HANDBOOK OF METAL FORMIN

HANDBOOK OF METAL FORMING

EDITOR

KURT LANGE
Professor Ementus, Unwersity of Stuttgart

COEDITORS

KLAUS P ~ H L A N D T
RAGU S. RAGHUPATHI
JOHN D. SANITER
WOLFGANG J. SAUER
JOHN A. SCHEY
KLAUS J. WEINMANN
G.E.O. WIDERA

Society of Manufacturing Engineers

One SME Drive, PO. Box 930
Dearborn, Michigan 48121, U S A .

<hpyrightY1985 by Kurt Lange

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof. may not be reproduced
~t
of the ccipyright owner.
in any form w i t h o ~ permission
First Edition
9876.5432

Published by Society of Manufactllring Engineers. The publisher does

not, by publication of data in this hook, ensure anyone using such data
against liability of any kind, including infringement of any patent.
Publication of any data in this book does not constitute a recornmendation of any product. The Sociev of Manl~facturingEngineers, as well as
all contributors of information in this book, disclaim any and all responsibility fbr use of the information contained herein by readers and users
of this book.
English language edition first published by McGraw-Hill, lnc., 1985
Oriprally p u b ~ h din Geman under the title Lehrbl~chdpr C'v$umctechnik,
Bd. 1 , 2, and 3. Copyrighto 1972 and 1975 b! Springer-Verlag, Berlin/
Heidelberg. All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 833-19897

International Standard Book Number: 0-87263-457-4
Additional copies may be obtdinrd by contacting:
Society of Manufacturing Engineers
One SME Drive, P.O. Box 9.30
Dearborn, Michigan 48121
313-271-1500,500-733-4763
Cover photo courtesy of Matra Data~ision.New-generation simulation
software pedicts forming results prior to tool design. A thickness distribution performed on a car floor following a forming simulation indicates
in violet where areas are too thin.
Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS

How This ~ o o kU'as Prepared

About the Original Book ix
Preface xi

uii

PART ONE FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9

General Terms and Symbols

Metal-Forming Processes as a System
Fundamentals of Metallurgy
Flow Curves
Fundamentals of Technical Plasticity Theory
Tribology
Measurement of Process Parameters
Machine Tools for Metal Forming
Dimensional Accuracy and Surface Quality

PART TWO BULK-METAL FORMING

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

10
11
12
13
14

Upsetting
Forging
Rolling
Fundamentals of Extrusion and Drawing
Drawing and Ironing

VI

CONTENTS

Chapter 15 (:old and Warrn Extrusion

Chapter I6 Hot Extrusion
(:hapter 17 Indentation Processes

PART THREE SHEET-METAL FORMING

Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
C:haptc,r 21
Chapter 22
<;hapter 23

Sheet-hlrtal Properties and Testing Methods

Bending
Deep Drawing
Metal Spinning
Collar Drawing
Stretch Forming, Expanding, and Other Tensile Forming
Processes

PART FOUR BLANKING, PIERCING, SLUG PRODUCTION

Chapter 23
Chapter 25
Chapter 2h

Blanking and Piercing

Slug Production
Heat and Surface Treatment

PART FIVE METAL FORMING UNDER SPECIAL CONDITIONS

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

27
28
29
30

High-Energy-Rate Forming
Forming under Hydrostatic Pressure
Forming with Superimposed Vibrations
Forrning h) Exploiting Special htaterial Properties

PART SIX

TOOLS FOR METAL FORMING

Chapter 31
C:hapter 32
Chapter 33

Dies for Metal Forming, Separating, and Joining Processes

Die Manufacture
Process Combinations for Die Manufacture and Diehlanufactwing Costs

APPENDIXES
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appcdix
iippendix

ii

B
C
D
E
F

Comparative Designations for Steels

(hmparative Designations for Nonferrous hletals
Chemical Composition of Steels
Chemical (;omposition of Nonferrous Metals
General References
Abbreviations llsed in This Rook

HOW THIS BOOK WAS PREPARED

The contents of this handbook are based mainly on the German I~hrbtrchder C'irlfonntechnik.
edited by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Kurt Lange and published by Springer-Verlag, Berlin/HeidelberdNew
York, in three volumes from 1972 to 1975. Great effort was expended by the editor and the coeditors to update and extend the information contained in the original version. This includes the
introduction of recent developments in processes, ~naterials.tools, and equipment, as well as the
adaptation to U.S. terminology, standards, and nuits. The handbook represents a joint effort by
eight editor-writer-translators, who contributed as indicated below:

Name

Chapter

Dr.-Ing. Dr.h.c. Kurt Lange, Professor Emeritus, Institut fur Umformtechnik

University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

1, 27, 28, 29

Dr.-lng. habil. Klaus Pohlandt, Apl. Professor, Institut fiir Umformtechnik,

University of Stuttgart. Stuttgart, Germany
Dr.-Ing. Ragu S. Raghupathi, Manager, Rohert Bosch Corporatiou,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, U.S.A.
John D. Saniter, BSc., C.Eng., Innovation Consultant, Ingenieurbiiro
Saniter, Bopfingen, Germany
Dr. Wolfgang J. Sauer, Associate Professor, University of Southern Colorado,
Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.A.
Dr. John A. Schey, Distinguished Professor Emeritus. University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Dr. Klaus J. Weinmann, Professor, Michigan Technological University,
Houghton, Michigan, U S A .
Dr. G.E.O. Widera, Professor and Chairman of Mechanical and
Industrial Engineering, Marquette Universiw Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.A.

ABOUT THE ORIGINAL BOOK

The Lehrbuch der Umformtechntk, 3 vols, Springer-Verlag. Berl~n/He~delberg/NewYork,

1972-1975, was prepared In German by the following authors

Dalheimer, Rolf, Prof. Dr.-Ing., President, Fachhochschr~leHamburg, Germany

Dannenmann, Eckart, Dip].-lng., Institut fur Umformtechnik, Universitat Stuttgart, Germany
D i e t d r , Klaus, Dr.-Ing., BASF AG, Ludwigshafen, Germany
Geiger, Manfred, Prof. Dr.-Ing., Clniversitat Erlangen-Niirnberg, Ellungen, Germany
Geiger, Rolf, Dr.-Ing., PRESTA Press- & Stanzwerk AG, Eschen, 1,iechtenstein
Gieselbrrg, Klaus, Dr -Ing., BASF AG, Ltrdwigshafen, Germany
Honel3. Hartrnut, Dr.-Ing.; Jenaer Glaswerk Schott & Gen., Mainz, Germany
Kaiser, Hartrnut, Dr.-lrrg., Dornier System GmbH, Friedrichshafen. Germany
Kast, Dieter, Dr.-lng., DEGUSSA AG, Hanau-Wolfgang, Germany
Kilp, Karl-Heinz, DipLIng., Bundesministerium fur Forschung und Technologie, Bonn,
Germany
Kriimer, Wilfried, Dr.-lng., Richard Nerrmayer, Gesellschaft fur Umformtechnik mbH, Harrsach, G ~ r n l a n y
Lange, Kurt, Prof. Dr.-Ing., Institut fur Umformtechnik, Clniversitat Stuttgart, Germany
Miiller, Herbert, Dr.-Ing., Danfoss-Flensburg GmbH, Flensburg, Germany
Noack. Peter, Dr.-Ing., Flohr-Otis, Stadthagen, Germany
Pohl, Walther, Dr.-lng., Mathematischer Beratungs- und Programmierungsdienst GmbH, Filderstadt, Germany
Schachrr, Hans-Dieter. Dr.-Ing., Daimler-Benz AC, Stuttgart, German!,

ABOlll THE ORIGINAL BOOK

Schelosky. Hans U.,DI-.-lr~g..

M a n n l z ~ i n ~ Versorgungser
u n d Verket~rsgesell.~chafraft
mbH,
Mannheitrr. Genruny
Scl~losser,Dieter S., Dr.-lng.,Joscf Viigdc AG, hlnnnheim, Germany
Sclrmidt. Volker, Dr.-Ing., Ii~stitrrtfurIinlfonrrtechnik, llniaemitat Stuttgnrt, G e n o n y
Sclrmitt. Gerhnrd, Dr.-lng., Marketing Con.vrltirrg Dr: G. Schinitt, Ludwig~hurg,Cernlany
Schrcider, Giinthrr, Dr.-lng., Brown, Bovenj hr (:i c... Bah-Ilattwil, Switzerland
Steck, Elmar. Prof. Dr.-Ing.. I,cl~rsttrhl B fiir Mechanik. Tcdrrrizche Unitxr~itijtBrairn~chweig,
Gunruzny
Warlirnclnt. I lans. Prof. Dr. rer. m t . , V a r u u t r ~ d GrrhH,
l
f{onuu, Grnrlatry
Wilh~lni,I lans, Dr.-lng., Motorm rrnd 'Eri-binrnonion Ctnbll. Miinchm, Gc.rirlany
Zeller, Rolf, Dr.-Ing.. Robert Bosclr Grrthl!. St~rttgarf,Cenruzny

ABOUT THE EDITOR

Kwt Lmge is Professor Emeritus < ~the
t Llniversity of St11ttg;irt. He was Professor for Metal
Forming Techniqur and Director of the Iirsearch Institute l'rorrr 1963 to 1988. A professional in
the metal forming field since 1949, he has h d d responsi1)le positions at the Die-forging Research
,
with Llairnler-Benx At;. StuttgartInstitute, Technical University o f l l a n n u ~ e r and
Untertiirkheim. He is also an internationally successful consr~ltant,anti was a mem1)er of the editorial conrmittees of various scientific-teclnlical journals. Hc published an extended version ofthe
Handbook of Metal Forming as a four \.olume edition in German, entitlcd Mrtnl Foi-ir~ing
Exhniquc - Hanclhookfor Scimce and Irldrrstiy from 1983 to 1993 In 1986 he recrivrd thc SME
Cold Medal: in 1987 he was appointed Doctor honoris cams by the Terhniral Uni\-er.\ity of
Budapest. Hrrngary: in 1988 he was rlected to the N;itional A ~ l d r m yof Engineering, Washington,
DC, as Foreign Associate; and in 1990 he hecame an Honorary Member of the Japan Socieb f'or
Technoloby of Plasticity, ToLyo. I l e is also an IIonorary Member o t the International Institntion
for Prod~~ction
Engineering Research CIRP, for which I I served
~
as president in l985/86.

PREFACE

This book is intended to be a broad general introduction to thr fundamentals of metal-forming

technology. Includrd are the relevant aspects of metallurgy, tribology, technical theory of plasticity, material properties, and process data determination. Also dealt with are production methtds, tools, machine tools, arid other equipment, as wrll as tool-manufacturing methods and problems of prodriction economy. Much of the detailed information is presented with a view toward
easy application in the solution of practical problems. In its entirety, the material is selected so as
to represent a comprehensive handbook of rnetal forniing.
The book is divided into six parts and thirt)-thrre chapters. Part 1 concentrates on the fundamentals of metallurgy, material properties. plasticity theory, tribology, and machine tools. In
addition, it gives a systematic presentation of all known metal-forming processes following the
German DIN standards 8582 to 8587. As is seen in Chapter 2, this system is based on stress state,
process kinematics, and tool or workpiece geometry. As such it effectivel) contributes to an easier
understanciing of the differences between forniing processes as well as the general influence of the
strrss state on forming limits, tool loading, and so on. Other aspects, ho\vever, such as process
temperature and sheet or bulk forming, are not accounted for in some parts of this system As
these parameters will have a great influence on the selection of tools, machines, and other equipment, the presentation of forming and separating processes is divided in Parts 2 to 5 into the
following topics: bulk-metal forming; sheet-metal forming; piercing, blanking, and slug preparation; and metal forniing under sprcial conditions. Within these four central parts of the book, not
only the particular technolog) and its sperific theory but also workpiece materials, tools, and
equipment are covered in great detail. Sonie processes, such as rolling, upsetting, and heading,
are treated in a somewhat concise manner because there is already much excellent literature available on these topics, The same applies to the discussion of metallurgy, technical theory of plasticity, and tribolog? in Part I . Tht concluding Part 6 deals with tools for rnetal forming, their classification, special design features, material selection, and manufacture in general.
Resides the chapters tlealirrg with some of the fund;mrntals of metal forming, Part 1 also
contains two atlditi~malchapters One is devoted to machine tools in general: basic design features,
characteristics. and
of hammers, screw presses, mechanical presses, and hydraulic
presses. The othrr prcscnts the irrterrelatior~between processes, tools, and machine tools with

xii

PREFACE

regard to workpiec~accuracy and inclndes information on typical dimensional accuracy values for
a variety of prcxwwes.
In Part 2 the nlost important processes of bulk-nietal forming are dealt with. The term bulkrrwtnlf,~nr~ing
signifies that, during deformation, substantial changes of cross sections. wall thickness, and so on. take place: the niatcrial will be clisplaced in three dimensions. The starting material mill be in the form of bars, billets. slugs, or (for larger partq) even ingots. Bulk-metal forming
plays a11 important role in the production of semifinished products by rolling, extn~sion,and forging. Althougll all these processes. aq well as drawing. ironing, and indentation processes like hobbing, are discussed, the emphasis of this book is more on secondary processes, namcly, those used
for the p ~ d u c t i o nof workpirces from semifinished prodncts, snch as bar stock. Consequently
forging and especially hot-(lie forging, drawing, ironing, and cold, warm, and hot extrusion are
treated in detail, while rolling. upsetting, and indentation processes are presented in a less cotnprchensive niamler. In the chapter on rolling, however, is found a discussion of some important
processes for the production of finished workpicces (such as roll forgmg, surface rolling, thread
rolling, rolling of spline shafts and gears, and flow turning), together with an introduction to the
theory of strip rolling.
Part 3 deals with the important processes of s h e e t - n w t a l . f i ~ n ~ ~The
i ~ ~latter
g.
is characterized by
the formation of hollow parts with more or less uniforrn wall thickness from flat-rolled niatcrial;
cxccpt for same processes, such as stretch forming, the wall thickness is not changed significantly.
Extensive thinning must be avoided hecause process limits are often revealed b j necking with
subsequent ductile fracture. In general the
range of deformation is much smaller in
sheet-metal fimning than in bulk-metal tbrming. As the success of sheet-metal forming depends
to a large extent on the metallurgical and mcchanical properties of the parent materials, one chapter of Part 3 is devoted to sheet-metal properties and the corresponding test methods. The
process groups dealt with In the five other chapters are bending. deep drawing, spinning and flow
turning, flanging, stretrh forming, and expanding
In Part 4 peripheral processes of metal forming, such as piercing and blanking (mainly with
regard to sheet metal), slug preparation, and heat and surface treatment for various processes (primarily for cold forging), are presented. Thcse chapters contain many details taken fiom industrial
practice.
Part 5, devoted to metal ibrming under special cwnditions, contains chapters on high-energyrate formmg, forming under hydrostatic presqure, ft~rlningwith superimposed vibrations, forming
while the material is in a special state (e.g., supevlastic forming), and thermomechanical forming
(e.g., ausforming). These processes are important and applicable in special cases, where conventional methods fail to produce parts of very complex geometly, where the material is very difficult
to form, or often whwe parts are to be made from expensive materials in small qnantities. The
processes presented here belong partly to hulk-forming and partly to sheet-forming techniques,
but the sdient featnres of these processes made it llreferable to combine them in a separate part
of this book.
It should be mentioned here that fbr the last hvo decades the computer has strongly influenced the technique of metal forming, for exa~nple:( I ) by opening the field of numerical analysis
to processes, (2) by improving data processing in the experimental investigation of such areas as
tribology and materials behavior. and (3) by allowing detailed analysis of the stress and strain states
in tools, marhine tools, and other rquipment under mect~an~cal
and tlierlnal loading. In fact many
data presented in this book were obtained by co~nputerwork. On the other hand, in spite of a significant increase in capacic combined with a sharp drop in prices, the use of computers is still in
its infancy for tasks snch as process design arid optimization, work preparation (including cost estimation), computer-aided design and machining of tools, or process design for nunierically controlled forging. This is mostly dne to the lack of applicable software. There is no doubt, however,
th;ct there will be fast and broad progress, which may revolutionize wide fields of metal forming
technique before the end of'this centuy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Dr. T q l a n Altan, Rattelle Columhus Laboratories, Research Leader*, and Prof. John A. Srhey,
IJniversiv of Waterloo. Ontario. supported the project by reading various chapters and by u g gesting improvement?.

PREFACE

xiii

Prof. B.F. von Turkovich, University of Vermont, Burlington, encouraged the editor to start the
project and made valuable suggestions.
The editor wishes to thank Brigitte Wand, Institut fur Umformtechnik d e r Universitat
Stuttgart, for her engaged and careful assistance during the preparation of the manuscript and
during proofreading. He also wishes to thank the pnblisher, especially Harold B. Crawford and
Susan Thomas, for the excellent cooperation and for the suhstantial support during the preparation and production of the handbook. Finally he wishes to express his deep gratitude and devotion
to his family who accepted his absence from home for many evening and weekend honrs over several years so that this book could appear.

*Now Profes.wr and Head, Engit~eeringResearch Center for Net Shape Mat~ufacturing,Ohio State
Uniucrsity. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

PREFACE FOR THE SECOND PRINTING, 1994

Since 1985, the Handbook of Metal Fonrring has been used by many thousands of students and
engineers in the U.S. and in many other countries. An official and an unofficial reprint in two
southeast Asian countries also seem to be good indicators for the usefulness of this type of handbook, which offers solid, experimentally backed up data and other information for a large variety
of processes both in the SI system and in the U.S. customary system. On the other hand, the book
is a very comprehensive and systematic introduction to the broad field of metal forming technologies, their fundamentals, materials, t r i h o l o ~ ,and tool technolop for beginners and engineers
from other fields.
In the preface for the first printing, it was mentioned that the introduction of the computer,
which became increasingly effective for metal forming since approximately 1970, would influence
process and tool design and their optimization, numerical process control, and product quality
dramatically before the end of the 20th century. This has heen confirmed hy the very fast development of powerful and economical computer hardware and s o f ~ a r eand their increasing application. This development is still in full flow and will without douht contrihute significantly to the
near net shape or net shape production of many complex components by forming technologies. A
large variety of books, many publications in conference proceedings and transactions, as well as
information from software companies provide information ahout this important and fascinating
field.
However, discussions show very clearly that the well trained and experienced expert will be
needed even more in the future for the successful time, and money saving realization of a scientifically based and application oriented modern metal forming technique. The editors of the
Handbook of Metal Forming are convinced that this volume will contrihute significantly to this
aim for many years to come.

PUBLISHINGNOTE
The Society of Manufacturing Engineers has sewed metalworking professionals since its beginnings in 1932. It is with a sense of responsibility to these members and associates that we issue
this second printing of the Handbook of Metal Fonriing, which otherwise might have gone out of
print. For this opportmity to sewe manufacturing, we are grateful to Professor Kurt Lange, Dr.
Markus Knoerr, and Dr. Tavlan Altan at the Engineering Research Center for Net Shape
Manufacturing at Ohio State University; Ms. Caroline Davis at Springer-Verlag; Ms. Bonnie
Beacher and Mr. Harold B. Crawford at McGraw-Hill; and all thr editors, reviewers, and contributors to the Handbook of Metal Fornring.

Dearborn, Michigan, 1994

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