

Conjugate Symmetry for Real

x(t) real
Signals
Symmetry for Real and Even
x(t) real and even
Signals
Symmetry for Real and Odd
x(t) real and odd
Signals
Even-Odd Decomposition for xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real]
xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real]
Real Signals

jX(j)
1
X(j) + X(0)()
j
d
j X(j)
d
X(j) = X (j)

e{X(j)} = e{X(j)}
m{X(j)} = m{X(j)}

|X(j)| = |X(j)|

<
) X(j) = <
) X(j)
X(j) real and even

X(j) purely imaginary and odd

e{X(j)}
jm{X(j)}

Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals

Z +
Z +
1
2
|X(j)|2d
|x(t)| dt =
2

Table 4: Basic Continuous-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier transform

Signal
+
X

jk0 t

ak e

k=

+
X

ak ( k0 )

2( 0 )

cos 0 t

[( 0 ) + ( + 0 )]

sin 0 t

[( 0 ) ( + 0 )]
j

x(t) = 1

2()

Periodic
 square wave
1, |t| < T1
x(t) =
0, T1 < |t| T2
and
x(t + T ) = x(t)
+
X
(t nT )

x(t)

1, |t| < T1
0, |t| > T1

sin W t
t
(t)
u(t)
(t t0 )
at

ak

k=

ej0 t

n=


Fourier series coefficients

(if periodic)

u(t), e{a} > 0

teat u(t), e{a} > 0

tn1 at
u(t),
(n1)! e

e{a} > 0

+
X
2 sin k0 T1
( k0 )
k

k=



+
2 X
2k

T
T
k=

2 sin T1


1, || < W
X(j) =
0, || > W
1
1
+ ()
j
ejt0
1
a + j
1
(a + j)2
1
(a + j)n

a1 = 1
ak = 0, otherwise
a1 = a1 = 12
ak = 0, otherwise
1
a1 = a1 = 2j
ak = 0, otherwise
a0 = 1, ak = 0, k 6= 0
!
this is the Fourier series representation for any choice of
T >0
0 T1
sinc

ak =

k0 T1

1
for all k
T

sin k0 T1
k

Table 5: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Transform

Z
1
x[n] =
X(ej )ejn d
2 2
j

X(e ) =

+
X

x[n]ejn

n=

Property

Aperiodic Signal

Fourier transform

Periodic with
X(ej )
j
period 2
Y (e )
aX(ej ) + bY (ej )
ejn0 X(ej )
X(ej(0 ) )
X (ej )
X(ej )

Convolution

x[n]
y[n]
ax[n] + by[n]
x[n n0 ]
ej0 n x[n]
x [n]
x[n]

x[n/k], if n = multiple of k
x(k) [n] =
0,
if n 6= multiple of k
x[n] y[n]

Multiplication

x[n]y[n]

Differencing in Time

x[n] x[n 1]
n
X
x[k]

Linearity
Time-Shifting
Frequency-Shifting
Conjugation
Time Reversal
Time Expansions

Accumulation

k=

X(ejk )
X(eZj )Y (ej )
1
X(ej )Y (ej() )d
2 2
(1 ej )X(ej )
1
X(ej )
1 ej
+
X
j0
( 2k)
+X(e )
k=

Differentiation in Frequency

Conjugate Symmetry
Real Signals

nx[n]

for x[n] real

Symmetry for Real, Even

Signals

x[n] real and even

Symmetry for Real, Odd x[n] real and odd

Signals
Even-odd Decomposition of xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real]
xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real]
Real Signals

dX(ej )
j
d
j
X(e ) = X (ej )

e{X(ej )} = e{X(ej )}
m{X(ej )} = m{X(ej )}

|X(ej )| = |X(ej )|

<
) X(ej ) = <
) X(ej )
X(ej ) real and even
X(ej ) purely
imaginary and odd

Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals

Z
+
X
1
2
|x[n]| =
|X(ej )|2 d
2 2
n=

e{X(ej )}
jm{X(ej )}

Table 6: Basic Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Signal
X

Fourier transform

ak ejk(2/N )n

+
X



2k
ak
N

+
X

( 0 2l)

k=

k=hN i

ej0 n

+
X

0
ak
0
2
0

(b)
(a)

ak

{( 0 2l) + ( + 0 2l)}

l=

+
X
{( 0 2l) ( + 0 2l)}
j

sin 0 n

ak
(a)

l=

cos 0 n

Fourier series coefficients

(if periodic)

(b)
(a)

0
2
0

ak

(b)

l=

x[n] = 1

+
X

( 2l)

l=

Periodic
 square wave
1, |n| N1
x[n] =
0, N1 < |n| N/2
and
x[n + N ] = x[n]
+
X
[n kN ]

k=

an u[n], |a| < 1

x[n]

sin W n
n

1, |n| N1
0, |n| > N1

=W
sinc
0<W <

Wn

[n]
u[n]
[n n0 ]
(n + 1)an u[n], |a| < 1
(n + r 1)! n
a u[n], |a| < 1
n!(r 1)!

+
X

k=



2k
ak
N



+
2k
2 X

N
N
k=
1
1 aej
sin[(N1 + 21 )]
sin(/2)

1, 0 || W
X() =
0, W < ||
X()periodic with period 2

ejn0

2
1, k = 0, N, 2N, . . .
ak =
0, otherwise
ak
ak

=
=

ak =

k=

1
(1 aej )2
1
(1 aej )r

sin[(2k/N )(N1 + 12 )]
, k 6= 0, N, 2N, . . .
N sin[2k/2N ]
2N1 +1
,
k
=
0,
N,
2N, . . .
N

1
for all k
N

+
X
1
+
( 2k)
1 ej

2m
=
N
1, k = m, m N, m 2N, . . .
=
0, otherwise
irrational The signal is aperiodic
2m
=
N
1
2 , k = m, m N, m 2N, . . .
=
0, otherwise
irrational The signal is aperiodic
= 2r
N

1
2j , k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .
1
, k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .
2j
0, otherwise
irrational The signal is aperiodic

Table 7: Properties of the Laplace Transform

Property

Linearity

Signal

Transform

x(t)

X(s)

x1 (t)

X1 (s)

R1

x2 (t)

X2 (s)

R2

ax1 (t) + bx2 (t)

ROC

aX1 (s) + bX2 (s) At least R1 R2

Time shifting

x(t t0 )

est0 X(s)

Shifting in the s-Domain

es0 t x(t)

X(s s0 )

Shifted version of R [i.e., s is

in the ROC if (s s0 ) is in
R]

Time scaling

x(at)

1 s
X
|a|
a

Conjugation

x (t)

X (s )

Convolution

x1 (t) x2 (t)

X1 (s)X2 (s)

Differentiation in the Time Domain

d
x(t)
dt

sX(s)

Differentiation in the s-Domain

tx(t)

Integration in the Time Domain

x( )d( )

d
X(s)
ds
1
X(s)
s

Scaled ROC (i.e., s is in

the ROC if (s/a) is in R)
R
At least R1 R2
At least R
R
At least R {e{s} > 0}

Initial- and Final Value Theorems

If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) contains no impulses or higher-order singularities at t = 0, then
x(0+ ) = lims sX(s)
If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) has a finite limit as t , then
limt x(t) = lims0 sX(s)

Table 8: Laplace Transforms of Elementary Functions

Signal

Transform

ROC

1. (t)

All s

2. u(t)
3. u(t)
tn1
u(t)
(n 1)!
tn1
5.
u(t)
(n 1)!
4.

6. et u(t)
7. et u(t)
tn1 t
e u(t)
(n 1)!
tn1 t
9.
e u(t)
(n 1)!
8.

esT

10. (t T )
11. [cos 0 t]u(t)

s
+ 02
0
s2 + 02
s+
(s + )2 + 02
0
(s + )2 + 02
s2

12. [sin 0 t]u(t)

13. [et cos 0 t]u(t)
14. [et sin 0 t]u(t)
15. un (t) =

1
s
1
s
1
sn
1
sn
1
s+
1
s+
1
(s + )n
1
(s + )n

dn (t)
dtn

16. un (t) = u(t) u(t)

|
{z
}
n times

e{s} > 0
e{s} < 0
e{s} > 0
e{s} < 0
e{s} >
e{s} <
e{s} >
e{s} <
All s
e{s} > 0
e{s} > 0
e{s} >
e{s} >

sn

All s

1
sn

e{s} > 0

Table 9: Properties of the z-Transform

Property

Sequence

Transform

ROC

x[n]
x1 [n]
x2 [n]

X(z)
X1 (z)
X2 (z)

R
R1
R2

Linearity

ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]

aX1 (z) + bX2 (z)

At least the intersection

of R1 and R2

Time shifting

x[n n0 ]

z n0 X(z)

R except for the

possible addition or
deletion of the origin

Scaling in the

ej0 n x[n]

z-Domain

z0n x[n]
n

a x[n]

j0
X(e
  z)
X zz0
X(a1 z)

x[n]

X(z 1 )

Inverted R (i.e., R1
= the set of points
z 1 where z is in R)

X(z k )

R1/k

Time reversal

Time expansion

x(k) [n] =

x[r], n = rk
0,
n 6= rk
for some integer r

z0 R
Scaled version of R
(i.e., |a|R = the
set of points {|a|z}
for z in R)

(i.e., the set of points z 1/k

where z is in R)

Conjugation

x [n]

X (z )

Convolution

x1 [n] x2 [n]

X1 (z)X2 (z)

At least the intersection

of R1 and R2

First difference

x[n] x[n 1]

(1 z 1 )X(z)

At least the
intersection of R and |z| > 0

Accumulation

Pn

1
X(z)
1z 1

At least the
intersection of R and |z| > 1

Differentiation
in the z-Domain

nx[n]

z dX(z)
dz

k= x[k]

Initial Value Theorem

If x[n] = 0 for n < 0, then
x[0] = limz X(z)

Table 10: Some Common z-Transform Pairs

Signal

Transform

ROC

1. [n]

All z

2. u[n]

1
1z 1

|z| > 1

3. u[n 1]

1
1z 1

|z| < 1

4. [n m]

z m

All z except
0 (if m > 0) or
(if m < 0)

5. n u[n]

1
1z 1

|z| > ||

6. n u[n 1]

1
1z 1

|z| < ||

7. nn u[n]

z 1
(1z 1 )2

|z| > ||

8. nn u[n 1]

z 1
(1z 1 )2

|z| < ||

9. [cos 0 n]u[n]

1[cos 0 ]z 1
1[2 cos 0 ]z 1 +z 2

|z| > 1

10. [sin 0 n]u[n]

[sin 0 ]z 1
1[2 cos 0 ]z 1 +z 2

|z| > 1

11. [r n cos 0 n]u[n]

1[r cos 0 ]z 1
1[2r cos 0 ]z 1 +r 2 z 2

|z| > r

12. [r n sin 0 n]u[n]

[r sin 0 ]z 1
1[2r cos 0 ]z 1 +r 2 z 2

|z| > r