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e x = lim
Dx 0
Du du
=
Dx dx
(3.0)
In view of the limiting process, the above represents the strain at a point. Therefore "Strain
is a measure of relative change in length, or change in shape".
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
ex =
u
,
x
ey =
v
y
(3.1)
gxy = ax + ay =
u
v
+
y
x
(3.2)
The shear strain is positive when the right angle between two positive axes decreases
otherwise the shear strain is negative.
In case of a three-dimensional element, a prism with sides dx, dy, dz as shown in Figure
3.2(c) the following are the normal and shearing strains:
ex =
g xy =
u
v
w
, ey =
, ez =
x
y
z
(3.3)
u v
v w
w u
+ , g yz =
+
, g zx =
+
y x
z y
x z
g xy = g yx , g yz = g zy , g zx = g xz
(3.4)
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
P : (x, y , z )
P : ( x + u, y + v , z + w )
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
Q : (x + Dx, y + Dy , z + Dz )
The displacement components at Q differ slightly from those at point P since Q is away
from P by Dx, Dy and Dz .
u + Du, v + Dv and w + Dw
Now, if Q is very close to P, then to the first order approximation
Du =
u
u
u
Dx +
Dy +
Dz
x
y
z
Similarly, Dv =
And Dw =
(a)
v
v
v
Dx + Dy + Dz
x
y
z
(b)
w
w
w
Dx +
Dy +
Dz
x
y
z
(c)
Q (x + Dx + u + Du, y + Dy + v + Dv, z + Dz + w + Dw )
Before deformation, the segment PQ had components Dx, Dy and Dz along the three axes.
After deformation, the segment P Q has components Dx + u, Dy + v and Dz + w along the
three axes.
Here the terms like
u u
u
, and
etc. are important in the analysis of strain. These are the
x y
z
u
x
ui v
=
x j x
w
u
y
v
y
w
y
u
z
v
z
w
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
where u, v and w are the displacement components. Also, a neighbouring point Q with coordinates
(x + Dx, y + Dy, z + Dz )
gets
displaced
to
(x + Dx + u + Du, y + Dy + v + Dv, z + Dz + w + Dw ) .
Now, let DS be the length of the line element PQ with its components (Dx, Dy, Dz ) .
u
u
u
Dx = 1 + Dx +
Dy +
Dz
y
z
x
Dy =
v
v
v
Dx + 1 + Dy + Dz
x
z
y
Dz =
w
w
w
Dx +
Dy + 1 +
Dz
x
y
z
{((Dx)
) (
)}
(3.5)
where
2
2
2
u 1 u v w
ex =
+ + +
x 2 x x x
(3.5a)
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
2
2
2
v 1 u v w
ey =
+ + +
y 2 y y y
(3.5b)
2
2
2
w 1 u v w
ez =
+ + +
z 2 z z z
(3.5c)
v u u u v v w w
e xy = e yx = +
+
+
+
x y x y x y x y
(3.5d)
w v u u v v w w
e yz = e zy = + +
+
+
y z y z y z y z
u w u u v v w w
e zx = e xz = +
+
+
+
z x z x z x z x
(3.5e)
(3.5f)
e PQ =
DS - DS
DS
which is called the relative extension of point P in the direction of point Q, now,
(DS )2 - (DS )2
2
DS - DS (DS - DS )2
=
+
2
2(DS )
DS
1
2
2
= e PQ + (e PQ ) (DS )
2
2
= e PQ 1 + e PQ (DS )
2
(DS )2
2
2
2
2
e PQ 1 + e PQ (DS ) = e x (Dx ) + e y (Dy ) + e z (Dz ) + e xy DxDy + e yz DyDz + e zx DxDz
2
e PQ 1 + e PQ = e x l 2 + e y m 2 + e z n 2 + e xy lm + e yz mn + e zx nl
2
The above equation gives the value of the relative displacement at point P in the direction
PQ with direction cosines l, m and n.
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
3.1.5
It can be observed from the Equation (3.5a), (3.5b) and (3.5c) that they contain linear
terms
like
u v w
, ,
,- - - - etc., as
x y z
well
as
non-linear
terms
like
u u u
, . ,- - - - etc. If the deformation imposed on the body is small, the terms
x x y
u v
like
, , etc are extremely small so that their squares and products can be neglected.
x y
Hence retaining only linear terms, the linear strain at point P in the direction PQ can be
2
obtained as below.
ex =
g xy =
u
,
x
ey =
u v
+ ,
y x
v
,
y
ez =
w
z
g yz =
v w
+
,
z y
(3.6)
g zx =
w u
+
x z
(3.6a)
and e PQ @ e PQ = e x l 2 + e y m 2 + e z n 2 + g xy lm + g yz mn + g zx nl
(3.6b)
If however, the line element is parallel to x axis, then l = 1, m = 0, n = 0 and the linear
strain is
e PQ = e x =
u
x
Similarly, for element parallel to y axis, then l = 0, m = 1, n = 0 and the linear strain is
e PQ = e y =
v
y
and for element parallel to z axis, then l = 0, m = 0, n = 1 and the linear strain is
e PQ = e z =
w
z
The relations expressed by equations (3.6) and (3.6a) are known as the strain displacement
relations of Cauchy.
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
1 u u
eij = i + j
2 x j xi
(i, j = x, y, z)
(3.7)
The factor 1/2 in the above Equation (3.7) facilitates the representation of the strain
transformation equations in indicial notation. The longitudinal strains are obtained when
exy =
1
1
1
gxy , eyz = gyz , exz = gxz
2
2
2
(3.8)
ex
1
e ij = g yx
2
1 g
2 zx
1
g xy
2
ey
1
g zy
2
1
g xz
2
1
g yz
2
ez
(3.9)
ex =
u
,
x
g xy =
ey =
u v
+ ,
y x
v
,
y
g yz =
ez =
w
z
v w
w u
+
and g zx =
+
z y
x z
If at the same point, the strain components with reference to another set of co-ordinates axes
x , y and z are desired, then they can be calculated using the concepts of axis
transformation and the corresponding direction cosines. It is to be noted that the
above equations are valid for any system of orthogonal co-ordinate axes irrespective
of their orientations.
Hence
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
e x =
u
,
x
g xy =
v
,
y
e z =
g yz =
v w
+
,
z y
e y =
u v
+
,
y x
w
z
g zx =
w u
+
x z
Thus, the transformation of strains from one co-ordinate system to another can be written in
matrix form as below:
e x
1
g y x
2
1 g
2 zx
1
g xy
2
e y
1
g zy
2
g xz
2
l
1
1
g yz = l 2
2
l
3
e z
m1
m2
m3
ex
n1
1
n 2 g yx
2
n3 1
g
2 zx
1
g xy
2
ey
1
g zy
2
1
g xz
2 l1
1
g yz m1
2
n1
ez
l2
m2
n2
l3
m3
n3
E = E + E
e 0 0
0 0 e
(3.10)
(e x - e)
e xy
e xz
E = e yx
(e y - e)
e yz = deviatorial strain
e zx
e xy
(e z - e)
and
e=
(3.11)
ex +ey +ez
3
It is noted that the spherical component E produces only volume changes without any
change of shape while the deviatorial component E produces distortion or change of shape.
These components are extensively used in theories of failure and are sometimes known as
"dilatation" and "distortion" components.
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
e PQ e PQ e PQ
,
,
to zero, if l, m and n were all independent. But, one of the direction
l
m
n
cosines is not independent, since they are related by the relation.
l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
Now, taking l and m as independent and differentiating with respect to l and m, we get
n
=0
l
n
2m + 2n
=0
m
2l + 2n
(3.12)
0 = 2le x + mg xy + ng zx +
n
(lg zx + mg zy + 2ne z )
l
0 = 2me y + lg xy + ng yz +
n
(lg zx + mg zy + 2ne z )
m
Substituting for
n
n
and
from Equation 3.12, we get
l
m
2le x + mg xy + ng zx
l
lg zx + mg zy + 2ne z
n
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
2me y + lg xy + ng yz
m
lg zx + mg zy + 2ne z
n
2e x l + g xy m + g xz n - 2e l = 0
g xy l + 2e y m + g yz n - 2e m = 0
(3.12a)
and g zx l + g zy m + 2e z n - 2e n = 0
Using equation (3.12a), we can obtain the values of l, m and n which determine the direction
along which the relative extension is an extremum. Now, multiplying the first Equation by l,
the second by m and the third by n, and adding them,
We get
2 e x l 2 + e y m 2 + e z n 2 + g xy lm + g yz mn + g zx nl = 2e l 2 + m 2 + n 2
(3.12b)
Here e PQ = e x l 2 + e y m 2 + e z n 2 + g xy lm + g yz mn + g zx nl
l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
Hence Equation (3.12b) can be written as
e PQ = e
which means that in Equation (3.12a), the values of l, m and n determine the direction along
which the relative extension is an extremum and also, the value of e is equal to this
extremum. Hence Equation (3.12a) can be written as
(e x - e )l + 1 g xy m + 1 g xz n = 0
2
2
1
1
g yx l + (e y - e )m + g yz n = 0
2
2
1
1
g zx l + g zy m + (e z - e ) n = 0
2
2
(3.12c)
Denoting,
1
g xy = e xy ,
2
1
1
g yz = e yz ,
g zx = e zx then
2
2
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
(e x - e ) + e xy m + e xz n = 0
e yx l + (e y - e ) m + e yz n = 0
(3.12d)
e zx l + e zy m + (e z - e ) n = 0
(e x - e )
i.e.,
e yx
e zx
e xy
(e y - e )
e zy
e xz
=0
e yz
(e z - e )
e 3 - J 1e 2 + J 2e - J 3 = 0
(3.12e)
where
J1 = e x + e y + e z
J2 =
e x e xy e y e yz e z e zx
+
+
e yx e y e zy e z e xz e x
e x e xy e xz
J 3 = e yx e y e yz
e zx e zy e z
We can also write as
J1 = e x + e y + e z
J 2 = e xe y + e ye z + e ze x -
1 2
(g xy + g yz2 + g zx2 )
4
1
(g xyg yzg zx - e xg yz2 - e g zx2 - e zg xy2 )
4
Hence the three roots e 1 , e 2 and e 3 of the cubic Equation (3.12e) are known as the
J 3 = e xe y e z +
principal strains and J1, J2 and J3 are termed as first invariant, second invariant and third
invariant of strains, respectively.
Invariants of Strain Tensor
These are easily found out by utilizing the perfect correspondence of the components of
strain tensor eij with those of the stress tensor tij. The three invariants of the strain are:
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers
Module3/Lesson1
J1 = ex + ey + ez
J2 = ex ey+ ey ez+ezex
J3 = ex ey ez +
(3.13)
1 2
(
g xy + g yz2 + g zx2 )
4
(3.14)
1
(
g xyg yz g zx - e xg yz2 - e yg zx2 - e zg xy2 )
4
(3.15)
1 1 1
,
,
.
3 3 3
The normal octahedral strain is:
(en)oct = e1 l2 + e2 m2 + e3 n2
\ (en)oct =
1
(e1 + e2 + e3)
3
(3.16)
(e 1l )2 + (e 2 m)2 + (e 3 n )2
1 2
e 1 + e 22 + e 32
3
(3.17)
2
(e 1 - e 2 ) 2 + (e 2 - e 3 ) 2 + (e 3 - e 1 ) 2
3
(3.18)
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Applied Elasticity for Engineers