Table of Contents

1.

Epistemological and ontological positions........................................................2

Research designs................................................................................................... 4
1.1

Ethical principles........................................................................................ 6

Quantitative research............................................................................................. 7
1.2

Reliability and validity................................................................................ 8

Sampling................................................................................................................ 9
1.3

Sample size.............................................................................................. 10

1.4

Non-probability sampling.........................................................................10

Structured interviews........................................................................................... 11
Coding............................................................................................................ 11
1.5

Problems with structured interviewing.....................................................13

Self-completion questionnaires............................................................................ 13
1.5.1

Steps to improve response rates.......................................................14

Asking questions.................................................................................................. 14
1.6

Types of questions................................................................................... 15

1.7

Piloting and pre-testing questions...........................................................16

Structured observation......................................................................................... 17
Secondary Analysis and official statistics.............................................................18
Qualitative research............................................................................................. 19
1.11 Main research methods associated with qualitative research..................19
1.12 Main steps in qualitative research...........................................................20
1.12.1 Grounded theory............................................................................... 20
1.13 Reliability and validity in qualitative research.........................................20
1.13.1 Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research.....................20

1. Epistemological and ontological positions

Empiricism Knowledge gained through experience
Deduction Theory -> Hypothesis -> Data collection -> Findings -> Hypothesis
confirmed/rejected -> Revision of theory
Induction Observations/findings -> Theory
Epistemological positions

Positivism Advocates application of natural science methods to study of social

reality.

Only knowledge confirmed by senses can be warranted as knowledge

(phenomenalism)
Purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested
(deductivism)
Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide the
basis for laws (inductivism)
Science must be conducted value free (objective)

Realism Natural and social science should apply the same approach to data
collection/explanation (same as positivism). There is an external reality.

Empirical realism Through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be

understood.
Critical realism We will only be able to understand and change the social
world if we identify the structures at work that generate those events and
discourses.

Interpretivism Verstehen, hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition and

symbolic interactionism. Difference between people and the objects of the
natural sciences must be respected. Scientist must grasp subjective meaning of
social action.
Ontological positions
Objectivism Social phenomena confront us as external facts that are beyond our
reach or influence (social phenomena are independent of social actors).
Constructionism (constructivism) Social phenomena and their meanings are
continually being accomplished by social actors.
Paradigms
Objectivist There is an external viewpoint which the organization can be viewed
from.
Subjectivist An organization is a socially constructed product. Can only be
understood by the point of view of individuals.
Purposes of scientific research within paradigms.
Regulatory Purpose of business research is to describe what goes on in
organizations.
Radical Make judgments how organizations should be and how to achieve this.
Functionalist Framework based on problem-solving orientation which leads to
rational explanation.

Interpretative Questions whether organizations exist beyond social actors, thus

it must be explained through their experience.
Radical humanist Views organization as a social arrangement.
Radical structuralist Views organization as a product of structural power
relationships.
Quantitative research
Deductive approach to the relationship
between theory and research. Testing
theories.
Incorporated practices and norms of
the natural scientific model (positivism
in particular).
Views social reality as external,
objective reality.

Qualitative research
Emphasize on inductive approach.
Generation of theories.
Rejects practices and norms of the
natural scientific model. Emphasis on
how individuals interpret their social
world.
Views social reality as constantly
shifting emergent property of
individuals creation.

Reliability Results of a study are repeatable. Whether the measure is stable or

not.
Replication Replicate the findings of others. The procedures must have been
spelled out in great detail.
Validity
Measurement (construct) Does the measure really reflect the concept it is
supposed to?
Internal Relates to causality. Whether a conclusion that incorporates a causal
relationship between two or more variables holds water. Factor that has causal
impact = independent variable, effect = dependent variable.
External Whether the results of the study can be generalized beyond the
specific research context.
Ecological Whether or not social findings are applicable to peoples everyday
life, natural social setting. The more social scientists intervene in natural settings
or create unnatural ones, the more likely the findings will be ecologically invalid.
Hawthorne studies.
Trusworthiness
Credibility - = internal validity; how believable are the findings?
Transferability - = external validity; do the findings apply to other contexts?
Dependability - = reliability; are the findings likely to apply at other times?

Confirmablility - = objectivity; has investigators values intruded to a high degree?

Naturalism View all objects of study (whether natural or social) to belong to the
same realm/Being true to the nature of the phenomenon being investigated/Style
of research that seeks to minimize intrusion of artificial methods of data
collection.

2. Research designs
Classic experimental design and validity
Control group Eliminate possible rival explanations of a causal finding.
Eliminate threats to internal validity.

Testing Subjects may become sensitized to the aims of the experiment

(experimenter effect)
History Make sure independent variable produces the change
Maturation People change which may have implications for independent
variable
Selection Differences between two groups if they were selected nonrandomly
Ambiguity about the direction of causal influence Temporal sequence
unclear, thus not possible to establish which variable affects the other

Threats to external validity, hence generalizability

Interaction of selection and treatment To what social/psychological

groups can a finding be generalized? Ethnicity, gender, social class etc.
Interaction of setting and treatment Can the results of the study be
applied to other settings?
Interaction of history and treatment Can the findings be generalized to
past and future?
Interaction effects of pre-testing Subjects may become sensitized to the
experimental treatment due to the pre-test.
Reactive effects of experimental arrangements Awareness of people
participating may influence how they respond

Quasi-experiments Studies with certain characteristics of experimental designs

but do not fulfill all the internal validity requirements.
Cross sectional design
Often called social survey design. Surveys, structured observation, content
analysis, official statistics and diaries are employed. Nomothetic statements are
generated that apply regardless of time and place.

Collection of data on more than one case Researchers are interested in

variation

Single point in time in Data on variables of interest are collected

simultaneously
Collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data Establish variation
between cases
Pattern association It is only possible to examine relationships between
variables. Problem establishing direction of causal influence

Replicability To the degree that the researcher spells out procedures for
selecting respondents, designing measures of concepts, administration of
research instruments and the analysis of data.
Internal validity Is typically weak since it is difficult to establish causal direction
from the resulting data.
External validity Is strong when the sample to collect data from has been
randomly selected.
Ecological validity May be jeopardized by the research instruments (selfcompletion questionnaires and structured observation schedules) since they
disrupt the natural habitat.
Longitudinal design
Used to map change. In terms of reliability, replication and validity it is similar to
cross-sectional research.
Panel study A sample, often randomly selection national, is focus of data
collection on at least two occasions.
Cohort study Cohort of people who share a certain characteristic are focus of
data collection.
Longitudinal designs are better able to deal with problems of ambiguity about the
direction of causal influence that plague cross-sectional research.
Case study design
Detailed and intensive analysis of a single case. Single
organization/location/person/event.
Case study provides a vehicle through which several qualitative methods can be
combined, thereby avoiding too great reliance on one single approach. The way
they have been designed is heavily influenced by the epistemological tradition of
positivism.
Idiographic approach Researcher tries to elucidate the unique features of the
case.
Intrinsic cases Gain insight into particularities of a situation
Instrumental cases Focus on using the case as a means of understanding a
broader issue or allowing generalizations to be challenged.

Particularization rather than generalization is the strength. Case study research is

not representative for general cases but good at developing a deep
understanding of one case.
Types of cases

Critical case Clearly stated hypothesis and the researcher uses the case
to understand under which circumstances the hypothesis will hold and not.
Unique case Common focus in clinical studies
Revelatory case Opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon
previously inaccessible to scientific investigation
Representative or typical case exemplifies and everyday situation
Longitudinal case How a situation changes over time.

Ethical principles

Harm to participants
o Physical harm, harm to development of self-esteem, stress, career
prospects or future employment, inducing to reprehensible acts.
o Make sure individuals and organizations are not identified or
identifiable. > Use pseudonyms
Lack of informed consent
o Disguised or covert observation where researchers true identity is
unknown. Participants are not given the opportunity to refuse to
cooperate.
o People should be fully informed about the research process,
observation techniques or recording equipment prior to interview.
o Difficulties
Every single piece of information is difficult to give.
When participants are aware of the researcher it is unlikely
that all are similarly informed about the nature of the
research.
Invasion of privacy
o Personal information concerning research participants should be
kept confidential
Deception is involved
o When research is presented as something other than what it is
o Researcher may want to do this to get participants to act more
naturally
o Knowledge might bias the respondents subsequent behavior

3. Quantitative research
Elaborate theory
Devise hypothesis
Select research design
Device measures of concepts
Select research site(s)
Select research subjects/respondents
Administer research
instruments/collect data
Process data
Analyse data
Develop findings/conclusions
Write up findings/conclusion

Concept building block of theory that

represent the points around which
business research is conducted.
If a concept is employed in quantitative
research it will have to be measured.
Dependent/independent variable
Measurement allows us to delineate
fine differences.
Gives us consistent device or
yardstick for making distinctions Ability
to be consistent over time and with other
researchers.
Provides basis for more precise
estimates of the degree of relationship
between concepts (correlation).
In order to give an operational definition
to a concept it is necessary to have an
indicator.
Can be devised through:
question
observation schedule (recording of
behavior)

official statistics
examination of mass media content
It may be preferable to use multiple indicators and have a number of questions in
an interview to tap a concept.
Problem with single indicator

Incorrectly classify many individuals

One indicator may capture only a portion of the underlying concept, or be
too general
Cannot make as fine distinctions

Reliability and validity

Reliability
Consistency of measures
Stability
Measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables. Perform testretest method and find high correlation between two observations.

Internal reliability
Indicators may not relate to the same thing lack coherence. Can be tested by
split-half metod where correlation between two halves of indicators are
calculated.
Inter-observer consistency
Validity
Whether a measure of a concept really measures that concept
Face validity
Whether the measure reflects the content of the concept in question. Asking
other people (experienced and with expertise)
Concurrent validity
Measuring job satisfaction with a criterion (that is relevant and known to differ)
employed (absenteeism). To establish concurrent validity we check if people that
are more satisfied are less likely to be absent. If lack of correspondence -> the
measure might not be addressing job satisfaction.
Predictive validity
Future criterion (instead of contemporary as in concurrent validity).
Construct validity
Deduction of hypotheses from a theory that is relevant to the concept.
Convergent validity
Measure compared to measures of the same concept developed through other
methods.
If a measure is not reliable, it cannot be valid.
Preoccupations of quantitative researchers
Measurement Carries a number of advantages. Validity and reliability a
concern.
Causality Not merely concerned about describing how things are but to say
why things are the way they are. Independent and dependent variables ->
causes and effects. Independent variable Manipulated when the experimental
design is being employed.
Generalization To say that the findings can be generalized beyond the
confinces of the particular context in which the research was conducted.
Probability sampling Researchers seek to generate representative sample to
eliminate bias (the sampling is random)
Replication Results should be unaffected by the researcher special
characteristics and expectations. Important to be highly explicit about the
procedures.

Criticism of quantitative research

Fail to distinguish people and social institutions from the world of nature
o Turning blind eye to the differences between the social and natural
world. People interpret the world around them which objects of
natural science dont.
The measurement process possesses an artificial and spurious sense of
precision and accuracy
o Measurement by fiat, E.g. respondents are presumed to interpret
the key terms of a question similarly
Reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between
research and everyday life
o Methods rely heavily on administering research instruments to
subjects or controlling situations to determine their effects.
The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of
social life that is independent of peoples lives
o Interpretivist epistemological (meaning from individuals point of
view) orientation and constructionist ontology (social world is
product of individuals, not something beyond them)

4. Sampling
Biased sample One that does not represent the population from which the
sample was selected.
Non-probability/non-random sampling Human judgment will affect the
selection process
Inadequate sampling frame Not comprehensive or inadequate -> Cannot
represent the population
Non-response Those who choose to participate may in some way differ from
those that dont
Sampling error over/underrepresentation of a variable in the sample
Simple random sampling
1. Define population (N)
2. Select/device comprehensive sampling frame
3. Decide sample size (n)
4. Randomize
Systematic sample
Take every 1 out of 20 employees
Stratified random sampling
Sample exhibits proportional representation of e.g. the different departments of a
firm.
Population is stratified by a criterion and a simple random/systematic sample is
selected from each strata.

Multi-stage cluster sampling

Primary sampling unit is not the units of the population to be sampled but
groupings of those units. These aggregations are known as clusters.

group 100 largest UK companies by market capitalization

sample one company of each of the twelve SIC categories etc.

Sample size
Affected by time and cost.
It is the absolute size of the sample that is important, not the relative size.
Increased sample size = increased precision (sampling error decreases)
The more heterogeneous a population is the larger sample is needed.

Non-probability sampling
Samples that dont use probability sampling
Convenience sampling
Sample is available to the researcher by virtue of its accessibility. May be
impossible to generalize the finding because we dont know what population the
sample represents.
Probability sampling involves a lot of preparation, so it is often avoided because
of the difficulty and cost.
Snowball sampling
Initial contact with small group of people relevant to the topic and then
uses these to establish contact with others.
In no sense random. It is very unlikely that the sample will be
representative of the population.
Better fit with theoretical sampling of qualitative research
Quota sampling
Used intensively in commercial research
Sample is produced that reflects a population in terms of relative
proportions of people in different categories (age, gender, ethnicity,
religion etc)
Criticism

Choice is left to interviewer, may be unduly influenced by perceptions ->

cannot be representative
People may not be typical (underrepresentation of full-time workers etc)
Interviewer makes judgments about characteristics which sometimes will
be incorrect
Difficult to assign people to a certain class
Impossible to calculate standard error etc

Arguments in favor

Cheaper and quicker than probability sampling

Dont have to call back to people that did not answer
Easier to manage since you dont have to call back
Much faster
Usefully employed in relation to exploratory work from which new
theoretical ideas can be generated
Probability samples may be biased too

Generalization
Even when probability sampling has been employed the findings can only be
generalized to the population from which the sample was taken.
Error in survey research
Sampling error Unlikely one will end up with truly representative sample
Non-sampling error Arises from activities related to the sampling process
(inaccurate sampling frame and non-response)
Data collection error poor question wording, poor interviewing technique,
etc.
Data processing error faulty management of data, errors in coding of
answers

5. Structured interviews
Error has an adverse effect on validity of a measure
Intra-interviewer variability Interviewer is not consistent in the way
questions are asked/answers recorded
Inter-interviewer variability Interviewers are not consistent with each other
about questions/recording of answers
Closed question Respondent is given a limited choice of possible answers.
Potential for interviewer variability is reduced. Facilitate processing of data.
Open question answers need to be sifted and coded so that the data can be
analyzed quantitatively
Coding
Introduces another source of error, coding frame may be flawed.
Intra-coder variability coder varies over time
Inter-coder variability coders differ from each other
Presence of a second interviewer is unlikely to add value.
Telephone
Cheaper and quicker
Geographically dispersed sample is possible
Easier to supervise than personal interview

Respondents replies will not be affected by interviewer characteristics to

the same extent

Limitations

Lower-income household dont own a telephone, some people may be exdirectory

Length of phone interviews cannot be as long as personal interviews
Slightly lower response rate than personal
Fare less well for the asking of sensitive questions
Mobile phones, answerphones etc
Telephone interviewers cannot engage in observation
Difficult to ascertain if the correct person is replying
Cannot employ visual aids
Quality of data may be lower

Introduce the research credible rationale

Tips:

Be prepared to call back if respondent is not available

Be self-assured, may increase response if you presume they agree
Reassure that you are not a sales person
Dress in a way that is acceptable
Find a time that suits the respondent

Rapport Establish relationship quickly so that the respondent wants to

participate. Cues of friendliness and smiling, eye contact
Probing
Standardized probes Tell a bit more about that, Any reasons you think
that?, Mmmmm.
Repeat fixed choice alternatives to make it apparent that one must be chosen
Dont try to guess a number from something the respondent said (dont put the
numbers in his mouth)
Prompting
Occurs when the interviewer suggest a possible answer to a question to the
respondent. All respondents must be given the same prompts!
Unacceptable to ask open question and then prompt possible answers to only
some.
Critical incident method
Asking respondents to describe critical incidents. Analysis of near-disaster
situations.
Projective methods, pictoral and photo elicitation
Inkblots, sentence-completion test, express how they see the identity of the
organization by drawing pictures

Verbal protocol
Think aloud while they perform a task. Elicit the respondents thought processes
while they make a decision or judgment or solving a problem.
Repertory grid technique
Identify the interpretative process whereby an individual constructs meaning in
relation to his/her social context.

Problems with structured interviewing

Characteristics of interviewer
Ethnicity (people asked by black interviewer more likely to mention black actors)
Response bias
People respond to series of questions in a consistent way but one that is
irrelevant to the concept being measured.
Acquiescence
Tendency to consistently agree/disagree with a set of questions or items.
Social desirability bias
Answers to questions are related to their perception of the social desirability to
those answers.
Frame question; imagine what a peer might do instead of what respondent would
do.
Problem of meaning
When humans communicate they draw on meanings and simultaneously create
meanings.

6. Self-completion questionnaires
Questions have to be easy to answer

Fewer open question

Easy-to-follow designs to minimize risk of failure to follow filter questions
Shorter to reduce respondent fatigue

Advantages of self-completion over structured interview

Cheaper to administer
Quicker to administer
Absence of interviewer effect (social desirability, sensitive subjects,
interviewer characteristics)
No interviewer variability
Convenience for respondents

Disadvantages of self-completion over structured interview

Cannot prompt no one present to help if respondent have difficulties

Cannot probe no opportunity to elaborate an answer

Cannot ask many questions that are not salient to respondents More
likely to become tired
Difficult asking other kinds of questions (avoid complex structures such as
filter)
Questionnaire can be read before answering first question -> answers not
independent
Do not know who answers
Cannot collect additional data
Difficult to ask lots of questions
Not appropriate for some kinds of respondents
Greater risk of missing data
Lower response rates

Steps to improve response rates

Write good covering letter, explaining reasons for research, importance,
why recipient was selected, sponsorship, guarantee confidentiality
Provide stamped addressed envelope
Reminders work, send to non-respondents in two weeks
Shorter questionnaires tend to achieve better response rates
Clear instructions and attractive layout
Do not allow questionnaire to appear unnecessarily bulky
Begin with more interesting questions
Should comprise as few questions as possible
Provide monetary incentives
Do not cramp presentation attractive layout is important! Make sure it is easy
on the eye
Vertical format more clearly distinguishes questions from answers. Easier to code.
Provide clear instructions for how to answer. Tick one box that best
represents
Never split up a question so that it appears on two pages.

7. Asking questions
Open question respondents can reply however they wish
Closed question presented with a set of fixed alternatives
Open

questions Advantages
Answer in their own terms
Allow unusual responses to be derived
Do not suggest certain answers
Useful for exploring new areas or ones in which researcher has limited
knowledge
Generating fixed-choice format answers

Disadvantages
Time consuming for interviewers to administer

Answers must be coded, can be unreliable process, variability of coding ->

measurement error and hence lack of validity
Require greater effort from respondents
Variability between interviewers in the recording of answers
Tape-recorded transcription immensely time-consuming

Closed questions Advantages

Easy to process answers
Enhance comparability of answers
Clarify the meaning of a question for respondents
Easy for interviewers/respondents to complete
Reduce possibility of variability in the recording of answers
Disadvantages
Loss of spontaneity in respondents answers
Difficult to make forced-choice answers mutually exclusive
Difficult to make forced-choice answers exhaustive
Respondents might interpret answers differently
Irritating when respondent is not find any category that applies to them
Impersonal feel to the interview

Types of questions

Personal factual
o Age, gender, employment, income etc.
o Questions about behavior
Factual about others
o Personal information about others
Informant factual
o Size of firm which they work at etc.
o Characteristics of an entity of which they have knowledge
About attitudes
o Likert scale
About beliefs
o Whether they believe something is true or false
About normative standards and values
o Indicate what principles of behavior influence them
Questions about knowledge

Important to bear in mind the different types of questions. They force you to
clarify in your own mind what you are asking about.
It guards against asking questions in an appropriate format.
When building Likert scale it is best not to mix different types of questions.
Rules of thumb
Questions should always be geared towards asking research questions
Decide exactly what it is you want to know
Put yourself in the position of the respondent
Avoid terms such as regularly, often etc.
Avoid long questions

o Respondent might feel tempted to omit

Avoid double-barreled questions
o Question that asks two things
Avoid very general questions
o Lacking a frame of reference How satisfied are you with your job?
Avoid leading questions
o Do you agree with ?
Avoid questions asking two questions
o When did you last discuss with supervisor/line manager?
Avoid questions that include negatives
o Easy to miss the word not
Avoid technical terms
Does the respondent have the requisite knowledge?
Make sure that there is symmetry between closed questions and its answers
o Yes/no questions should have matching answer (Definitely/Not at all)
Make sure that the answers provided for a closed question are balanced
o Choices balanced, middle answer should be neutral
Memory problems
Dont know/no opinion
o If not included may force people to express a view they dont hold
o If included they might tick not to be bothered to think about the issue

Vignette question
Presenting respondent with one or more scenarios and then asking them how
they would respond when confronted with the situation

Reduces possibility of unreflective replies

Scenarios must be believable

Piloting and pre-testing questions

To ensure that survey questions operate well.

Also ensures that the research instrument as a whole functions well.
Open questions can be asked in the pilot to generate fixed-choice answers
Piloting provides interviewers with experience of using the schedule and
can infuse them with a greater sense of confidence
If virtually everyone answers a question in the same way it is not a
variable.
Find out if respondents feel uncomfortable with certain questions
Questions that seems not to be understood
Determine the adequacy of instructions to interviewers
Should not be carried out on people that might be part of the sample

Using existing questions

Have been piloted for you

Measurement qualities known
Allows for comparison with other research

8. Structured observation
Systematically observing the behavior of individuals
Observation schedule

Clear focus necessary exactly who/what to observ

Forms taken by any category of behavior must be mutually exclusive (not
overlap) and inclusive
Recording system must be easy to operate
Problem: Observation schedules sometimes require interpretation by the
observer

Observing behavior

Record in terms of incidents

Observe and record in terms of short periods of time
Observe and record for quite long periods of time. Watch and record
continuously.
Time sampling

People sample on a random basis

Time If certain people are sampled more than one time, dont always observe
them the same time of the day
If a structured observation study is conducted over a relatively short span of
time, issues of the representativeness of findings are likely to arise.

ad libitum sampling observer records whatever is happening at the time

focal sampling specific individual observed for set period of time
scan sampling group is scanned at regular intervals and everyones
behavior is recorded
behavior sampling entire group watched and observer looks for particular
behavior

Compared to interviews and questionnaires

Provides more reliable informations about events
Greater precision regarding their timing, duration, and frequency
Greater accuracy in the time ordering of variables
More accurate and economical reconstructions of large-scale social
episodes
Reliability
Inter-observer consistency is a concern
Intra-observer consistency Application of the observation schedule may
vary over time
No easy matter to achieve reliability in structured observation.
Observer fatigue and lapses in attention
Observers can be trained

Validity
Is the observation instrument administered as it is supposed to be?
o Variability between observers , measure unreliable thus not valid
Do people change behavior because they are observed?
o reactive effect
Criticism
Risk of imposing inappropriate or irrelevant framework on the settings
being observed.
o Solution to precede with unstructured to set variables and
categories
Structured observation is rarely able to get at intentions behind behavior.
Observer cannot get a grasp of the meaning.
Generate lots of bits of data, difficult to see the big picture.
Neglects context within which behavior takes place
Not all behaviors can be observed
May work best accompanied with other methods
Interviews and questionnaires more flexible, offers the opportunity to reveal both
attitudes and behaviors.

9. Secondary Analysis and official statistics

Data that have been collected by other researchers or by other organizations in
the course of their business.

Advantages secondary analysis

Cost and time Tiny fraction of the resources

High-quality data
o Rigorous sampling procedures
o well established procedures for following up non-respondents
o national samples covering wide variety of regions
o generated by experienced researchers
o control procedures to check quality of the data
Opportunity for longitudinal analysis
Subgroup or subset analysis specialized categories of individuals
Opportunity for cross-cultural analysis
More time for data analysis
Reanalysis may offer new interpretations
o Certain variables impact on other variables
o New theoretical ideas may suggest new analyses
o Alternative method of analysis
Wider obligations of business researchers

Limitations secondary analysis

Lack of familiarity with data

Complexity of data
No control over data

Absence of key variables

Official statistics

Data have already been collected, saves time and expense. Can give more
complete picture if not based merely on sample.
Problem with reactivity less pronounced
Cross-sectional and longitudinal and sometimes cross-cultural

Process by which official statistics are generated involves element of

interpretation. Problem with convergent validity. the dark figure.
Reliability and validity
Reliability seems jeopardized because definitions and policies regarding the
phenomena to be counted vary over time.
Ecological fallacy
Problems of validity. Variations may be due to other factors than those measured.

10.

Qualitative research

Tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers.

Inductive view of the relationship between theory and research; former

generated out of the latter.
Epistemological position described as interpretivist. Stress is on understanding
the social world by examining the interpretations by the participants of that
world
Ontological position described as constructionist. Social properties are
outcomes of the interactions between individuals.
Distinctiveness not solely absence of numbers.

Main research methods associated with qualitative research

Ethnography/participant observartion
Qualitative interviewing
Focus groups
Language-based approaches to the collection of qualitative data
o Discourse analysis
o Conversation analysis
Collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents

Main steps in qualitative research

1. General research question
2. Select relevant site(s) and
subjects
3. Collection of relevant data

5b. Collection of further data

4. Interpretation of data
5. Conceptual and theoretical
work

5a. Tighter specification of the research

question(s)

6. Writing up
findings/conclusions
Distinction between definitive and sensitizing concepts. By quantitative
research a concepts becomes fixed through elaboration of indicators. =
straitjacket on social world.
Grounded theory
Allowing theoretical ideas to emerge out of ones data (Check Pettigrew)

Reliability and validity in qualitative research

External reliability degree to which a study can be replicated

Internal reliability whether or not, when there is more than one
observer, research team agree about what they see and hear (interobserver consistency)
Internal validity whether or not there is a good match between
researchers observations and the theoretical ideas they develop.
Congruence between concepts and observations.
External validity degree to which findings can be generalized across
social settings.

Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research

Should be valued and evaluated based on different criteria
Trustworthiness
Credibility
Ensuring that research is carried out according to the canons of good practice
and submitting research findings to the members of the social world who were
studied for confirmations that the investigator has correctly understood the social
world. Respondent/member validation.

Transferability
The research tends to be oriented to the contextual uniqueness and significance
of the particular case that was studied. Researcher are encouraged to produce
thick descriptions - rich accounts of the details of a culture.
Dependability
Should adopt an auditing approach. Ensuring that complete records are kept of all
phases of the research process.
Confirmability
Complete objectivity is impossible but the researcher should have acted in good
faith. Should be apparent that he/she overly didnt allow personal values.
Authenticity

Fairness represent different viewpoints among members of social setting?

Ontological authenticity Help members to arrive at better understanding
of their social world?
Educative authenticity Better appreciate the perspectives of other
members of their social setting?
Catalytic authenticity Has research acted as impetus to members to
change their situation?
Tactical authenticity Has research empowered members to take steps for
action?

Points of affinity with action research.

Preoccupations of qualitative researchers

At the level of epistemology qualitative researcher are more influenced by
interpretivism.
Seeing through the eyes of the people being studied
People can attribute meaning to events and to the environment. Goal of seeking
to probe beneath surface appearances.
Description and emphasis on context
Provide a great deal of descriptive detail when reporting the fruits of their
research.
Often full of seemingly trivial details, but they are important.
It is recommended to provide thick descriptions of social settings, events, and
often individuals.
Emphasis on process
Tends to view social life in terms of processes.
Show how events and patterns unfold over time.
Flexibility and limited structure
Many qualitative researchers are disdainful of approaches that entail imposition
of predetermined formats on the social world. Qualitative research tries not to

delimit areas of enquiry too much and asks fairly general rather than specific
questions.
Concepts and theory grounded in data
Usually inductively arrived at from the data that are collected.

Critique of qualitative research

Too subjective
Impressionistic and subjective. Findings rely too much on researchers
unsystematic views about what is significant and important.
Difficult to replicate
Unstructured and reliant upon the researchers ingenuity. Very difficult to
replicate. Responses of participants likely to be affected by characteristics of the
researcher. Interpretation will be influenced by subjective learnings of the
researcher.
Problems of generalization
How can just one or two cases be representative of all cases. Findings of
qualitative research are to generalize to theory rather that to populations.
Lack of transparency
It is often not obvious how the analysis was conducted.

Contrasts Quantitative vs Qualitative

Numbers

Point of view of researcher

view of participants
Researcher distant

Theory/concepts tested in research

emergent from data
Static

Structured

Generalization

understanding
Hard, reliable data

Macro

Behavior

Artificial setting

Words

Point of
Researcher close
Theory/concepts
Process
Unstructured
Contextual
Rich, deep data
Micro
Meaning
Natural setting.

Similarities - Quantitative and Qualitative

Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both
Both

are concerned with data reduction

are concerned with answering research questions
are concerned with relating data analysis to the research literature
are concerned with variation
treat frequency as a springboard for analysis
seek to ensure that deliberate distortion does not occur
argue for the importance of transparency
must address question of error

Research methods should be appropriate to the research question

Action research
Experiments are on real problems within an organization and are designed
to assist in their solution.
Involves iterative process of
problem identification, planning,
action and evaluation.
Leads to re-education, changing
patterns of thinking, and action
Intended to contribute both to
academic theory and practical
action
It should have implications that relate to situations other than the one that
is studied
Should be usable in everyday life, should also be concerned with theory
Should lead to the generation of emergent or grounded theory
Action researchers should recognize that the research will have practical
implications and they must be clear about the take aways from the project.
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Can involve the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data.

The investigator becomes part of the field of study.
The report is seen primarily as a discussion document, which presents a number
of action strategies from which collaborators will jointly select a course to take.
Cognitive mapping
Complementary to action research. Maps can be used as a problem-solving
device by researchers. Commonly used management consulting technique.
Primary function: Reflective thinking about problems to enable steps to be
taken towards its solution
Enable managers to understand the way others in the group perceive a problem.

Ethnography and participant observation

Organizational ethnography (writing about people/culture) concerned with social
relation that are related to certain goal-oriented activities.
Ethnographic approach implies intense researcher involvement in the day-to-day
running of an organization, so that the researcher can understand it from an
insiders point of view.
Access
Most difficult step is to gain access to the social setting. Strategic planning, hard
work and dumb luck.

Friends contacts colleagues, academics

Champion within organization

Through top management
Offer something in return
Provide clear explanation of your aims and methods and be prepared to
deal with concerns.
Be prepared to negotiate
Be honest about the amount of peoples time you are likely to take up
Hanging around, loitering

Covert not disclose the fact that you are a researcher. Ethical considerations.
Ongoing access
People will have suspicions of you
People worry what thay say may get back to bosses or colleagues
May sabotage, engage in deceptions, misinformation and not allowing
access to back regions
Smooth the path
Play up credentials
Be non-judgmental when things are said about informal activities

Roles for ethnographers

Complete
participant
Fully functioning
member of the
social setting. His
true identity is not
known.

Participant
-asobserver
Same as complete
participant but
members aware of
the researcher

Observerasparticipant
Researcher is
mainly an
interviewer. Some
observation but
little involves
participation

Complete
observer
The researcher
does not interact
with people.
Unobtrusive forms
of observation.

Most sampling in qualitative research entails purposive sampling of some kind.

Theoretical sampling Better for qualitative research than probability. Aims to
discover categories and their properties and to suggest the interrelationships into
a theory.
Grounded theory advocates that you sample in terms of what is relevant and
meaningful for your theory.

Interviewing in qualitative research

Different from interviewing in quantitative research!

Less structured than quantitative (structured interview) which is supposed

to maximize the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts.
In qualitative there is an emphasis on greater generality in the formulation
of initial research ideas and on interviewees own perspectives.
Much greater interest in interviewees point of view.
Rambling or going off tangents is often encouraged.
Interviewers can depart significantly from any schedule or guide that is
being used.
The researcher wants rich, detailed answers. Interviewee may be
interviewed more than one, sometimes several occasions.

Unstructured interview Interviewee is allowed to respond freely, interviewer

follows up on points that seem worthy.
Preferred if the researcher is to gain a genuine understanding of the world views
of the members.
Semi-structured interview List of questions on fairly specific topics to be
covered, interview guide
Preferred if the interviewer is in the beginning of the investigation with a fairly
clear focus.
Formulation of research question should not be so specific that alternative
avenues of enquiry that might arise during the collection of fieldwork data are
closed off.
Prompting Get the interviewee to think more about the topic and provide a
more detailed response
Qualitative researchers are often interested also in how the interviewee says
things. Therefore recording might be good but it may also disconcert respondent
who become alarmed at the prospect of their words being preserved.
When tape recorder turned off Unsolicited accounts source of revealing
information or views.

Advantages of participant observation vs qualitative

interviewing
Seeing through others eyes
Prolonged immersion in a social setting makes the researcher better equipped to
see as others see.
Learning the native language
In order to understand a culture, the language must be lerned.
The taken for granted
Matters interviewees take for granted are less likely to surface
Deviant and hidden activities
Much of sabotage, resistance at work and criminal activity is known from
participant observation

Sensitivity to context
Allows the context of peoples behavior to be mapped fully
Encountering the unexpected and flexibility
Unstructured nature makes it more likely to uncover unexpected topics or issues.
Naturalistic emphasis
Has potential to come closer. Interview is a disruption of normal flow of events.

Advantages of qualitative interviewing vs participant

observation
Issues resistant to observation
Some issues are not amenable to observation
Reconstruction of events
Ethical considerations
Hidden hardware etc
Reactive effects
Presence of participant observer will result in reactive effects. Observers disturb
the situation.
Less intrusive in peoples lives
Participant observation takes up lots of peoples time
Longitudinal research easier
Limits to the amount of time a researcher can devote to observation.
Greater breadth of coverage
Researcher is not limited to the restricted range of people, incidents and localities
Specific focus

Focus groups

Emphasize specific theme or topic to be explored indepth

Can save time and money instead of carrying out individual interviews
Practitioner interested in the way which individuals discuss a certain issue as
members of a group
Researcher aims to provide a fairly unstructured setting

The dynamics of focus groups could make individuals define business problems in
new and innovative ways.

Understand why people feel the way they do

Participants are able to bring to the fore issues they deem to be important
Individuals argue with each other and challenge each others views
The way individuals collectively make sense of a phenomenon can be
studied. Can be regarded more naturalistic

Criticism of reliability and lack of realism.

Moderator can vary
Variation in the interpretation of transcripts
Better representativeness can be achieved by stratifying the population and
greater reliability can be achieved with different moderators.

Focus group will work best if recorded.

o The researcher interested in who expresses views.
o Makes it possible to study the processes by which meaning is
collectively constructed.
o Interested in both what people say and how they say it.

Theoretical saturation, perhaps twelve to fifteen. More groups will increase

complexity.
Size
Six to ten
Groups more than eight difficult to manage
Consciously over-recruit since people might not show up.
Smaller groups demand more since every participant must contribute more
Moderator
Not intrusive or structured
May be necessary to refocus if it goes off at a total tangent.
Allow discussion to flow freely/intervene to bring out salient issues
Participants
Snowball sampling
Only natural groups not always possible
Natural groups may also not bring up taken-for-granted assumptions

Limitations of focus groups

Researcher has less control over proceedings than with individual

interviews
Data hard to analyze. Huge amounts quickly produced
Difficult to organize. Persuade people to turn up at particular time
Recordings time-consuming to transcribe
Possible problems of group effects
Not appropriate when they might cause discomfort among participants

Language analysis
Conversation analysis
Fine-grained analysis of talk as it occurs in interaction in naturally occurring
situations.
Indexicality The meaning of an act, spoken words or utterances, pauses,
sounds, depends upon context they are used

Reflexivity Spoken words are constitutive of the social world in which they are
located.
Recordings of naturally occurring conversations and their transcription for the
purpose of intensive analysis of the sequences of interaction revealed in the
subsequent transcripts.
Three assumptions of CA
Talk is structured
Talk is forged contextually
Analysis is grounded in data
CA fails to capture body movements
Adjacency pairs Talk involves linked phases. Question followed by an answer;
invitation response; greeting returned greeting.

Discourse analysis
Forms of communication other than talk.
Company mission statements; websites; email messages
Anti-realist denies that there is an external reality
Constructionist Recognition that in the process particular depiction of reality
is built up
Discourse shapes the rules that determine how we speak and act in relation to a
given topic.

Reading the detail

Looking for rhetorical detail: ways in which arguments are constructed
Looking for accountability
Cross-referencing discourse studies

Narrative analysis
Elicitation and analysis of language that is sensitive to the sense of temporal
sequence that people, as tellers of stories about their lives or events around
them, detect in their lives and surrounding episodes and inject into their
accounts.

Rhetorical analysis
Analysis of argumentation, literary devices (metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy
and irony)
Contrast Subject is described in terms of opposite to reinforce a point
List together we are strong, together we can make progress, together we
Headline-punchline/puzzle-solution
Position-taking
Pursuit, repetition, alliteration

Documents as sources of data

Criteria for assessing the quality
Authenticity Genuine and of unquestionable origin?
Credibility Free from error and distortion?
Representativeness Typical of its kind?
Meaning Clear and comprehensible?
Organizational documents
Likely to authentic and meaningful, but may not be accurate representation of
how different actors perceive the situations.
Documents linked to other documents
Disagreements may be suppressed
Documents are texts written with distinctive purposes in mind
Semiotics
Sign, signifier etc. Focuses on the way that messages are communicated as
systems of cultural meaning. Uncover the hidden meanings that reside in texts as
broadly defined.
Hermeneutics
Understanding/interpretation of texts. Bring out the meaning from the
perspective of its author.
Historical analysis
Documents and other artifacts to trace history of an organization.

Understanding of contemporary organizations relies on having an

awareness of how they developed historically.
Historical analysis can reduce the ideological biases that are embedded in
current fasionable trends in organization theory and practice.
Historical analysis enables interpretation of existing organization
arrangements as the result of intentional or implicit decisions made in the
past
Theories can be subjected to more radical test.

Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide

Researchers perceive that there is a difference between qualitative and
quantitative research in terms of strategy.

Natural science model and qualitative research

Difficulties

No agreement on the epistemological basis of natural sciences

Researchers dont do and write the same things

Similarities

Empiricist overtones theory grounded in datat constitute a manifesto for

empiricism
Specific problem focus Qualitative research can be employed to
investigate specific, tightly defined research questions.
Hypethesis- and theory-testing Analytic induction or grounded theory
Realism Epistemological basis of the natural sciences.

Quantitative research and interpretivism

Quantitative researchers frequently address meanings.
Quantitative research and constructionism
Construction of social world. Conventional quantitative content analysis can be
useful for this.
Epistemological and ontological considerations
Carry with them a cluster of commitments. However there is no perfect
correspondence between research strategy and matters of epistemology and
ontology.

Problems with quantitative/qualitative contrast

Behavior vs meaning
Quantitative research frequently involves the study of meanings in the form of
attitude scales.
Qualitative research frequently entails examination of behavior in context
Theory tested in research vs emergent from data
Survey-based studies are often more exploratory than simply theory-testing
Numbers vs words
Qualitative researchers sometimes undertake limited amount of quantification of
their data. many, often, some
Artificial vs natural
Naturalism of focus groups is assumed rather than demonstrated. Participant
observation, the researcher can be source of interference that makes situation
less natural.

Quantification in qualitative research

Thematic analysis Implicit quantification when identifying themes and the
elevation of some themes over others.
Quasi-quantification frequently, rarely.
Combating anecdotalism Give numbers to do this

Mixed methods research

Arguments against mixing
Epistemological commitments integration of research strategies ignores
assumptions underlying research methods and transforms qualitative inquiry to
procedural variation of quantitative inquiry.
Separate paradigms Values, methods, assumptions are incompatible between
paradigms. Integration will be at superficial level within single paradigm.
Triangulation
Cross-check results of one method by employing another method associated with
the other research strategy.
When triangulation is undertaken, there is a possibility of a failure to corroborate
the findings.
Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research
Providing hypotheses helpful as a source of hypotheses or hunches that can
subsequently be tested
Aiding measurement In-depth knowledge acquired through qualitative
research can inform the design of survey questions.
Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research
Prepare selection of people to interviewed, or companies to be selected as case
studies.
Filling in the gaps
Static and processual features Quantitative research tends to bring out a
more static picture of social life, qualitative is more processual
Qualitative facilitates interpretation of relationship between variables
Influenced by the independent variable but which has effect on the dependent
variable. Qualitative research can provide explanation.
Study different aspects of a phenomenon Macro vs macro
1. Solving a puzzle Outcomes of research are not always easy to
anticipate
2. Mixed methods research, like mono-method, must be completely designed
and conducted.
3. Must be appropriate to the research questions or research area with which
you are concerned
4. Best to be explicit about why you have conducted mixed methods research
5. Mixed methods should not be thought of like it is made up of separate
components
6. Provide sufficiently detailed account of all methodological details.
7. Any research project has limited details.
8. Not everyone are skilled to carry out both types

Internet

Try many keywords

New websites are continually appearing or disappearing
Websites are changing

Usually more economical in terms of time and money

Can reach large number of people
Distance is no problem
Data can be collected and collated very quickly

Face-to-face interviewers are better able than online interviewers to

maintain rapport with respondents.
Greater commitment and motivation are required for completing an online
interview
Online interviewer has less impact on successfulness of interview
Online interviewees answers tend to be better formulated, they have more
time to ponder their answers and can tidy them up
Follow-up probes are possible in both cases

Sampling issues

Many people have more than one email address

Email addresses more fleeting than postal addresses
People use more than one ISP
Households may have one computer for several users
Internet-users are a biased sample of the population
Sampling frames difficult to acquire (from ISPs) and may be expensive