UNIVERSITAT POLITCNICA DE VALNCIA

DEPARTMENT OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENT

PhD PROGRAM ENGINEERING OF WATER AND ENVIRONMENT

PHD THESIS

STUDY OF UTILITY OF THE

ESTIMATED RAINFALL SATELLITE
BROADCAST HYDROLOGIC
MODELING
A UTHOR
L IA R AM O S F ER N ND EZ

D I R ECTOR
D R . F L IX F R ANC S G AR C
A

V AL ENC I A , J A N U A R Y
201 3

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade, several research groups have
focused on the development of satellite sensor technology and
their exploitation in order to obtain a real-time estimation of the
rain on a global scale. Recent advances especially in terms of
quantitative evaluation of rainfall patterns, sensor resolution and
sample rate, open up new horizons in global hydrological
applications (AghaKouchak et al, 2010;. Nikolopoulos et al,
2010;. Kidd and Levizzani, 2011 ; Tapiador et al, 2012).. And it's
clear the usefulness of these measurements, both for
meteorological global circulation models to hydrological
modeling at smaller scales, as in the case of little or no
instrumented basins and thus strengthen the capacity of
management of water resources, improve weather and natural
disaster prediction and provide scientific rigor to help make
informed decisions.
Sensors operating at wavelengths of infrared (IR) of
geostationary satellites, providing useful information about
identifying them storm clouds by low temperature at the top of
the cloud. Instead, microwave sensors (MW), commonly installed
in low-orbit satellites reflect the vertical distribution of
hydrometeors in cloud but infrequently temporary space. The
main challenge is how to benefit from the strengths of the
different types of satellite sensors and how to minimize the
impacts of their limitations. Therefore, at present mixed media
that combine the best identified by MW as often temporary
space infrared images (Sorooshian et al used rain, 2002. Dinku et
al, 2009;. Kidd and Levizzani, 2011; WMO , 2011; Tapiador et al,
2012)..
There are various products of satellite estimated rainfall,
being the best spatial resolution of the PERSIANN-CCS product

0.04, algorithm using a neural network to combine high

sampling frequency infrared satellite cloud images geo
synchronous with high quality of passive microwave data
provided by the TRMM, NOAA and DMSP satellite sensor. Also,
adjust the bias rain GPCP (Sorooshian et al., 2000; Sorooshian et
al., 2002; Sorooshian et al., 2005; Hsu and Sorooshian, 2008;
Kuo-lin and Sorooshian, 2008) and introduced the categorization
of clouds based on height at the top of the cloud, geometry and
texture, estimated from satellite images for different intensities
of rain clouds, which helps in the detection of cirrus clouds and
distinguish different convective systems (Hong et at., 2004;
Hong et al. 2007; Kuo-lin et al., 2010).
On the other hand, the Bayesian rain gauge data and
satellite products, combination makes the most of all sources of
information available as well, readings of gauges can remove
systematic errors of less accurate regional data satellite products
and these can then be be used to estimate rainfall in areas
where no gauges available (Gorenburg et al., 2001; Todini,
2001a; Todini et al., 2001; Collier, 2002; Mazzetti, 2004; Poluzzi,
2006; Bliznak et al., 2012).

1.1 Background
1.1.1 Record
Compared to conventional data (rain gauges) representing
a point measurements, measurements with satellite sensors are
estimates globally and, as such, fit the need for distributed
hydrological models, providing information in inaccessible
regions to other systems observation. In this regard, the rain is a
complex meteorological variable because of its irregular
variation temporary space and various physical processes; these
weather conditions pose a challenge to estimate rainfall from
satellite measurements (Levizzani, 2008; WMO, 2011;. Tapiador
et al, 2012).

1.1.2 Motivation
Rain being a vital component of the hydrological cycle is
essential a better understanding of space-time variability; and it
is therefore required global data with sufficient precision to
enable research. However, rain gauges and weather radars are

restricted to populated areas, whereas the estimated satellite

provides access to rainfall data globally in real time rain; and it is
clear the usefulness of these measurements, both for global
circulation models to hydrological modeling at smaller scales as
in the case of little or no instrumented basins. Thus, the sensor
technology of satellites to provide global rainfall is in continuous
progress and future development prospects (Sorooshian et al.,
2000; Tapiador, 2002; Turk et al, 2002;.. Kidd et al, 2003 ;
Aonashi et al, 2009;. Huffman et al, 2010;. AghaKouchak et al,
2011;. Conti et al, 2011;. Kidd and Levizzani, 2011; Sorooshian et
al, 2011;. Behrangi et al, 2012;. Koulali et al, 2012;. Moreno et al.
2012; Tapiador et al, 2012.; Zahraei et al, 2012.; Haile et al.,
2013)
Despite all the advances, the estimated satellite rainfall is
subject to various errors due to instrumental problems, nature of
the measuring system, theoretical simplifications, nonlinear
relationship between the observed variable and rain, among
other reasons (Nikolopoulos et al. 2010; Semire et al, 2012).
Several authors developed models to characterize the complex
stochastic nature of the error. (Bellerby and Sun, 2005; Hossain
and Anagnostou, 2006; Hossain and Huffman, 2008). In this
regard, Sorooshian et al. (2011) indicate the need to investigate
the properties of error in different climatic regions, rainfall
patterns, surface conditions, seasons and altitude. These errors
in turn introduced uncertainty to be assessed and quantified on
hydrological applications.

1.2 Research question and scope

This thesis aims to evaluate the error in the estimated
satellite relative to a reference rain land-based rain, through
statistical tools; and get a shower of rain gauge and satellite
Estimated combination, hereinafter gauge + satellite as rain
gauge readings can remove systematic errors of less accurate
regional data from satellites and these can then be used to
estimate rainfall in areas where no gauges available; to finally
assess their performance through a distributed hydrological
model in an extratropical Mediterranean. For this analysis was
used two products Rain estimated satellite and rain gauge data
from ground-based reference. In addition, a distributed
hydrological model TETIS (French et al., 2007) and Bayesian

model for combining product rain gauges with estimated satellite

(Mazzetti and Todini, 2004, Mazzetti and Todini, 2007).
This research aims to answer the following questions:
What are the best statistical tools to characterize and
evaluate the error in the estimated satellite rain ?, What is the
error propagation of rain estimated satellite through hydrologic
modeling ?, The combination improves satellite gauge +
representation of the variability of rainfall in the basin? Does the
rain gauge + TV combination improves the hydrologic response
in mountain basins ?, The structure of spatial heterogeneity of
the parameters
the hydrological model to assess the performance with satellite
products ?, the density of the network of rain gauges in
combination with satellite improves performance in hydrological
applications?
It is intended to aid in the use of rain estimated satellite in
areas with similar characteristics, particularly in developing
countries in North Africa, with climate similar to our study area
terrain, as an alternative to conventional gauges scarce
countries or nonexistent in these places. Thus, this thesis is a
contribution to the process of continuous assessment of the
estimated satellite rain.

1.3 Goals
Analyze the error rain at different levels of aggregation
basin, comparing the performance of two products satellites with
a barrage of ground-based reference; with statistical tools to
synthesize the analysis.
Evaluate the utility of two satellite products through its
performance in distributed hydrological modeling with statistical
tools to synthesize the analysis.
Analyze the error combined with rain gauge rain Estimated
satellite and evaluate their performance on a distributed
hydrological model of a mountain basin with statistical tools to
synthesize the analysis.

1.4 Structure of the Thesis

The thesis is divided into two chapters more abstract.
In Chapter 2 the tools and techniques used to estimate
rainfall from satellite are described, in particular about the
spectral
bands,
sensors
installed
in
geostationary
/
geosynchronous, polar and non-polar orbit satellites, also based
rainfall data estimated global TV. Chapter 3 is devoted to the
measurement errors of the estimated satellite rain and
performance in hydrologic modeling. The first section of this
chapter invites reflection about the failure of the satellite
estimated rainfall evaluated through its spatiotemporal
characterization; The second section discusses performance and
analyzes their potential by combining satellite gauges and
estimated in the context of hydrological applications rain. The
chapter
It 4 presents a description of the study area that includes
map data (digital elevation model, accumulated cells, flow
directions, slope, speed and slope maps of hydrological
parameters), information on land-based hydrometeorological
(rain gauges, flow hydrometric stations and outflow volumes of
reservoirs, temperature and evapotranspiration) and information
Satellite estimated rainfall.
Because the satellite estimated rainfall is subject to
various errors, it is necessary to characterize them as it is the
input of rainfall-runoff models; that is why in Chapter 5 Error
analysis of satellite estimated rainfall occurs. Thus, in the first
section, statistics tools to synthesize the analysis comparing with
rain ground-based reference are detailed; in the second section
analyzes the results of the annual, monthly and daily time scale
are presented; and in the last section the results of the analysis
at different levels of aggregation basin that reflect different fields
of application in Hydrology in the Mediterranean basin of the
river Jcar are presented.
Because of the multidimensional nature of the error of the
estimated satellite rain, it is difficult to establish a priori a
product of rain estimated satellite that allows optimum

hydrological application and why it is necessary to assess their

performance through hydrologic modeling, so that in the first
section of Chapter 6 statistical tools to assess their performance
are detailed; In the second section the implementation of the
hydrological model is presented; and in the following sections
analyze the results in terms of calibration, validation, water
balance and error propagation in the study area are reported.

Chapter 2
ESTIMATION
TECHNIQUES RAIN
FROM SATELLITE
This chapter describes the tools and techniques used to
estimate rainfall from satellite are described, in particular about
the spectral bands used for estimation, sensors installed in
geostationary / geosynchronous, polar and non-polar orbit
satellites, in addition to the databases of rain estimated global
TV.

2.1 Sensors and satellites used to estimate rain

The sensors coupled meteorological satellites perform
readings in five bands of the electromagnetic spectrum (Table 21) to estimate the rain with various techniques that are
constantly moving towards more direct physically based
techniques, which have evolved from radiance measurements
the visible (VIS) and infrared (IR), based on active and passive
microwave (MW) to techniques that merge information from
sensors in the infrared and microwave techniques.
Bandas del Espectro
Ultra-Violeta

Smbolo Longitudes de onda Sensor

UV
0.01 - 0.38 m

Visible
VIS
0.38 - 0.78
m Infrarojo cercano
NIR
0.78 1.30 m Infrarojo de Onda Corta SWIR
1.30
- 3.00 m
Infrarojo Trmico
TIR
6.00 - 15.0 m
Infrarojo Lejano
FIR
15 m - 1 mm
Onda submilimtrica
Sub-mm
100 m - 1mm
Microondas Pasivas
MWP
1 mm - 30 cm

Microondas Activas

MWA

aprox 2.17 cm

Satlite

SEVIRI METEOSAT
AVHRR NOAA + MetOp
VIRS
TRMM
SSM/I
AMSR-E
AMSU-A
ASCAT
TMI
PR

DMSP
NASAs Aqua
NASAs Aqua
MetOp
TRMM
TRMM

Tabla 2-1. Bandas del espectro electromagntico para la estimacin de la lluvia de satlite: sensor y

satlite en el espectro visible e infrarojo (color plomo), sensor y satlite en el espectro de

las microondas pasivas (color verde claro) y microondas activas (color azul claro)

2.1.1 Sensor in the visible (VIS) and infrared (IR) and

geostationary satellite / geosynchronous
They appeared in the 70 satellite sensors that detect
radiation at wavelengths of infrared (IR) and visible (VIS) range,
based on the fact that the formation processes involve the
existence of rain cloud droplets Large and / or ice particles in the
cloud, which often spread to the top of the cloud so the
brightness temperature, are positively correlated with rain
therefore are indirect estimates that provide quick information
with multiple satellite sensors needed to capture the growth and
decay of precipitating clouds. And the best known methods to
estimate rainfall include global precipitation rate "GPI" technical
convection / stratiform, the autoestimador, the Hydro-and
approaches that include using extraction functions. The GPI is
based on the assumption that all the clouds with cooler tops a
threshold temperature precipitate a fixed intensity, for example
to 235 K the rainfall of 3 mm / h is a typical value of the
eastern equatorial Atlantic (WMO, 2011; Tapiador et al, 2012.).
Several authors (.. Dinku et al, 2009; WMO, 2011; Tapiador et al,
2012) indicate that their main constraints are referred to the
type of clouds and local atmospheric conditions such as:
Local Variation: multi-layer cloud systems may block the
view of the underlying rain. Furthermore, the relationship
between the temperature at the top of the cloud and rain
is highly dependent on the season and location.
Effect of warm rain: regions near the coast or in mountain
areas may experience rain clouds do not reach high
enough in the atmosphere to register as cold clouds.
Effect of cirrus clouds: clouds are high enough in the
atmosphere, composed of ice crystals and the satellite
detected as very cold and therefore associated with the
presence of rain, although in reality they are rain clouds
that do not develop.
These sensors are installed in geoestacionarios1 satellites
revolving synchronously with the rotation of the earth orbits at

36,000 km altitude and orbital period of 24 hours that are always

on the same point on Ecuador.
1

GEO: inclination is 0 to the plane of Ecuad

These satellites provide coverage of a limited area but with high

temporal resolution (images are updated every 30 or 15
minutes). The best known satellites are: GOES "Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite", launched by the United
States and managed by NOAA "National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration"; Meteosat, launched by the
European Union and managed by EUMETSAT "European
Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites";
GMS "Geosynchronous Meteorological Satellite", launched by
Japan.

2.1.2 Sensor in passive microwave spectrum

(MWP) and polar orbiting satellite
It 1978 is available from passive sensors operate with
microwave (radiometers) in which the radiation clouds and rain
emit, absorb and scatter (directly interact with the rain),
reflecting the total water content, vertically integrated, so It is
estimated more physical basis. These sensors can measure the
thermal net emission emanating from the top of the atmosphere
(passive microwave MWP). Its main limitation is that they have
low temporal resolution and difficulty in differentiating the signal
from rain or other types of surfaces and surface coverages that
have similar spectra (Tapiador et al., 2012)
Most passive microwave radiometers operating at
frequencies of 6-. 190 GHz and measurement methods are based
on two physical principles: emission and dispersion. Below 20
GHz, the water droplets have a coefficient proportional to the
values of cloud and rain water integrated "broadcast" vertically
making it more applicable in oceans as they are more
homogeneous and low emissivity surfaces. But in the face of the
earth because of its high and variable emissivity is common
frequencies above 60 GHz in the rain under the mechanism of
"dispersion" ice is detected but no rain is detected below the
freezing point, also often go undetected rain from clouds that
contain considerable amounts of ice its upper region (WMO,
2011).
These sensors are installed on polar orbiting satellites 700800 km high passing almost directly over the poles, it takes
approximately 100 minutes to complete one orbit. The images
are of higher accuracy and spatial resolution as the satellite is

much lower than the geosynchronous orbit, but only one or two
observations of the same region on the same day (low temporal
resolution). The best known satellites are DMSP "Defense
Meteorological Satellite Program," launched by the United States
and managed by NOAA; MetOp, launched by the European Union
and managed by EUMETSAT.
A variant of the polar orbit is the sun-synchronous orbit in
which the motion parameters of the satellite are calculated so
that the land area swept by the same is always kept under the
same solar illumination, that is, the relative positions of the
satellite and Sol remain constant, which ensures that the images
of the spectrum are always under the same conditions. The best
known satellite is called "Aqua" which is part of the group of EOS
satellites "Earth Observing System", launched by the United
States and managed by NOAA.
At present, to benefit from the strengths of the different
types of satellite sensors and minimize the impacts of their
limitations, mixed media that combine the best rain identified by
microwave sensors as often temporary space infrared sensors
used images (Sorooshian et al., 2002; Dinku et al, 2009;. Kidd
and Levizzani, 2011). Improved detection mean higher studies to
bring new ideas to the estimation algorithms of rain. In this
regard, Levizzani (2008) indicates that you must explore the
characteristics of the cloud (microphysics, radiation, dynamic),
being more important issues, the content of ice in the clouds and
their vertical structure. Furthermore, Sorooshian et al. (2011)
indicate that reliably detect extreme events should be
considered additional observations such as: lightning and cloud
cover.

2.2 Database of rain estimated global satellite

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO, 2011)
indicates that validation of satellite algorithms for estimating
rain is a complex process. Today, in space measurements of
rainfall in an area, the higher degree of accuracy is obtained
over the tropical oceans, where the method of "Global
Precipitation Index GPI" is as effective as the techniques of
passive microwave rain periods long (on the order of several
months). However, in the phenomena separately mistakes can
be large, since the "warm rain" is a common phenomenon in

some areas of the tropics. Passive microwave techniques gain in

efficiency as it moves toward higher latitudes, where the
convective rain is less frequent. In these cases, greater accuracy
is achieved by combining passive microwave techniques with
infrared observations from geostationary satellites. It is possible
to achieve a degree of slightly less accuracy by infrared
techniques for convective rain on the surface of the earth,
because of the great diversity dynamics and microphysics of
rain-cloud systems. This leads to greater rainfall variability and
properties in the upper regions of the clouds. The skill of passive
microwave techniques is also lower on the surface of the earth,
as their emissivity considerably reduces the usefulness of
frequencies below 35 GHz.

In 2001 IPWG "International Precipitation Working Group,"

which provides a forum for exchange of information on satellite
measurements of rainfall and its impact on numerical weather
prediction and climate studies generally creates. And the 2005
PEHRPP "Program to Evaluate High Resolution Precipitation
Products" is created, with the aim of characterizing errors in
satellite products in various spatial and temporal scales through
various climatic regimes. Both IPWG (2012) and PEHRPP (2012)
maintain websites with database rain on a global scale, although
publicly available record length formats and varying widely.
In 1998 the ECA "European Climate Assessment", which
provides information on changes in climate and extreme weather
conditions in Europe creates, and maintains a website with base
needed to monitor and analyze these ends (ECA, 2012) Regional
data .
To South America and Allured Liebman (2005) developed a
technique for combining daily rain gauge data from various
sources to spatial resolution
1 and 2.5 but due to the lack of observations, the coverage of
the Andes is not representative; however maintain a website
(CIRES,
2012) on the basis of data that can be used to evaluate satellite
products in South America.

In the following paragraphs techniques that combine

information from various sensors and orbiting platforms to
estimate global rainfall and available within days of scale
satellite observations will be presented.

2.2.1 GPCP
Since 1980, the "Global Precipitation Climatology Project"
organized as an international project led by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, USA) and the
Japanese Space Agency (JAXA, Japan), combines data from rain
gauges more 6,000 stations with rainfall estimates infrared and
microwave images of geostationary satellites as GOES, GMS and
METEOSAT and NOAA polar satellites. Microwave estimates are
obtained from satellites DMSP. It has GPCP rainfall data to daily
temporal resolution and spatial resolution of 1 since 1993
(Huffman et al., 2001) and version 2 at a monthly time resolution
and spatial resolution of 2.5 since 1972 (Adler et al., 2003 ; Xie
et al., 2003; Huffman et al, 2009).. Information is available on
the project website (GPCP, 2012). In Figure 2-1 the five
components that is organized GPCP detailed.

Figura 2-1 Componentes en que est organizado el GPCP Global Precipitation Climatology

Project.

Several studies have been conducted to validate data

GPCC rain, highlighted in last year's work: Cavalcanti (2012),
Dash et al. (2012), Fenoglio-Marc et al. (2012), Fensholt et al.
(2012), Jiang et al. (2012), Koulali et al. (2012), Li et al. (2012a),
Tapiador et al. (2012), Zhou et al. (2012).

2.2.2 TRMM
In 1997 it enters the TRMM orbit "Tropical Rainfall
Measuring Mission" satellite (see Figure 2-2) is a space mission
between NASA (USA) and
Agency Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to monitor
and study tropical rainfall. It is a satellite of low non-polar orbit,
concentrated in the tropics, it carries a radar that transmits over
a length of microwave activas2 and microwave radiometers with
scanner visible radiation and infrared, whose vertical resolution
is about 1 km to the radiometers in
visible and infrared
spectrum, to about 10 km to the microwave radiometers and 250
m in the case of radar.

Measuring the backscattered power of a transmitted series of pulses assets.

The use of radar has improved the accuracy of estimates

of rain with respect to previously from space (WMO, 2011).
One of the instruments aboard TRMM satellite is the
sensor for images of lightning. In this regard, evaluate lightning
data enables better identify convective phenomena and
therefore greater likelihood of strong convective rain (Price et al,
2011;. Sorooshian et al, 2011;.. Bliznak et al, 2012).
The World Meteorological Organization (2011) indicates that
the low inclination orbit used by the TRMM allows obtaining
samples over a whole series of hours of passage by Ecuador in
periods of 24 hours over a month. Not so with satellites in
polar orbit, whose hours of passage by Ecuador are the same.
Therefore, the characteristic in the Tropics diurnal cycle could

increase resulting from sampling errors.

Figura 2-2. Instruments aboard the TRMM

Satellite: Weather Radar (PR), scanner
sensor for visible and infrared radiation
(VIRS), passive microwave sensor (TMI),
Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) and a
system of radiant energy from the surface
land that uses a database of images of
clouds high resolution.

The TRMM offers four products: sensor fusion MW, IR

calibrated MW combined sensor fusion MW and an adjusted
product gauge data. These algorithms have evolved and now
used where possible microwave sensor data including data on
the Aqua satellite (launched in 1999) and MetOp-A satellite
(launched in 2006), and estimates only uses infrared images to
complete missing data (Adler et al., 2000; Huffman et al., 2007;
Huffman et al, 2010).. It has information 3 h time resolution
spatial resolution of 0.25 since 1998 in a coverage of 50 N to
50 S, available on the website of the Mission (TRMM, 2012).

2.2.3 CMORPH
The Center for Climate Prediction (CPC) NOAA developed
the technique "Morphing" to combine information from different
satellite sensors, so, using motion vectors in half-hour intervals
from infrared images of geostationary satellites in the shape and
intensity of the rain change with better information microwave
sensors (Joyce et al., 2004). The "morphing" technique
incorporates rainfall estimates derived from passive microwave
sensors aboard satellites DMSP-13, 14 and 15 (sensor SSM / I),
NOAA-15, 16, 17 and 18 (AMSU-B sensor) Aqua (AMSR-E sensor)
and TRMM (TMI sensor). These estimates are generated by
algorithms Ferraro (1997) for the SSM / I sensor, Ferraro et al.
(2000) for the AMSU-B and sensor Kummerow et al. (2001) for
TMI sensor. This technique is not an estimation algorithm rain

but a means whereby existing data rains combined microwave

sensors therefore can incorporate new data rain microwave
sensors.
There is information 0.07277 spatial resolution (8 km)
and temporal resolution of 30 minutes, in a hedge of 60 N to 60
S, with information available on the website of the Climate
Prediction Center (CPC, 2012). Several studies have been
conducted with rain CMORPH data, highlighted in last year's
work: Fry et al. (2012), and Narisma Jamandre (2012), Jiang et al.
(2012), Mohr et al. (2012), Reid et al. (2012), Turk and Xian
(2012).

2.2.4 PERSIANN
The Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing at
the University of California at Irvine (UCI-CHRS) developed the
algorithm PERSIANN "Precipitation Estimation from Remotely
Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks", which
estimates rainfall information from cloud texture longwave
infrared images obtained from multiple satellite images
geosincrnicos3 (GOES-8, GOES-10, GMS-5, Meteosat-6 and
Meteosat-7) provided by the CPC-NOAA estimates are updated
using high quality rain passive microwave sensors TRMM
satellite, NOAA-15, NOAA-16, NOAA-17, DMSP-F13, F14-DMSP,
DMSP-F15. These data cover of 50 S to 50 N, with spatial
resolution of 0.25 and temporal resolution of 6 hours (Hsu et
al., 1997; Sorooshian et al., 2000). Subsequently, adjust the bias
depending on the product PERSIANN rain GPCP v.2 while
preserving the spatial and temporal patterns of PERSIANN. The
flowchart PERSIANN generates the algorithm is displayed in
Figure 2-3.
3

geosynchronous orbit: they are circular orbits in a plane of Ecuador. If the inclination is 0
to the plane of Ecuador will be a geostationary orbit.

Figura 2-3 Flow generated by the algorithm PERSIANN "Precipitation Estimation from Remotely
Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks "(Hsu et al., 1997;. Sorooshian et al,
2000).

They also developed a server named Hydis "Hydrologic

Data and Information System" website which provides direct
access to global precipitation estimates in real time and includes
a graphical interface for PERSIANN historical data and interactive
map. The Hydis friendly interface (Figure 2-4) allows collecting
data in a selected region for a cumulative period interval. It has
PERSIANN rainfall data since March 2000. (Sorooshian et al.,
2000; Sorooshian et al., 2002; Sorooshian et al., 2005; Hsu and
Sorooshian, 2008; Kuo-lin and Sorooshian, 2008).

Figure 2-4 Server Hydis "Hydrologic Data and Information System" that allows rain to collect historical
PERSIANN estimated by the product (Hydis, 2012)

2.2.5 PERSIANN-CCS
Recently, the CRS-ICU developed a new version of
PERSIANN, the PERSIANN-CCS "PERSIANN-Cloud Classification
System", which introduces the categorization of clouds based on
height at the top of the cloud, geometry and texture, estimated
from satellite images for different intensities of rain clouds and
spatial resolution of 0.04 (Hong et al., 2004; Hong et al., 2007;
Kuo-lin et al., 2010).
Kuo-lin et al. (2010) evaluated PERSIANN-CCS from two
hurricane events (Ernesto in 2006 and Katrina in 2005) to the
Southeast USA. The algorithm extracts information at three
temperatures (220 , 235 and 253 K) for different intensities
of rain clouds, which helps in the detection of cirrus clouds and
distinguish different convective systems, see Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5. Cloud categorization system with the product PERSIANN-CCS "PERSIANN-Cloud
Classification System "(Kuo-lin et al., 2010)

The results show that the correlation coefficients better with cold clouds (less than 253
K), warm clouds but more research is required and recommended further research on the
use of multispectral images as an alternative to identify warm rain clouds.
The CHRS-ICU-GWADI in collaboration with UNESCO, developed the Hydis-GWADI
"Water and Development Information for Arid Lands - A Global Network" server (Figure
2-6) available on its website, which allows real-time collect rain PERSIANN-CCS
globally. For historical information should be obtained information directly to CHRSICU.

Figure 2-6. Hydis server-GWADI "Water and Development Information for Arid Lands - A Global
Network" to collect real-time product rain PERSIANN-CCS (Hydis-GWADI, 2012)

Zahraei et al. (2012) propose the PERCAST "PERsiann-Forecast" and PERCAST-GD

models "Growth and Decay" PERSIANN-CCS coupled to predict the location and
intensity of rain in the next 4 hours using recent satellite images to extract features such
as field advection, changes in intensity, growth and decay of the storm; and evaluate
these models in USA for the summer season, typical of convective rainfall SCM, for
more storms to 256 km2, comparing first rain PERSIANN-CCS with NEXRAD radar
rainfall and obtained a correlation coefficient of 0.4, probability of detection 0.4 and a
ratio of false alarms of 0.5 to rain threshold of 1 mm / h. Then compare the predicted
rains PERCAST-GD PERCAST and rain PERSIANN-CCS and report that GD
PERCAST-forecast improvement in terms of probability of detection and false alarm
ratio up to 15-20% compared to the model PERCAST. Initial results are encouraging, but
requires evaluating for example, life cycles of clouds, conditions in winter season, etc.

Chapter 3

STATE OF THE ART

IN THE
IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE ESTIMATED
RAINFALL
SATELLITE
This chapter is devoted to the measurement errors of the
estimated satellite rain and performance in hydrologic modeling.
The first section of this chapter invites reflection about the
failure of the satellite estimated rainfall evaluated through its
spatiotemporal characterization; The second section discusses
performance and analyzes their potential by combining rain
gauges and satellite estimated, hereinafter gauge + TV, in the
context of hydrological applications.

3.1 Characterization of rain Estimated

error Satellite
The estimated satellite rain is subject to various errors due
to instrumental problems, nature of the measurement system,
theoretical simplifications, nonlinear relationship between the
observed variable and rain, among other reasons (Nikolopoulos
et al, 2010;. Semire et al. , 2012). Several authors developed
models to characterize the complex stochastic nature of the
error (Bellerby and Sun, 2005; Hossain and Anagnostou, 2006;
Hossain and Huffman, 2008). In this regard, Sorooshian et al.
(2011) indicate the need to investigate the properties of error in
different climatic regions, rainfall patterns, surface conditions,
seasons and altitude. These errors in turn move in uncertainty in

the hydrological applications to be assessed and quantified.

It 2003, IPWG "International Precipitation Working Group"
started the validation of different estimation algorithms satellite
rain
in
Australia,
USA
and
Europe
Northeast
(http://cawcr.gov.au/bmrc/SatRainVal/validationintercomparison. html), and report the results of the validation,
the most important conclusions (Ebert et al, 2007):
The performance of products is highly dependent on
rainfall. Thus, the more the regime is convective rain,
more (less) accurate satellite product (weather prediction
model) in the estimates.
Validation of the USA show that satellite products by
combining IR-sensors PMW perform almost as well as the
radar in terms of bias and frequency of daily rainfall.
Satellite products tend to underestimate light rain but
heavy rains overestimate. Also, they do better in summer
and worse in winter rains possibly in the presence of
clouds lower than in summer. Instead, climate prediction
models perform better than all satellite products in winter
in all regions analyzed.
In USA, precipitation in snow covered regions and semiarid
regions in summer is overestimated.
In Australia, estimates with infrared sensors, microwave
and combination of both, they showed similar
performance to beat the climate prediction models to
heavy rains.
Several authors evaluated the product PERSIANN:
Sorooshian et al. (2002) near Rondonia in Brazil TOGA radar
observations (in 3 radar cells with spatial resolution of 1),
obtained a correlation of maximum rainfall from 0.68 to 0.77 and
possibly overestimate the presence of cirrus clouds with clouds
cmulonimbus4. Goncalves et al. (2006) report that in South
America areas without rain underestimates, overestimates areas
with light rain and bias in the location of areas with higher
rainfall intensity. Hughes (2006) in four basins in South Africa

reports that PERSIANN is not sensitive to topographical

influences so requires local correction. Vernimmen et al. (2011)
in the Indonesian archipelago annual report overestimation and
underestimation in summer.
Dinku et al. (2010) evaluated the CMORPH and TRMM
products in two mountainous regions of Ethiopia and Colombia,
reported very low correlation to gauge data underestimate the
presence and amount of rainfall due to terrain and warm rain,
and better performance with CMORPH.
Bitew and Gebremichael (2010) evaluated the rain
PERSIANN-CCS (resolution 0.04 and 1 hour) and CMORPH (0.08
resolution and 30 minutes) with 22 rain gauges in a grid of 5 km
x 5 km in Ethiopia complex topography, semi-humid climate,
obtaining heavy rains underestimate by 50% and 32% for
PERSIANN-CCS and CMORPH respectively. In addition, PERSIANNCCS has difficulty in detecting lower rainfall at 1.6 mm / day.
In the past year 2012 numerous studies have been reported as
follows:
Kizza et al. (2012) evaluated rain PERSIANN and TRMM3B43 on Lake Victoria, a tributary of the Nile River Basin and less
biased report with PERSIANN and increased rain over the lake by
33% and 85% with TRMM-4B43 and PERSIANN respectively . In
this regard, Haile et al. (2013) evaluated two products CMORPH
and TRMM, the 3B42RT and 3B42PRT in the Nile River Basin, and
reported overestimation in lakes, islands and coastline,
mountains and underestimation best occurrence of rain in areas
close to Ecuador. In addition CMORPH best in the Lake Tana
behaves.
Lab (2012) evaluated three satellite products generated
by his research group, called H01, H02 and H03: two products
generated by microwave sensor information (SSMI and SSMI / S)
(with a resolution of 30 to 40 km), and product mix-MW IR sensor
(resolution 5 km) at different rainfall intensities (low, moderate
and high) in Hungary and reports Error -5 to 10 mm / h with MW
and -15 to 20 mm / h IR-MW heavy rains. And with better
detection in summer.
The TRMM-3B42 product is evaluated in tropical climates:

Semire et al. (2012) based in Malaysia and GPCC data reporting

bias 15%; Duncan and Biggs (2012) with gauges APHRODITE
in Nepal and report bias in the detection of extreme events,
"rainy days" and intensity of rainfall in monsoon season;
Jamandre and Narisma (2012) in the Philippines and reported
accurately recognizes no daily rain showers and light but
performs better than the product CMORPH in extreme intensities
greater than 100 mm / d events.
4

Cirrus clouds: clouds above approximately 5000 m, composed of ice crystals, so they
generally do not develop filamentous rain. Cumulonimbus clouds: clouds of great vertical
development, internally formed by a column of warm, moist air rising in the form of rotating
spiral, and typically produce heavy rain and thunderstorms, especially when they are fully
developed.

Behrangi et al. (2012) evaluated the rainfall estimates products

PERSIANN and PERSIANN-CCS in the US in the summer season
2009 to 2011.
These authors report that PERSIANN has a better
correlation, better detection of rain but higher number of false
alarms.
The satellite estimated rainfall is subject to various errors.
However, measurements of rain gauges generally used as
reference for assessing satellite products have highly systematic
errors associated with maximum intensity, density of the
network of rain gauges, site topography, atmospheric and
instrumental factors (WMO, 2011; Semire et al., 2012).
WMO (2011) indicates that the adjusted precipitation of
systematic errors
(Pk) is given by the equation:
Pk k (Pg P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 )
3.1
Where k is the correction factor for the deformation of the
wind field over the metering orifice; Pg is the precipitation in
the measurement device; andP1 to P5 are corrections
according to the magnitude which are detailed in Table 3-1:

3.2 Hydrologic modeling estimated Satellite

rain
Over the past decade, several research groups have
focused on the development of satellite sensor technology and
their exploitation in order to obtain a real-time estimation of the
rain on a global scale. Recent advances especially in terms of
quantitative evaluation of rainfall patterns, sensor resolution and
sample rate, open up new horizons in global hydrological
applications (AghaKouchak et al, 2010;. Nikolopoulos et al,
2010;. Kidd and Levizzani, 2011 ).
Thus, studies have intensified rain products obtained from
satellite global hydrologic modeling applied, some of which are
detailed below:
Hsu et al. (2002) evaluated the flow of Leaf River Basin
(1949 km2), a tributary of the Mississippi River, rain PERSIANN
and hydrological model SAC-SMA, obtaining high uncertainty
with peak flows. In the same basin, Moradkhani et al. (2006)
evaluated the PERSIANN-CCS HyMOD rain and hydrological
model, obtaining large uncertainties in simulated flows. Similar
results reported work and Meskele Moradkhani (2010).
Stisen et al. (2008) evaluated the product TAMSAT-CCD
(spatial resolution of 11 km) in the Senegal River Basin (350,000
km2) in Africa MIKE SHE model calibration, error getting the
water balance values of -9.3 to
-13.1 2.7% and 22.4% respectively in calibration and validation,
then Stisen and Sandholt (2010) evaluated the CMORPH
products
3B42V6, PERSIANN and specific products for Africa (CPC-FEWS
and TAMSAT-CCD), with spatial resolution from 8 to 27 km,
getting less biased with CPC-FEWS and TAMSAT-CCD 3B42V6
followed; then they corrected bias and recalibrated the model by
obtaining an efficiency of Nash-Sutcliffe (E) of from 0.83 to 0.87
with the specific products to Africa, from 0.63 to 0.70 with
3B42V6, from 0.74 to 0.81 with CMORPH and from 0.76 to 0.80
with PERSIANN.
Nikolopoulos et al. (2010) evaluated the flow of the river
basin Veneto (1,200 km2) in Italy, irregular topography with

slopes greater than 30 degrees at the top and increased rainfall

to 1000 mm / year, with three satellite products TRMM- 3B42
(resolution 0.25 and 3 hours) and Kidd (resolution 25 and 4 km,
0.5 hours) and automatic calibration of the hydrological model
tribs. These authors report the error propagation of simulated
rainfall at different levels of basin flow (between 100 and 1,200
km2) and conclude that:
Satellite products underestimate the errors areal average
rainfall ranging from 10 to 80% depending on the TV and
the basin scale. This error resulted in a flow rain simulated
with an error of the same order of magnitude.
The product with better resolution, KIDD-4 km, has a
higher yield (36% error) products of worse resolution
KIDD-25 km, TRMM 3B42-biggest mistake they get 55%.
The model performance depends on the algorithm used by
the product of TV, satellite resolution basin scale and so
can give very different results in terms of the simulated
flow.
The error propagation depends on the size of basin; for
example, the study reports that basins with smaller areas
400 km2, has a greater capacity buffer error simulated
rain to flow the larger scales.
Most recently, several studies have focused on the
application of hydrological satellite estimated rainfall. Thus, ElSadek et al. (2011) simulated the flow of the basin of the
Mimbres River (477 km2) in USA, rain PERSIANN and hydrological
model SWAT, reporting efficiency of Nash-Sutcliffe (E) of 0.19 in
calibration and concluding that the PERSIANN rain may not be
appropriate to this mountain basin. Also Bitew and Gebremichael
(2011b, 2011a) assessed the PERSIANN rain through calibration
of SWAT models and MIKE SHE Gilgel Abay basin (1,656 km2)
and Koga (299 km2) in Ethiopia complex terrain, semi-humid
climate and rainfall 1300 mm annually with 70% in summer.
These authors reported a poor performance simulated worst
daily performance and in the basin of 1,656 km2 flow. Then
Bitew et al. (2011) evaluated rain CMORPH, 3B42RT, 3B42 and

PERSIANN in Koga River Basin (299 km2) in SWAT model

calibrated for each satellite, obtaining a significant improvement
in simulated flow.
Demaria et al. (2011) investigated the estimation of rain in
the case of mesoscale convective systems (MCS) using the
product PERSIANN in La Plata River Basin (3.2 106 km2) and
reported an average underestimation and overestimation of rain
rainfall areas. Also, with the hydrological model VIC evaluated
the spatial location of the rain in the basin of the Iguazu River
(70,000 km2) and concluded that the hydrologic modeling of the
basin diminishes the effect of the error in locating product
PERSIANN for convective rainfall exceeding 30 mm / d and basin
scale.
Getirana et al. (2011) evaluated products and VSAT GPCP
rain in Black River Basin (712,000 km2) in the Amazon with the
hydrological model MGB-IPH and report that the VSAT product
has higher correlation and probability of detection gauge data
regarding derivatives Hyban Observatory. The modeling values
obtained Nash Sutcliffe efficiency (E) of -0.24 to 0.79 and -0.38
to 0.61 for GPCP and TMPA respectively.
Li et al. (2012b) evaluated the TRMM product in the
Yangtze River Basin (1,550 km2) in China with humid subtropical
climate, average rainfall of 1878 mm / year, altitude ranging
from 50 to 2138 m, data from 1998 to 2003; and report
underestimation of rain and simulated flow with model
calibration WATLAC with Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (E) of 0.71 and
0.86 respectively to daily and monthly scale.
Moreno et al. (2012) evaluated PERSIANN in four river
basins Colorado (35-350 km2) in USA, complex topography,
warm climate with convective rains, tribs hydrological model
calibration; and report underestimation rain with low correlation
(0.05 to 0.23) and significant bias (0.31 to 0.63). Also, poor flow
simulated with Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (E) ranging from -0.48 to
0.79 depending on the basin scale. In addition, to meet the
understatement of the volume of rain, the model reduces the
flow of water balance evapotranspiration.

3.3 Combined with rain gauges estimated

Satellite
Direct and indirect measurements of the rain cover a wide
range of scales, from specific observations to space radar and
satellite aggregations. Each measurement technique has
different advantages and limitations, so it is reasonable to
combine different types of measures to make the most of all
sources of information available. So, readings of gauges can be
used to remove systematic errors of less accurate regional radar
and satellite data; and these can then be used to estimate
rainfall in areas where no gauges available (Gorenburg et al.,
2001; Collier, 2002; Mazzetti, 2004; Poluzzi, 2006; Ebert et al,
2007;.. Bliznak et al, 2012) .
It is so in 2004, under the European project MUSIC "MultiSensor Integration precipitation measurements, Calibration and
floodforecasting" with Contract No. EVK1-CT-2000-00058 (MUSIC,
2004), the University of Bologna developed Bayesian techniques
to combine various sources of information (gauges, radars and
satellites); where interpolation using gauges by "block kriging"
and Kalman filter is made. The Kalman filter allows a posteriori
estimate by combining the a priori estimate provided by the
"block kriging" in a Bayesian context, obtaining a reduction of
bias and variance of the estimated errors; also it allows uniform
scales through sequences of "upscaling" and "downscaling"
(Todini, 2001a; Mazzetti and Todini, 2004; Poluzzi, 2006). The
"block kriging" is an extension of geostatistical technique kriging,
and is used in order to regionalize rainfall data. Variogram
parameters are updated at each time step using the maximum
likelihood estimator (Todini, 2001b; Todini et al., 2001).
Mazzetti (2004) evaluated the Bayesian combination of
rainfall data, radar and satellite images, by "block kriging" and
Kalman filter, a time scale with 57 rainfall stations, radar SMR
(resolution of 1 km) and Meteosat-IR5 ( resolution of 5 km)
through the hydrological model Topkapi in Reno river basin
(4,930 km2) in Italy, complex terrain, Mediterranean climate; and
reports for four events from 1998 to 2000, better quality and
efficiency of the simulated flow in combinations with poor
performance radar and satellite combinations due to the poor

quality of the satellite data. In this regard, Poluzzi (2006) uses

the "block kriging" in gauges and radar (WSR-88D, resolution of
4 km) to evaluate obtained with rain
Technical RU "Rapid Update" estimates from satellite
(GOES, SSMI and TMI) in Washita River Basin (1,200 km2) and
Oklahoma (135,000 km2) in USA; and reported similar results
with both land-based references, with a low probability of
success rain, high false alarms and found that the error is not
related to the meteorological characteristics of the events, or RU
algorithm parameters; and it concludes that the estimated
satellite rain could be useful for adding information combined
with ground-based estimates through Bayesian techniques but
requires investigation.
Chiang et al. (2007) combined rain gauges rain PERSIANNCCS through a neural network to improve the simulated hourly
flow in the basin of the Wu River Tu (204 km2) in Taiwan, and
reported that due to the high density of the network rain gauge,
the contribution of satellite product is insignificant.
5

Satlite geoestacionario con sensor infrarrojo

Li and Shao (2010) used a nonparametric method called

Kernel smoothing to merge rain gauge with satellite estimates
TMPA3B42 in Australia resulting in improved accuracy of regional
rainfall.
Gebregiogis and Hossain (2011) evaluated a focus location
(cell by grid cell) to combine three satellite products 3B42RT,
CMORPH and PERSIANN-CCS in the basin of the Mississippi River
with the VIC model and report improvements comparing the
simulated flow that if they used satellite products individually.
Ebert et al. (2007) mention that for a better combination
of satellite, radar and rain gauges, you must choose the best
product according to the regime of rain.
Furthermore, Jiang et al. (2012) indicate that these
combinations can not be effective especially when satellite
products have too much errors and / or not available rainfall
data; in that case, the hydrological models can correct errors of

satellite products through calibration of its parameters (Stisen

and Sandholt, 2010; Bitew and Gebremichael, 2011b;. Bitew et
al, 2011; Moreno et al., 2012) and propose a Bayesian
combination but simulated with three satellite products 3B42V6,
3B42RT and CMORPH with model calibration Xinanjiang Mishui in
the river basin (9,972 km2) in China with complex terrain, flow
humid subtropical climate and average annual rainfall Of 1560
mm
Despite attempts to improve the detection of rain with satellite
sensors, this has not been resolved due to the multidimensional
nature of the problem. However, technology is constantly
progress and sophisticated instruments on board future satellites
continue the trend toward better predictions and thus a better
understanding of Earth's climate, so that the 2013, NASA and
JAXA will launch the first GPM "Global Precipitation Medition"
consisting of a satellite like TRMM satellite core and a
constellation of satellites with microwave sensors provided,
which is an ambitious but necessary idea to generate a
significant advance in this field of knowledge because they
provide rainfall data of higher resolution, frequency and accuracy
to current data (Tapiador et al., 2012).

Chapter 4

STUDY CASE:
RIVER BASIN JCAR

This chapter presents an overview of the study area that

includes map data (digital elevation model, accumulated cells,
flow directions, slope, speed and slope maps of hydrological
parameters), hydrometeorological land-based information (rain
gauges, flow gauging stations, outlet flow and volume of
reservoirs, temperature and evapotranspiration) and information
satellite estimated rainfall of PERSIANN and PERSIANN-CCS
products and 0.25 resolution 0.04 respectively, for a period
comprised between 01 analysis January 2003 and October 31,
2009.

4.1 Description basin

The study was conducted in the Jcar River Basin (Figure 4-1) that flows into
the Mediterranean sea with a drained area of 21,500 km2, average flow of 43 m3 / s,
maximum altitude of 1770 meters and average temperature of 14 C.

Figure 4-1. Geographical location of the Jcar River basin east of the Iberian Peninsula (Valencia,
Spain). The shaded areas represent sub used in the study. Blue and red squares triangles spatially
represent SAIH rainfall stations and AEMET respectively.

Jcar river basin has a Mediterranean climate 6 stark

contrast between the wet season (spring and fall) and the dry
and hot (summer) (Robles et al., 2002). The rains are mainly
Mediterranean origin, in the most extreme cases usually caused
by mesoscale convective systems (MCS) in autumn (51% of
annual rainfall) but with a very high variability yoy. Atlantic origin
rains have greater contribution
6

According to the Koppen climate classification it corresponds to a temperate climate with

dry, hot summer

in the mountainous areas of the basin (38% of annual rainfall)

tends to decrease toward the coast (Ninyerola et al, 2005;. Rigo
and Llasat, 2007, Mir et al., 2009).
It has a very intense use: irrigation channels, drinking
water supply, reservoirs, river and sport fishing, tourism etc.,
intensifying competition for water resources. Paredes et al.
(2010) estimate the water dedicated to urban use in 118.64 hm3
/ year to 1,030,979 people, while an irrigated area of 187.855
has consumed 1,394 million m3 / year.
According to the Hydrographic Confederation of Jcar (CHJ,
2007), coverage (land use) prevailing in the basin are forests and
semi-natural areas with more than 50% of rainfed agricultural
areas and agricultural areas 36% cultured with 10%, with citrus,
grapes and grain cereals. Robles et al. (2002) indicate that the
basin is 53.6% with exclusive presence of carbonate rocks,
44.8% of carbonates rocks or sedimentary evaporite materials
basis, and 1.6% prevalence of rocks and with acidic materials.
Regarding the lithological classes, CHJ (2007) indicates that
calcarenite and marl are the predominant groups but also have
proportions of limestone and alluvial material. Carbonate rocks,
especially in karst systems for their ability to store water, help
regulate the flow of rivers especially in times when the rains do
not add water to the rivers.
From a digital elevation model with cell size of 500 x 500
m Studio of the Department of Hydraulic and Environmental
Engineering (DIHMA, 2002), the slope map was obtained, with
average value of 3% to values ranging from 0 to 36%. Moreover,
half the area of the basin has outstanding less than or equal to
2%, 75% of the area has slopes less than or equal to 4% and
90% of its area has lower slopes or equal to 7%. This indicates
that the basin is dominated by a gently sloping topography in
the presence of steep areas (Figure 4-2).

Figure 4-2. Maps of the distribution of elevation and slope in the basin of the
river Jucar MED 500m x 500m.

The relief is formed by mountain ranges of the Iberian

system, a continental plateau and the coastal plain; with an
average elevation of 808 meters above sea level ranging from 01769 meters, with a very mature landscape predominance of
tectonic erosion over with and that is reflected in the form of the
hypsometric curve (Figure 4-3). The coastal plain is an alluvial
platform that provides a nutrient-rich soil that sustains most of
the irrigated agricultural production; Thus, the lower reaches of
the Jcar is a naranjera area par excellence. At an average
height of 650 m, is the aquifer of the Eastern Channel, to drain
and refill interactions with the Jcar River. Near the
Mediterranean, it is the Albufera lagoon of 2,443 hectares with
0.88 m deep, surrounded by large expanses of paddy fields, and
a row of dunes that protect the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

Intervalos de pendiente Porcentaje

en porcentaje
de rea
01
42
12
16
24
20
46
10
68
5
8 10
3
Mayor a 10
3

Figure 4-3. Left: hypsometric curve over 500 m x500m. Right: interval pending in relation to the area
they cover.

The average annual rainfall is 500 mm, but varies from

values lower than 300 in the most southern areas and in other
areas reaches values greater than 800 (CHJ, 2007). About Mir
(2009) separates the rain in the Jucar River as the meteorological
process that originates: of Mediterranean origin with increasing
contribution to the coast, representing 43% of the annual rainfall
between 1958 to 1978 and 51% from 1988 to 2008; Atlantic
origin with the greatest contribution in the mountainous area but
with a tendency to decrease, representing 42% (1958-1978) and
38% (1988 to 2008) of annual rainfall; convective origin tends to
decrease, representing a 26 or 19% of the annual rainfall,
according to the analyzed period; and finally the rains of
continental origin lower values representing 10% of the annual
rainfall, as shown in Figure 4-4. These rains are influenced by
climate and terrain, highlights the effect of the Iberian system
(Dunkeloh and Jacobeit, 2003; Sotillo et al, 2003;.. GonzlezHidalgo et al, 2010), and high temperatures are leading to
increased evapotranspiration. (Quereda et al, 2011;.. LorenzoLacruz et al, 2012).

Figura 4-4. Clasificacin de la lluvia anual en la cuenca del ro Jcar segn el proceso
meteorolgico que las origina en la zona litoral y zona de montaa. Elaborado con
informacin de Mir et al. (2009)

The average annual potential evapotranspiration reaches

values of 777 mm / year, with values greater than 1000 mm on
the coastal area and something less than 800 mm in the interior
highlands of the watershed values. And, for the period 19402006, lobales values are obtained in natural regime of 21,500
million m3 / year of precipitation and 18,270 million m3 / year of
potential evapotranspiration (Quereda et al., 2011).

4.2 Hydrological characteristics

The TETIS distributed hydrological model to be discussed
in Section 6.2.1, requires a structure of parameters describing
the spatial variability of soil characteristics, substrate and
vegetation cover at the basin scale, represented by estimating a
priori parameter maps from the environmental information
available, which should be consistent with the topography, land
use, vegetation cover, lithology and other characteristics of
physical media susceptible spatially represented. In this regard,
the more information you have, you can use a smaller cell size
but in return will be used more computational time in modeling.

4.2.1 Jcar River Basin

4.2.1.1

Map information

The cartographic information Jcar River Basin (DIHMA,

2002) has cell size 500 mx 500 m which required an upgrade
and pre-ArcGIS to generate maps in format to fit the hydrological
model. Thus from digital elevation model maps accumulated
cells, flow directions, sloping terrain and speed in slope were
obtained.
Maps of hydrological parameters with resolution of 500 x
500 m were estimated by the DIHMA (2002). In its work, the soil
capillary storage Hu was estimated based on the water content
available for different floor levels with the presence of roots and
then sum of the products of water content available through the
thickness of each layer of soil. Ks infiltration capacity was
estimated from soil map and pedo- transfer functions that link
the conductivity with some soil physical characteristics such as
texture and organic matter. To estimate the percolation capacity
Kp, DIHMA (2002) took into account the textural characteristics
of the geological formations present in the basin.
It obtained the modal values for the parameters in each
mapping unit, DIHMA (2002) estimated the spatial variability of
parameters within each mapping unit defining a value for each
cell of 500 mx 500 m. The procedure was to relate on a multiple
regression model, the modal values of the parameters with
various features such as topographic index, curvature of field,
threshold runoff, among others. In Figure
4-5 maps the parameters observed with a spatial resolution of
500 x 500 m, obtaining average values of 110 mm, 26 mm / h
and 173 mm / h for Hu, Ks and Kp, respectively, and their
coefficient of variation espacial7.

Spatial variation coefficient is the ratio between the mean

value and standard deviation of the values in the cells of 500m
in the Jucar river.

Figura 4-5. Hydrological parameters of the Jucar river, soil capillary storage (Hu), infiltration
capacity (Ks) and percolation capacity (Kp) with cell size of 500m x 500m (DIHMA, 2002).

The maps will be completed hydrological parameters to

calibrate the hydrological model using a correction factor, so that
the mean values but change its spatial structure and its
coefficient of variation is maintained

Tipo de cobertura vegetal

Bos que hoja perenne
Cultivo arbreo perenne
Cultivo arbreo caduco
Matorral
Pradera natural
Cultivo es tacional
Pas tos cultivados
Sin vegetacin o vegetacin pobre
Zona urbana
Cuerpos de agua, vegetacin acutica
Arrozales

ENE FEB MAR ABR MAY JUN JUL AGO SEP OCT NOV DIC Area
2

(km )
1.0
0.6
0.2
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
1.0

1.0
0.6
0.2
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.6

1.0
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.2

1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.6

1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
1.0

1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.9

1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.9

1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.4
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.9

1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.9

1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.6

1.0
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
1.0

1.0
0.6
0.2
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
1.0
1.0
1.0

3634.8
835.7
1047.3
5867.3
445.1
9259.0
1.2
48.2
167.5
95.1
98.6

Figura 4-6. Factor de vegetacin () mensual segn tipo de cobertura vegetal en la cuenca del ro
Jcar (DIHMA, 2002).

The vegetation factor () is a parameter representing the

behavior of the vegetative cycle of vegetation cover and allows
to evaluate the variability in the annual cycle of potential
evapotranspiration. It depends on the type of crop (height,
degree of ground cover), development of the (harvest date) and
climate
(Allen et al., 2006). Your monthly values are detailed in the
Figure 4-6 and distribution in the basin shown in Figure 4-7, in
which a higher percentage of area covered with seasonal crops
appreciated.

Figure 4-7. Map of the distribution of vegetation cover in the basin of the river Jcar (DIHMA, 2002).

4.2.1.2

Features of the drainage network

Geomorphological parameters characterize the geometry

and the flow resistance in the network of channels, and are
obtained by algebraic relations between some types of potential
geometrical and / or hydraulic characteristics of each cell
representative channel, and a variable associated with a flow
rate "a section filled "; in turn, this flow is related to the
cumulative area to the cell. The coefficients and the exponents
of the equations obtained are estimated using linear regression
from a small number of cross sections measured for each
homogeneous field geomorphological region (French et al, 2007).
For the Jucar river, geomorphological parameters were obtained
from the study of the Tagus River Basin (DIHMA, 2001) study in
which five geomorphological zones (high mountain area, average
basin downstream, detailed header area and riverbed), being
chosen by the similarity of morphological zones and exponent
coefficient values detailed in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1. Geomorphological parameters of the network channels of the river Jcar (DIHMA, 2001)

4.2.2 Pajaroncillo subbasin

Pajaroncillo subbasin is an area of specific study in
Chapter 7 of the thesis. On the maps of Figure 4-8 with cell size
500 mx 500 m spatial distribution of the altitude, slope, river
network, hydrological parameters (Hu, Ks, Kp) and vegetation
cover shown . Obtaining a drained area of 861 km2, a
mountainous relief with average altitude of 1348 meters above
sea level ranging from 1011-1699 meters, an average gradient

of 5% ranging from 0-17%. With regard to hydrological

parameters, mean values of 142 mm, 9 mm / h and 85 mm / h
Hu, Ks and Kp respectively and corresponding spatial variation
coefficient obtained in the corresponding map (Table 4-2) are
obtained . These parameters will be completed to gauge the
hydrological model but the coefficient of variation is maintained.
Regarding land cover map in Figure 4-8, the highest
percentage of area covered with natural grassland and
evergreen forest is appreciated.

Figure 4-8. Distribution maps of elevation, slope, river network, hydrological

parameters (Hu, Ks, Kp) and vegetation cover with Cleda size of 500 mx 500 m,
in the sub-basin Pajaroncillo Jcar River Basin, sub referenced in Figure 4.1.

Variable

Media Mnimo Mximo Coeficiente

de variacin
Altitud (ms nm) 1348
1013
1689
0.12
Pendiente (%)
5
0
17
0.61
Hu (mm)
142
32
386
0.37
Ks (mm/h)
9
0
878
5.47
Kp (mm/h)
85
0
311
0.66
Table 4-2. Variables sub Pajaroncillo: altitude, slope and hydrological parameters
(Hu, Ks and Kp).

4.3 Hydrometeorological land-based

information
Hydrometeorological land-based information (rainfall, flow,
temperature and information from reservoirs) has been provided
by the Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET) and the
Automated Hydrological Information System of the Hydrographic
Confederation of Jcar (SAIH-CHJ). The Main characteristics are
summarized in Table 4-3.
Variable

Fuente Archivo

Res olucin
Temporal

Sis tema de
Coordenadas

SAIH

ASCII

Lluvia

AEMET

CSV

Diario

WGS 1984

GMT 07-07 del da s iguiente

Temperatura

AEMET

CSV

Diario

WGS 1984

GMT 08-08 del da anterior

has ta la fecha marcada

Lluvia, caudal y
volumen en embals
es

Cinco minutal UTM Zona 30N

Hora

Local

Table 4-3. Features hydrometeorological land-based information in the basin of the river Jcar

A brief description of the basic information collected that

required an analysis and processing, because the data have
different temporal resolution, quality and presence of faults is
presented.

4.3.1 Estimated Rain gauges

Measurements in the SAIH rainfall stations are transmitted
via a telemetry system in real time and record minimum 2.4
mm / h in 5 minutes. In the case of rainfall stations AEMET
Hellmann type are collected daily by operators serving the
AEMET. In Figure 4-9 the type of gauge SAIH and AEMET is
displayed.

Figure 4-9. Left: telemetric rain gauge type SAIH "tipping bucket" that drains into swinging buckets
coupled with reading collected in real time. Right: Rain Gauge AEMET type "Hellmann" 200 mm
capacity with daily reading for operators.

It 186 rainfall stations, of which 115 are stations AEMET

and 71 are the SAIH were used. And, considering that the extent
of the basin is 21,500 km2, the density of the network of rain
gauges used in the study was about 1 gauge per 116 km2. This
significantly increases density gauge to about 1 per 46 km2 in
the lower part of the basin, since there are a greater number of
gauges installed near the coastline. In this regard, the density of
rainfall networks depends on several factors, WMO (2011)
recommended minimum densities (Table 4-4) are a guide as it
must be determined for each area based on its physiographic
and climatic characteristics. For example: convective cells
(characteristic of the coastal area of the Jcar basin) are difficult
to grasp even with dense rain gauge networks.

Unidad fisiogrfica

Pluvimetros

Pluvigrafos

Costa

900

9,000

Montaa

250

2,500

Planicie interior

575

5,750

Montes/ondulaciones

575

5,750

Islas pequeas

25

250

reas urbanas

10 a 20

Polos/tierras ridas

10,000

100,000

Table 4-4. Recommended minimum rainfall stations (km2 / station) as physiographic unit (WMO, 2011)
density.

4.3.2 Hydrometric and reservoirs

CHJ (2007) indicates that the river Jcar river network
brings 3,100 million m3 / year, of which 26% (820 million m3 /
year) comes from direct runoff, and the remaining 74% (2,270
hm3 / year) of the groundwater runoff. Although the average
value of 3,100 has been reduced in the past decade to 2,500
million m3 / year. Recent studies (. Lorenzo-Lacruz et al, 2012)
indicate that the development of agriculture has been
accompanied by the systematic construction of reservoirs that
have altered the natural regime and interannual variability; also
reported an annual decrease flows in winter and spring trend,
while this trend is reversed in summer and autumn. This is
probably related to the trend of rain reported by Mir (2009) as
well as reforestation processes, increased water demand as a
result of population growth and irrigation demands. Also, the
mass in the aquifer of the Eastern Channel from 1989 pumps
have a negative impact on natural regularity of Jcar, its base
and annual report (Gil, 2006) flow.
Pajaroncillo, Albaida, Swedish and input reservoirs Alarcon
and Contreras, whose location coordinates are detailed in
Appendix A1: To study five hydrometric stations (Figure 4-1) were
selected. Flow rates were collected using the SAIHWin server and
in the case of reservoirs, flow was attained by balance.

In Figure 4-10 the curves Cota-volume reservoirs is

displayed Alarcn Contreras and reconstructed from the daily
information from 2000 to 2009 SAIHWin collected using the
server. These curves are necessary for the above-mentioned
balance.

Figure 4-10.- Cota-volume curves in reservoirs Alarcon and Contreras with daily information
reconstructed from 2000 to 2009 SAIH.

The Contreras reservoir with a capacity of 852 hm3, 2,700

ha surface area of 3,427 km2 drainage with water intended,
among others, the Jcar-Turia canal which mainly supplies water
to the city of Valencia. And the Alarcn reservoir with a capacity
of 1105 Hm3 surface of 6,840 ha and drainage area of 2,883
km2, with regulated for hydroelectric and irrigation production of
45,000 ha of crops waters, receives water from the Tajo-Segura
so it was necessary to re-establish the natural regime for
modeling.

4.3.3 Temper ature and evapotranspiration

Long periods of sunlight, along with the continuous circulation of warm air
masses originate high temperatures in the basin of the river Jcar (CHJ, 2007). For this
study, we offer daily information minimum and maximum temperature in 47
thermometric stations AEMET of March 1, 2000 to October 31, 2009, information is
interpolated by the inverse distance weighted method of squared IDW onwards, to
generate temperature fields. And an average of 14 C is obtained, ranging from 10 C in
the mountainous areas of the northwest at 21 C in the southeast coast; with a minimum
value of -12 C and a maximum of 44 C (Figure 4-11). In the case of sub Pajaroncillo a
spatial average of 12 C with little variation (coefficient of variation of 0.04) it is
obtained.
The location and name of the 47 thermometric stations are detailed in the

Appendix A1.
The reference evapotranspiration (ET0) was obtained with the equation Hargreaves, see
for example, Allen et al. (2006):
ETo C(t med 17.78) Ro * (t max t min0.5
4.1
)

where R0 is the extraterrestrial solar radiation tabulated

as a function of latitude month (mm / d); TMED, tmax, tmin are
average temperature, maximum and minimum respectively (C);
C is the constant calibrated estimates of the Penman-Monteith
weather stations where data are available solar radiation, air
temperature, humidity and wind speed.

Figure 4-11. Distribution of the average, maximum and minimum

temperature in the Jucar river. Testing Period: March 1, 2000 to
October 31, 2009.
It has historical information of potential evapotranspiration
calculated by the Penman-Monteith in "the stiff" station of the
Province of Albacete, available on the website of the Provincial
Agricultural (ITAP, 2012) Technical Institute; and seasons "Cerrito
Requena", "Bolbaite" and "Villanueva-Castelln" of the Province
of Valencia, available on the website of the Valencian Institute of

Agrarian Research (IVIA, 2012). This information is used for

calibrating the constant "C" of the equation 4.1. A summary of
the adjustment made is detailed in Figure 4-12 and Table 4-5.

10

Estacin Las Tiesas

(Marzo 2000
a Noviembre 2009)

9
8
7

ETo Hargreaves (mm/d)

3
2

y = 0.8815x + 0.4115
R = 0.8617

1
0

2
y = 0.9264x + 0.1876
R = 0.8964

1
0

9 10 11

0
9

Estacin Bolbaite
(Junio 2006 a Enero 2009)

Estacin Requena Cerrito

(Marzo 2000 a Mayo 2008

Estacin Villanueva-Castelln
(Enero 2000 a Mayo 2009)

8
7

1
0
0

y = 0.8933x + 0.5709
R = 0.882

y = 0.8735x + 0.3962
R = 0.89

0
8

ETo Penman-Monteith
(mm/d)

Figure 4-12. Scatterplot of daily reference evapotranspiration calculated with Hargreaves and
Penman-Monteith method, and correlation coefficient (R2) at the stations indicated.

695

Error
Medio
0.782

Calibracin
Constante
2
R
(C)
0.86
0.0023679

392900"

692

0.407

0.90

0.0020617

04120"

390413"

269

0.383

0.89

0.0020366

03122"

390400"

58

0.465

0.88

0.0020617

Estacin

Provincia

Longitud
Oeste

Latitud
Norte

Altitud
msnm

Las Tiesas
Requena
Cerrito
Bolbaite
Villanueva
-Castelln

Albacete

20510"

391430"

Valencia

10600"

Valencia
Valencia

Table 4-5. Summary of the correlation coefficients (R2) and tuning constants (C)
Hargreaves equation. The tuning constants in bold, were used in the calculation
of daily reference evapotranspiration.

It 0.0020617 constant adjustment was

calculation of daily ET0 thermometric stations in
the best fit, and the constant 0.0023679
thermometric stations Albacete (unique in the
Cuenca.

used in the
Valencia to be
be used for
province) and

Thus daily ET0 values are obtained in the thermometric

stations AEMET 47 of March 1, 2000 to October 31, 2009,
information is interpolated by IDW method for generating fields
of ET0, obtaining maximum values within the basin 1308 mm /
year in the southwest to attenuated by the sea of 955 mm / year
in the coastal area (see Figure 4-13) values. In the case of sub
Pajaroncillo an average value of 1137 mm / year spatial variation
coefficient of 0.01 is obtained.

Figure 4-13. Distribution of reference evapotranspiration (ET0) daily in the river basin and sub-basin
Jcar Pajaroncillo. Period analyzed: March 1, 2000 to October 31, 200

4.4 Rain information estimated satellite

In Chapter 2 satellite products are listed with their respective global scale spatial
resolution. So: GPCP (1 and 2.5 ), TRMM (0.25 ), CMORPH (0.07277) PERSIANN
(0.25 ) and PERSIANN-CCS (0.04); which is chosen for the study product better spatial
resolution such as CCS and PERSIANN- PERSIANN previous version.
The analysis period is the period from January 1, 2003 and October 31, 2009,
and the format of the satellite products are detailed in the Table 4-6.
PERSIANN-CCS
0.04 (aprox. 4 km)
diario
mm/d
01/01/2003
CHRS-Universidad de California
Fuente
Web HyDIS
en Irvine
Cobertura espacial 50 S - 50 N, 0-360 longitud 60 S 60 N, 0-360 longitud
Geometra
400 filas x 1440 columnas
3000 filas x 9000 columnas
Formato original GRID ASCII en coordenadas Binario big endian, row centric,
geogrficas. GMT
4 byte float, GMT
Escala espacial
Escala temporal
Unidades
Disponible desde

PERSIANN
0.25 (aprox. 28 km)
6 h, diario
mm/d
01/03/2000

Table 4-6. Original format of the two products of rain estimated satellite: PERSIANN And PERSIANN-CCS

Using the Hydis server, the product information PERSIANN

trimmed to a rectangular area near the basin geometry of 11
columns by 10 rows. For information PERSIANN-CCS was
necessary to develop a code in MatLab to process the original
format GRID Binary to ASCII format and then cut to a rectangular
area near the basin geometry of 74 columns by 62 rows. Finally,
2496 GRID ASCII files, one per day, with features that are
detailed in Table 4-7 as the product of satellite estimated rainfall
were obtained
PERSIANN
Header File: n cols 11 n rows
10 xllcorner
-2.6250 yllcorner
36.875 cell size
0.25

PERSIANN-CCS
Header File: n
cols
74 n
rows 62
xllcorner -3.24
yllcorner 38.38

cell size 0.04

PERSIANN information and PERSIANN-CCS, coding required

to conform to the format compatible with the hydrological model.
Thus enters the model information respecting the spatial
variability in ASCII format and interpreted in the model as virtual
stations located in the centroid of each grid box Satellite Product:
with PERSIANN (mesh 11 columns x 10 rows) were 110 virtual
and PERSIANN- CCS stations (mesh 74 columns x 62 rows) were
4588 virtual stations. In Figure 4-14 mesh PERSIANN product
displays throughout the Jucar River and part of the mesh product
PERSIANN-CCS product in a cell PERSIANN.

Figure 4-14. Left: Spatial distribution of the mesh centroid PERSIANN (blue
dashed lines) in the Jucar river. Right: Spatial distribution of the centroids in a
part of the mesh PERSIANN-CCS (solid black lines) in a grid box PERSIANN.

Chapter 5

Hydrologic modeling
ESTIMATED RAINFALL
WITH SATELLITE
Hydrologic modeling is complex by significant variability
temporary space of the physical processes involved, due to
variations in physiographic factors such as climate, geology, soil,
vegetation, topography and human interventions (Wood, 1995);
However, advances in scientific knowledge have helped to
understand and relate these processes. Thus, the hydrologic
modeling plays an important role in most aspects of water
management and the environment.
Current distributed hydrological models to simulate flows
not only to the output of a basin, but in any part of the basin but
the effectiveness of these models depends on the availability of
input data. Thus, the estimated global TV, rain suits these
models because they have distributed rainfall data for the entire
basin. But due to the multidimensionality of error estimated
Satellite rain, it is difficult to establish a priori a product that
allows optimum hydrological application in different climatic
conditions and that is why it is necessary to assess their
performance through hydrologic modeling. Thus, in the first
section of this chapter statistical tools to assess their
performance are detailed; In the second section the
implementation of the hydrological model is presented; and in
the following sections analyze the results in terms of calibration,
validation, water balance and error propagation in the
Mediterranean basin of the river Jcar analysis for the period
January 01 reported 2003 to October 31, 2009.

5.1 Efficiency ratios used

The performance of the hydrological model was evaluated,
ie how close is the operating model of the functioning of real
system through efficiency rates as Nash-Sutcliffe (E), RSR, error
in volume (V) and graphical techniques (comparison of
hydrographs and scatter plots). The equations of E, RSR and Ev
indices are detailed in section 5.1.1.
For performance rating it compared with levels reported
by Moriasi et al. (2007) and Donigian and Imhoff (2002) detailed in Table 6-1.
Rendimiento
Muy bueno
Bueno
Satisfactorio
Insatisfactorio
Desfavorable

RSRa
0.00 RSR 0.50
0.50 < RSR 0.60
0.60 < RSR 0.70
RSR > 0.70

Ea
0.75 < E 1.00
0.65 < E 0.75
0.50 < E 0.65
E 0.50

[Ev]b
< 10%
10-15%

15-25%

Table 6-1. Performance levels of a hydrological model based on the index E, RSR and Ev monthly
b
time interval, according Moriasi et al. (2007) to Donigian- and Imhoff (2002)

We should note that the levels indicated in Table 6-1 refer to a monthly
time interval; and since the hydrological modeling of the study
it is daily, then timescale, we are more demanding in the qualification of our
results.
It used the same notation used in Chapter 5 for So, S1 and S2 for rain
gauges, rain and rain PERSIANN PERSIANN-CCS respectively. And
comparisons, To notation was used to compare the simulated flow gauges and flow
observed T1 to compare simulated flow and flow PERSIANN observed, and T2 to
compare simulated flow and flow-CCS PERSIANN observed.

5.2 Implementation of a distributed

hydrological model
5.2.1 The TETIS Model
The TETIS model is a distributed conceptual hydrological model parameters
based physically simulating main processes of the hydrological cycle. The production of
runoff is modeled using seven tanks connected in each cell modeling, describing the soil-

vegetation-atmosphere-aquifer interactions (Figure 6-1). In the study nor the tank snow
cover (To) and interception tank vegetation (T6) they were not used. The vertical flow of
water between each tank represent hydrological processes: precipitation (rain or snow,
X6), direct evaporation (Y6), effective precipitation (X1), potential evapotranspiration
(Y1), gravitational infiltration (X3), percolation (X4 ) and underground losses (X5), while
the horizontal flows represent hydrological processes: direct runoff (Y2), interflow (Y3)
and flow based (Y4).
The horizontal movement of the flow occurs in two phases separated. In the first
phase, direct runoff, interflow and base stream are defined by a mesh tank three layers
connected together, wherein the water movement is towards the corresponding tank
downstream along the flow directions proposed by the model Digital Elevation (DEM) to
reach the main drainage network. The second phase is the movement of the flow channels
on the network. The propagation channels is governed by the kinematic wave taking into
account the geomorphological features of the network of rivers, in what is called Wave
Kinematics Geomorphology (Vlez, 2001;. French et al, 2007; Velez et al., 2009).

Figure vertically 6-1.Esquema conceptual runoff production in TETIS model in each cell (the variables

are described in the text).

Hydrologic modeling is affected by various sources of

error: in the input variables, the variables observed state
(usually the outflow of the basin), in the estimation of
parameters, and the conceptualization of the model (Butts et
al. , 2004). In addition, we must add the effects of spatial and
temporal scale, when nonlinear processes in which there spatiotemporal aggregate (French et al., 2007). Therefore, the effective
use of hydrological model parameters to correct any errors that
create uncertainty in modeling; in the case of Tethys, the actual
parameters are adjusted through corrective factors that can
automatically calibrate the optimization algorithm SCE-UA
"Shuffled Complex Evolution" (Duan et al., 1992). Thus, the main
virtue TETIS model is the explicit representation of the spatial
variability of the physical characteristics and the use of a
separate calibration settings for the actual parameter structure.
The nine correction factors (French et al., 2007) are detailed in
Table 6-2.
Factor
corrector
FC1
FC2
FC3
FC4
FC5
FC6
FC7
FC8
F C9

Parmetro del modelo

Almacenamiento capilar del suelo
Factor de vegetacin
Capacidad de infiltracin
Velocidad en ladera
Capacidad de percolacin
Conductividad hidrulica del interflujo
Capacidad de prdidas del acufero
Conductividad hidrulica del acufero
Velocidad en los cauces

Smbolo
Hu

Ks

Kp
Kss
Kps
Ksa

Table 6-2. Correction factors and respective parameters set (French et al.,
2007).

Therefore, the maps of hydrological parameters of the

basin were completed to gauge the hydrological model using a
correction factor, with which the average values change but
maintain their spatial structure and its coefficient of variation.

More details on the conceptual framework and modeling

procedure the reader is referred to: French et al. (2002), French
et al. (2007), Velez et al. (2007), Morales-de la Cruz and French
(2008), Velez and French (2008), Velez et al. (2009).

5.2.2 Information Processing

In the case study of this thesis, the timescale on the

hydrologic modeling is one day (t = 1 day), and the spatial scale
corresponds to a cell size of 500 mx 500 m.
Hydrometeorological land-based information (time series
of rainfall, flow and reference evapotranspiration) and
information Satellite estimated rainfall, required an encoding
format to fit the CEDEX (data row), compatible with the
hydrological model in the period TETIS Analysis of January 1,
2003 to October 31, 2009. In the case of satellite products,
entered the model respecting all its spatial variability, which
were interpreted in the model as virtual stations located in the
centroid of each grid box satellite: 110 virtual stations virtual
stations PERSIANN and 4588 in the case of PERSIANN-CCS.
Implementation of the model, required spatial information
of the basin in GRID ASCII format. Obtained DIHMA Studio
(2002), which has already been presented in Chapter 4 was
used: digital elevation model map of accumulated cells
(necessary to estimate the speed and flow area), map of
directions of flow ( necessary to establish connectivity between
different cells), slope map (used in the estimation of surface
runoff velocity), velocity map in slope, land cover map and maps
of
hydrological
parameters.
Geomorphological
channel
parameters (k, , Cd, Cn, , 1, 2, and ), entered as
coefficients or exponents geomorphological potential type
equations.
In Table 6-3 the model parameters are summarized in the
Jucar river. And, since no information is available on Kss, Ksa and
KPS, the approach has been adopted: Kss = Ks, and KPS Ksa =
Kp = 0.1Kp. Therefore, the calibration correction factors take into
account possible errors in estimating magnitude of the initial
maps.

The initial conditions of static storage tanks (H1) and

underground (H4), were calculated by heating (Velez and French,
2008) for the PERSIANN product.
And in the case of product
PERSIANN-CCS, because no information was available, it was
estimated by recirculation, in which the initial conditions of
moisture are obtained from the final terms of moisture from a
previous simulation.

5.2.3 Calibration and validation procedure

In automatic calibration algorithm used TETIS SE-USA for
the nine correction factors model. However, you can get multiple
sets of parameters that produce acceptable simulations as
objective function, in what is called equifinality (Beven, 1989;
Quintero et al, 2012.). To reduce the possibility of falling into the
problem of equifinality is needed before a manual calibration
automatic calibration, further result in fewer iterations to
converge to the solution (which has a direct impact on the
computation time optimization).
The success of the manual calibration dependent
modeling experience and his knowledge and interaction with the
model. In this regard, Eckhardt and Arnold (2001) indicate that it
is subjective and can consume more time. Therefore, we
recommend setting the base stream and then the error rate in
the volume are more sensitive to the initial conditions of
moisture in the static tank and manually first aquifer level; and
leave the setting of maximum flow for automatic calibration. In
automatic calibration, it was taken as objective function

optimization Nash-Sutcliffe index (E), which is more sensitive to

peak flows.
In validation, correction factors obtained from the
calibration were used; and for temporal validation, the system
response was simulated using a part of the time series data that
are not used in the calibration. For validation spatiotemporal
system response was simulated in a place different from the
calibration station.

5.3 Calibration Results

Cassiraga et al. (2002) note that the maximum intensity of
the rain is strongly influenced by its spatio-temporal; and
therefore in the best flood forecasting in real time. So, any
progress in the temporary space characterization of the rain will
allow a more reliable and realistic models of distributed
operation. Thus, the calibration is performed from a physical
point of view in order to correctly interpret the parameters
regarding their spatial variability.
The point calibration was performed at the output of the
sub-basin Pajaroncillo (drained area of 861 km2) for the analysis
period January 1 to July 31, 2003 with rain gauge (So), rain
PERSIANN (S1) and PERSIANN- rain CCS (S2). Table 6-4 shows the
correction factors to which was reached after calibration. And we
see that the correction factor is reduced evapotranspiration with
PERSIANN 71% and 32% increases with PERSIANN-CCS, because
the hydrological model tries to compensate for the
underestimation of the PERSIANN rain and rain PERSIANNoverestimation of CCS . This is also causing PERSIANN-CCS
PERSIANN get higher than in the correction factors static storage
values, infiltration, direct, percolation and interflow runoff.
Factores correctores
FC-1 Almacenamiento esttico
FC-2 Evapotranspiracin
FC-3 Infiltracin
FC-4 Escorrenta directa
FC-5 Percolacin
FC-6 Interflujo
FC-7 Prdidas subterrneas
FC-8 Flujo base

So
0.897
0.648
0.925
0.004
0.114
494.897
0.000
2.002

S1
0.704
0.186
0.558
0.001
0.016
113.524
0.000
9.594

S2
0.870
0.853
0.726
0.003
0.024
118.891
0.000
2.985

FC-9 Velocidad en los cauces

0.834

0.621

0.537

Table 6-4. Calibration correction factors in the watershed of Pajaroncillo with

So, S1 and S2.
Calibration period: January 1 to July 31, 2003.

Calibration of hydrological model parameters TETIS has

raised the performance modeling. Also, various authors
performed a calibration of the hydrological model to improve
performance with products of satellite rainfall estimate (Stisen
and Sandholt, 2010; Bitew and Gebremichael, 2011b; Bitew et al,
2011;.. Jiang et al, 2012; Moreno et al., 2012).
E values, RSR and Ev reflected in Table 6-5 were obtained,
considering that the model performance is "very good" with
gauge (So), "unsatisfactory" with PERSIANN (S1) and
"satisfactory" with PERSIAN -CCS (S2) according to the levels
reported in Table 6-1.
ndices de eficiencia
Nash-Stucliffe (E)
RMSE estandarizado (RSR)
Error en volumen en % (Ev)

So
S1
0.80 0.27
0.45 0.85
0.06 -10.48

S2
0.51
0.70
-7.55

Table 6-5. Efficiency ratings in the sub calibration Pajaroncillo with So, S1 and S2.
Calibration period: January 1 to July 31, 2003

The results are encouraging with rain PERSIANN-CCS (S2)

and it seems that better data resolution raster rain S2, lower
FBIAS and an error of overestimation in the volume of rain
(section 5.3.1), cause Satellite this product is better suited
hydrologic modeling. Similar results regarding satellite products
with better spatial resolution, are reported by Nikolopoulos et al.
(2010) with product KIDD (resolution 4 km) from the productTRMM 3B42 (resolution 0.25 ) and Kidd (resolution 25 km).
Regarding modeling rain PERSIANN (S1), a coarse spatial
resolution S1 of the rain and the error of underestimating the
volume of rain S1 (section 5.3.1) are negatively affecting the
modeling, since there is insufficient rain to feed the hydrological
cycle, but this is possibly dampening with the highest probability
of detection of S1 rain. All this is resulting in a Nash-Sutcliffe
index (E) low. In this regard, Moreno et al. (2012) report on the
automatic model calibration tribs rain PERSIANN, E values
ranging from -0.48 to 0.79 in four sub-basins of the Colorado

River and areas of complex topography ranging from 35-350

km2.
There is significant positive correlation (Figure 6-2) the
flow observed and simulated flow in all cases. On stage with
values obtained To
0.71 and 0.89; Compared with T1 values of 0.53 and 0.58; T2
and comparing values of 0.62 and 0.73 (first Pearson correlation
value and second Kendall). It has used a significance level of 5%
and the statistical Student t test for the coefficient of Pearson,
and statistical test "sum of order" for the coefficient of Kendall
(Hirsh et al., 1992).

Figure 6-2. Scatterplot of observed and simulated daily flow calibration subbasin To Pajaroncillo with
comparisons (left), T1 (middle) and T2 (right) flow. Calibration period: January 1 to July 31, 2003.

In the hydrograph generated calibration with rain gauges

(Figure 6-3 left), the base flow and shape of the recession curve
reproduces well, peak flows and days that occur are detected,
but underestimates its value maximum 26%.
In hydrographs generated from the proceeds of satellite
PERSIANN (Figure 6-3 center), you may notice that it recognizes
the basic flow, fails to detect peak flows and underestimates its
maximum value at 59%. Instead, rain PERSIANN-CCS (Figure 6-3
right) play nicely hydrograph base flow and shape of the curve of
recession, it detects most peak flows and days when they occur,
but underestimates its maximum value 48%. That is, both
satellite products are underestimating its maximum value. In this
regard, Nikolopoulos et al. (2010) report that the estimated
satellite rain underestimate their value in the range of 10 to 80%
and this causes a simulated error rate in the same order of
magnitude in different satellite products: TRMM-3B42 (0.25 )

Kidd-KIDD-4 km and 25 km.

Figure 6-3. Calibration hydrographs generated in the sub Pajaroncillo with rain gauges (left), rain
PERSIANN (center) and rain PERSIANN-CCS (right). Calibration period: January 1 to July 31, 2003.

5.4 Validation Results

5.4.1 Time validation
The temporary validation was performed on the same
calibration station (at the exit of the sub Pajaroncillo, drained
area of 861 km2) for the analysis period August 1, 2003 to
October 31, 2009 with rain gauge (So) , rain PERSIANN (S1) and
rain PERSIANN-CCS (S2).
With rain gauges, values of E, RSR and Ev (Table 6-6) of
0.79, 0.46 and 13.87% respectively were obtained. Therefore, we
can say that the performance of the model D is "very good"
according to the levels reported in Table 6-1. Unlike the
unsatisfactory performance with both satellite products with
values of E, RSR and Ev to -2.02, 1.74 and 54.08% with S1 and
values of -0.90, 1.38 and 53.93% with S2, respectively.

ndices de eficiencia
Nash-Stucliffe (E)
RMSE estandarizado (RSR)
Error en volumen en % (Ev)

So
0.79
0.46
13.87

S1
-2.02
1.74
54.08

S2
-0.90
1.38
5 3 .9 3

Table 6-6.ndices efficiency of temporary validation subbasin with Pajaroncillo So, S1 and S2 rains.
Validation time period: August 1, 2003 to October 31, 2009.

There is significant positive correlation (Figure 6-4) the

flow observed and simulated flow in all cases. With values of
0.43 to 0.90 coefficient Pearson and Kendall in the case of To.
However, in the case of T1 values of 0.31 and 0.15 are obtained;
and T2 values of 0.18 and 0.52.

Figure 6-4. Scatterplot of observed and simulated daily flow of temporary

validation subbasin To Pajaroncillo with comparisons (left), T1 (middle) and T2
(right) flow. Validation time period: August 1, 2003 to October 31, 2009.

In Figure 6-5 (left), the hydrograph simulated rain gauges,

flow basis and recognizes the shape of the curve recession well,
and detects peak flows occurring days but underestimates its
maximum value in most cases. However, hydrographs generated
satellite products, not while acknowledging the flow base and
fails to detect the maximum flow (Figure 6-5, center and right).

Figure 6-5. Hydrographs generated from the temporary validation subbasin Pajaroncillo with rain
gauges (left), rain PERSIANN (center) and rain PERSIANN-CCS (right). Validation time
period: August 1, 2003 to October 31 2009.

5.4.2 Validation temporary space

The point of space-time validation was performed at the
entrance to the reservoir Contreras (drained area of 3,427 km2)
for the analysis period January 1, 2003 to October 31, 2009 with

rain gauge (So), rain PERSIANN (S1) and rain PERSIANN-CCS

(S2).
Due to evaporation losses and leaks of Contreras
reservoir, it is considered using the correction factor for
underground losses (resulting in a value FC7 = 0.043)
corresponding to a loss of 11% from the rain. E efficiency ratios,
RSR and Ev (Table 6-7) to D were 0.58, 1.54 and 0.09%
respectively, which is considered a "very good" performance,
according to the levels reported in Table 6-1. Unlike the
"unsatisfactory" performance with both satellite products with
values of E, RSR and Ev - 1.87, 1.69 and 56.59% with S1 and
-3.25, 2.06 and 118.61% with S2, respectively.
ndices de eficiencia
Nash-Stucliffe (E)
RMSE estandarizado (RSR)
Error en volumen en % (Ev)

So
S1
0.58 -1.87
1.54 1.69
0.09 56.59

S2
-3.25
2.06
118.61

Table 6-7. Efficiency index validation Contreras temporary space in the sub
with So, S1 and S2. Temporary space validation period: January 1, 2003 to
October 31, 2009.

From the point of view of the scattergram flows between simulated and observed
(Figure 6-6) positive correlation exists in all cases. With values of 0.68 and 0.80 with To,
0.11 and 0.19 T1, T2 0.55 and 0.51, depending on the correlation test (Pearson correlation
first and second Kendall value).

Figure 6-6. Scatterplot of observed and simulated flow rate of validation

Contreras temporary space with sub To (left), T1 (middle) and T2 (right).
Temporary space validation period: January 1, 2003 to October 31, 2009.

The hydrograph simulated rain gauges well recognized

basis flow and the shape of the curve recession peak flows
detected and days occurring but underestimates its maximum
value at 37%. (Figure 6-7, left). However, in the hydrographs
generated satellite products, it shows that it recognizes no flow
basis and fails to detect the maximum flow (Figure 6-7, center
and right)

Figure 6-7. Hydrographs generated validation Contreras temporary space in

the sub with rain gauges (left), rain PERSIANN (center) and rain PERSIANN-CCS
(right). Temporary space validation period: January 1, 2003 to October 31,
2009.

5.5 Water balance

In addition to comparing the flow hydrographs, analysis of
the resulting water balance is another important tool for
assessing the validity of satellite products indicator. Thus, in
Table 6-8 the average values of the components of the water
balance simulation with daily rain gauge (So), rain PERSIANN
(S1) and rain PERSIANN-CCS (S2) in the sub-basin is collected for
Pajaroncillo the analysis period January 1, 2003 to October 31,
2009.

Balance hdrico
Lluvia (mm/d)
Evapotranspiracin real (mm/d)
Prdidas subterrneas (mm/d)
Caudal observado (mm/d)
Caudal simulado (mm/d)
Almacenamiento esttico (mm)
Almacenamiento superficial (mm)
Almacenamiento gravitacional (mm)
Almacenamiento en el acufero (mm)
Flujo superficial (%)
Interflujo (%)
Flujo base (%)

So
1.64
1.32
0.00
0.34
0.38
59
0.3
2
82
17
9
74

S1
1.02
0.58
0.00
0.34
0.47
89
2
8
35
24
11
65

S2
2.13
1.71
0.00
0.34
0.47
59
1
7
67
28
10
62

Table 5-8. Average values of flows and storage in the water balance in the
watershed of Pajaroncillo with So, S1 and S2. Testing Period: January 1, 2003 to
October 31, 2009.

In the water balance with rain gauges, values of 1.64 are

obtained, 1.32 and 0.38 mm of rainfall, actual evapotranspiration
and the simulated flow respectively. It also distributes the flow by
17% as direct runoff, interflow 9% and 74% as base flow. These
results suggest that in sub Pajaroncillo, the flow is never
exhausted and that recessions are short in time, that is a subbasin with permanent flow. With satellite products, 38% less rain
PERSIANN and 30% more rain PERSIANN-CCS is obtained. This
clearly influences variations in runoff production mechanisms in
the watershed of Pajaroncillo, as shown in Figure 5-8.

Figure 5-8. Composition runoff with rain gauge, rain and rain PERSIANN
PERSIANN-CCS in the watershed of Pajaroncillo. Testing Period: January 01,
2003 to October 31, 2009.

As the hydrological model tries to maintain a flow rate

similar to observed behavior (since the calibration strategy is a
function of the flow and not a component of the water balance),
you get the actual evapotranspiration by 56% with PERSIANN is
reduced and increased by 30% PERSIANN-CCS. Similar behavior
is reported in the rain evapotranspiration component PERSIANN
for Bitew and Gebremichael (2011b) and Moreno et al. (2012).
In Figure 6-9 the daily evolution of flows (direct runoff,
interflow and baseflow), storage (static, gravitational and
aquifer), actual evapotranspiration (ETR) is seen rain. It
highlights the differences in the values of rain and ETR, with
higher values in PERSIANN-CCS and lower values in PERSIANN,
about rain gauges.

Figure 6-9. Daily evolution of flows and main variables of water balance in the watershed
of Pajaroncillo with rain gauge (left), rain PERSIANN (center) and rain PERSIANN-CCS
(right). Testing Period: January 1, 2003 to October 31 2009.

5.6 Error propagation simulated rain to flow

Nikolopoulos et al. (2010) indicate that the evaluation of
error propagation is a difficult task because it is related to
various factors such as: (i) own instrumental satellite product
issues, (ii) basin scale, (iii) scale space -temporal rain, (iv) level
of complexity and physical processes represented by the
hydrological model and (v) regional characteristics.
In this thesis, the error propagation is analyzed through
efficiency ratios rain and flow rate are plotted as shown in Figure
6-10, if the error displayed in the rain spreads in error equals or
is runoff dimming or get worse through hydrologic modeling for
different scales of aggregation basin. If the points are set to 1: 1

line, means that the error in the rain propagates in an error equal
to runoff, while they are placed within the shaded areas in the
figure indicate that the error is damped by hydrologic modeling.
The values of efficiency ratios E, RSR and Ev rain,
correspond to those in Figure 5-16. And in the case of
hydrological modeling, it was quantified through indices E, RSR
and Ev calculated calibration Pajaroncillo (212 days), temporary
validation Pajaroncillo (2284 days) and validation spatiotemporal
in Albaida, Contreras Alarcon and Swedish (2496 days).
It was found that the error in volume of rain is dampened
with both satellite products. Conversely, the failure of rain in
terms of E and RSR worse hydrologic modeling, except in the
smallest such as Pajaroncillo (861 km2) and Albaida (1,301 km2)
that are perfectly matched with line 1 basins: 1 . In this regard,
Nikolopoulos et al. (2010) report that basins with 400 km2
smaller areas are better able to buffer the error of simulated rain
to flow. In addition, Wigmosta and Prasad (2005) indicate that
small and medium watersheds, slope processes dominate the
shape and size of the hydrograph and the residence time of
water in the drainage network is small compared to the slope; so
the network plays a secondary role in the hydrological response.
However in large basins, the residence time in the system of
channels is greater and there is a strong influence of the network
of channels in the form and magnitude of the hydrograph,
however, slope processes remain important because they
determine the volume Water that enters the network channels.

Figure 6-10. Efficiency ratings of rain areal efficiency ratios vs simulated flow,
with S1 and S2 at different levels of aggregation basin. Ev in absolute value.

5.7 Discussion of Results

Hydrologic modeling (Figure 6-3 and Figure 6-5) with rain
PERSIANN get an "unsatisfactory" performance values E, RSR
and Ev of 0.27, 0.85 and -10.48% in calibration; -2.02, 1.74 and
54.08% in temporal validation. Instead, rain PERSIANN-CCS
"satisfactory" performance, with values of E, RSR and Ev is
obtained: 0.51, 0.70 and -7.55% in calibration; and -0.90, 1.38
and 53.93% in temporal validation. In addition, the calibration
simulated hydrograph play nicely base flow and detects most
peak flows and days when events occur, also recognizes the
maximum flow but underestimates its value by 48%.
Calibration of hydrological model parameters TETIS has
raised the performance modeling. Also, various authors
performed a calibration of the hydrological model to improve
performance with products of satellite rainfall estimate (Stisen

and Sandholt, 2010; Bitew and Gebremichael, 2011b; Bitew et al,

2011;.. Jiang et al, 2012; Moreno et al., 2012).
The results are encouraging with PERSIANN-CCS rain and it
seems that better resolution raster data of rain, less FBIAS and
an error of overestimation in the volume of rain, causing that this
product is best suited to satellite hydrologic modeling. Similar
results regarding satellite products with better spatial resolution,
are reported by Nikolopoulos et al. (2010) with product KIDD
(resolution 4 km) of better spatial resolution in respect of the
TRMM-3B42 (resolution 0.25 ) and KIDD products (25 km
resolution). By contrast, in the rain PERSIANN modeling, a coarse
spatial resolution of raster data from the rain and the mistake of
underestimating the volume of rain are negatively affecting the
modeling, since there is insufficient rain to feed the cycle
hydrological, but this dampening is possibly most likely rain
detection. In this regard, Moreno et al. (2012) report on the
automatic model calibration tribs rain PERSIANN, E values
ranging from - 0.48 to 0.79 in four sub-basins of the Colorado
River and areas of complex topography ranging from 35-350
km2.
In the water balance with PERSIANN-CCS (Table 6-8)
average values of 2.13, 1.71 and 0.47 mm / d of rainfall, actual
evapotranspiration and the simulated flow respectively are
obtained. Satellite With this product you get 30% more rain than
rain gauges; unlike that gets a PERSIANN 38% less rain than rain
gauges. This overestimation and underestimation of rain, is
clearly influencing changes in runoff production mechanisms in
the watershed of Pajaroncillo. So you get with rain PERSIANNCCS values of 28, 10 and 62% in direct runoff, interflow and
baseflow respectively that can be seen in Figure 6-8.
Another interesting aspect of the water balance is found in
the different play evapotranspiration. As the hydrological model
tries to maintain a flow similar to observed behavior (since the
calibration strategy is a function of the flow and not a
component of the water balance), you get the corrective factor
evapotranspiration is reduced to 71% PERSIANN and increases
by 32% PERSIANN-CCS to finally get a 56% evapotranspiration
with PERSIANN is reduced and 30% with PERSIANN-CCS (Figure
6-9). Similar behavior is reported in evapotranspiration

component with rain PERSIANN understatement, for Bitew and

Gebremichael (2011b) and Moreno et al. (2012).
With respect to error propagation estimation rain
simulation to hydrological (Figure 6-10), the error in volume of
rain is damped through the process of rain-runoff transformation.
Unlike the mistake of rain in terms of E and RSR, which worsen
with hydrological modeling, except in smaller basins as
Pajaroncillo (861 km2) and Albaida (1,301 km2).

Chapter 6

CONCLUSIONS AND
FUTURE WORK.
6.1 Conclusions
Currently, the estimated satellite rainfall is subject to
various errors due to instrumental problems, nature of the
measuring system, theoretical simplifications and complex
relationships between observed variables and rain, among other
reasons (Nikolopoulos et al, 2010;. Semire et al ., 2012); This
limits their use in hydrological applications, reducing to very
controlled experimental environments or areas where there are
no other possibilities of observation. Therefore, reducing the
error is key to their widespread hydrological application. In this
study, two rain Estimated products with different spatial
resolution satellite, PERSIANN (0.25 ) and PERSIANN-CCS (0.04)
were evaluated through a distributed hydrological model as an
extratropical basin is the basin of the river Jcar reasonably well
orchestrated.
The specific to the area of study, results indicate that
spatial correlations between the estimated satellite from rain and
rain reference is acceptable, less acceptable annual level on a
monthly basis, but poor on a daily scale. In winter the daily

correlation is weaker, because the rains are more concentrated

in the mountainous areas and perhaps, this orographic effect is
not well detected by satellites. By contrast, in summer the
opposite pattern, with significant positive correlation was
observed, possibly due to the increased presence of rainless
days (zero). This is reflected in higher with the Pearson
coefficient values in summer, since the presence of zeros favors
greater correlation; instead coefficient Kendall best represents
these cases, as it resists the effect of extreme values (minimum
values in this case). Errors with high rainfall and maximum
frequency of light rain overestimation is also obtained.

In general, rain-CCS PERSIANN overestimates while

PERSIANN different scales underestimate aggregation basin. In
addition, PERSIANN is more likely to detect rain, but also of false
alarms. Rain detection is lower in the basin of the river Albaida
(coastal area with torrential rains and likely fall SCM) in the subbasin Pajaroncillo (mountainous area with orographic rainfall). Ie
these differences in the two products detection satellite, are
being influenced by climatic and physiographic features of the
area, which coincides with that reported by Hossain and Huffman
(2008).
The error in volume (V) of rain, for all levels of aggregation
basin underestimated and overestimated PERSIANN with
PERSIANN-CCS. The Albaida (1301 km2) basin have better
performance in terms of efficiency rating of Nash-Sutcliffe (E) in
the estimation of the rain with both satellite products; instead
the smaller Pajaroncillo basin (861 km2) has better performance
but only with Ev PERSIANN-CCS product.
Calibration of hydrological model parameters TETIS has
raised the performance modeling. Also, various authors
performed a calibration of the hydrological model to improve
performance with products of satellite rainfall estimate (Stisen
and Sandholt, 2010; Bitew and Gebremichael, 2011b; Bitew et al,
2011;.. Jiang et al, 2012; Moreno et al., 2012). Thus, in
hydrological modeling, "unsatisfactory" PERSIANN yields are
obtained, whereas yields PERSIANN-CCS become "satisfactory".
The results are encouraging with rain PERSIANN-CCS and it

seems that better resolution raster data of rain, less FBIAS and
an error of overestimation in the volume of rain, causing that this
product is best suited satellite in hydrologic modeling. Similar
results regarding satellite products with better spatial resolution,
are reported by Nikolopoulos et al. (2010) with product KIDD (4
km) of better spatial resolution in respect of the TRMM-3B42
(0.25 ) and Kidd (25 km) product. By contrast, in the rain
PERSIANN modeling, a coarse spatial resolution of raster data
from the rain and the mistake of underestimating the volume of
rain are negatively affecting the modeling, since there is
insufficient rain to feed the cycle hydrological, but this is possibly
dampening with the highest probability of detection PERSIANN
rain.
As the hydrological model tries to maintain a flow similar
to observed behavior (since the calibration strategy is a function
of the flow and not a component of the water balance), you get
the corrective factor evapotranspiration is reduced to 71%
PERSIANN and increases by 32% PERSIANN-CCS to finally obtain
evapotranspiration is reduced and increases with PERSIANN
PERSIANN-CCS.
Similar
behavior
is
reported
in
evapotranspiration
component
with
rain
PERSIANN
understatement, for Bitew and Gebremichael (2011b) and
Moreno et al. (2012).
With respect to error propagation estimating the
hydrological rain simulation, the error in volume of rain is
damped through the process of rain-runoff transformation. Unlike
the mistake of rain in terms of E and RSR, which worsen with
hydrological modeling, except in smaller basins as Pajaroncillo
(861 km2) and Albaida (1,301 km2).
In order to improve the possibilities of practical use of
satellite rain, a Bayesian model was implemented to combine
information from rain gauges PERSIANN-CCS with different
densities in the mountainous rain gauges Pajaroncillo subbasin.
The specific to the area of study, results indicate that the
average value of the rain-CCS PERSIANN estimated with
improved lower densities from 100 km2 / gauge. By contrast, for
densities greater than 100 km2 / gauge, the average value
worsens in the range of 20 to 200%, according to increase the
density of the network of rain gauges. Similar behavior with

other statistical found. Thus, it is clear a significant improvement

in the statistics for less than 100 km2 / density gauge, an
increase of POD, CSI, PC and HSS, and reduction of FAR. In
addition, a significant improvement is observed in all FBIAS
densities gauges, except for the density of 45 km2 / gauge.
Efficiency ratings rain E, RSR and Ev stabilize at a lower 100 km2
/ density gauge.
With regard to the hydrologic modeling using Bayesian
model combination of rain, "good" yields are obtained "very
good" with lower densities to 100 km2 / rain gauge, obtaining
the best performance for a density of 72 km2 / rain gauge which
suitably it reproduces the basis hydrogram flow and curve shape
of recession detects most days and maximum flows occurring,
but underestimates its maximum value on a 37%. Do not rule
out that this could be due to underestimation in mountainous
regions such as Pajaroncillo, rainfall stations tend to be in the
valleys and thus underestimate the orographic rain (Ebert et al.,
2007; Alvarez, 2011). Regarding the error propagation of rain, it
is that the error in volume of rain is cushioned in all densities
gauge (except with a density of 431 km2 / gauge), but worse in
terms of E and RSR, except for lower densities to 172 km2 /
gauge.
As a final conclusion we can say that the new product
estimate rain PERSIANN-CCS, and increase its spatial resolution,
also improvement in reliability for use in hydrologic modeling,
especially when combined with data from rain gauge, becoming
the starting point for future research.

6.2 Future research

Future research Based on the development of this thesis
the following future research topics arise:
Despite the good results of modeling with rain PERSIANNCCS in the case of application to Jcar River Basin, it is not to
recommend their implementation on a practical level in
engineering work to support decision making in the context of
environmental management and watershed management. To
have a high level of confidence in the performance of this

product from TV, it is necessary to combine the rain rain rain

gauge PERSIANN-CCS on a large number of well instrumented
experimental basins under different climatic conditions.
It is necessary to compare the results with other productspecific satellite for the Iberian Peninsula, such as RRC algorithm
"Convective Rainfall Rate" and its improved version, which
estimates the rain with satellite information MSG-RSR north and
south of Europe , and are calibrated with data from radar AEMET
and BALTRAD and correction factors growth rate of cloud
temperature gradient correction "parallax" orographic correction
and algorithm for lightning (Luque et al., 2006; SAFNWC, 2012 ).
The classification of the rain depending on its intensity
and according to the season, could help in the discussion and
characterize the error from these views. So, Labo (2012)
evaluates three satellite products and reports its results in three
categories rain rates: low, moderate and high. In addition,
Hossain and Huffman (2008) indicate that satellite estimates of
rainfall depends on the resolution of the satellite, region, season
and rain threshold, so it is necessary to assess the rain to these
different conditions and thus better understand the sources of
error in the estimated satellite rain. And based on this type of
analysis you could develop a probabilistic error model to
simulate space-time stochastic realizations satellite rainfall
estimate and quantify their impact on the uncertainty of
hydrological simulation.