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This rich variety of genes, species, biological communities, and life-sustaining biological
and chemical processes
Gives us food, wood, fibers, energy, raw materials, industrial chemicals, and
medicines, all of which pour hundreds of billions of dollars into the world economy each year.
Provides us with free recycling, purification, and natural pest control services.
Every species here today (1) contains genetic information that represents thousands to
millions of years of adaptation to the earth's changing environmental conditions and (2) is
the raw material for future adaptations. Loss of biodiversity (1) reduces the availability of
ecosystem services and (2) decreases the ability of species, communities, and ecosystems
to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Biodiversity is nature's insurance policy
against disasters.
Some people also include human cultural diversity as part of the earth's biodiversity. The
variety of human cultures represents numerous social and technological solutions to
changing environmental conditions.
EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
We can summarize the 3.7-billion-year biological history of the earth in one sentence:
Organisms convert solar energy to food, chemicals cycle, and a variety of species with
different biological roles (niches) has evolved in response to changing environmental
conditions.
Each species here today represents a long chain of evolution, and each of these
species plays a unique ecological role in the earth's communities and ecosystems. These
species, communities, and ecosystems also are essential for future evolution as the earth
continues its long history of environmental change.
How was the earth's species evolved and what is the nature of their niches or biological
roles. This information is important for helping us (1) understand the effects of human
actions on wild species and (2) protect species-including the human species-from
premature extinction.
Evidence about the earth's early history comes from chemical analysis and measurements
of radioactive elements in primitive rocks and fossils. Chemists have also conducted
laboratory experiments showing how simple inorganic compounds in the earth's early
atmosphere might have reacted to produce amino acids, simple sugars, and other organic
molecules used as building blocks for the protein, complex carbohydrate, RNA, and DNA
molecules needed for life. From this diverse evidence scientists have hypothesized that
life on the earth developed in two phases over the past 4.7-4.8 billion years):
The process of natural selection occurs when some individuals of a population have
genetically based traits that increase their chances of survival and their ability to produce
offspring.
Some biologists have proposed that interactions between species also can result in
microevolution in each of their populations. According to this hypothesis, when
populations of two different species interact over a long time, changes in the gene pool of
one species can lead to changes in the gene pool of the other species. This process is
called coevolution.
Suppose that certain individuals in a population of carnivores (such as owls) become
better at hunting prey (such as mice). Because of genetic variation, certain individuals of
the prey have traits that allow them to escape or hide from their predators, and they pass
these adaptive traits on to some of their offspring. However, a few individuals in the
predator population also may have traits (such as better eyesight or quicker reflexes) that
allow them to hunt the better-adapted prey successfully. They would then pass these traits
on to some of their offspring.
Similarly, individual plants in a population may evolve defenses, such as camouflage,
thorns, or poisons, against efficient herbivores. In turn, some herbivores in the population
may have genetic characteristics that enable them to overcome these defenses and
produce more offspring than those without such traits.
ECOLOGICAL NICHES
What Is an Ecological Niche? If asked what role a certain species such as an alligator
plays in an ecosystem, an ecologist would describe its ecological niche, or simply niche
(pronounced "nitch"), the species' way of life or functional role in an ecosystem. A
species' niche involves everything that affects its survival and reproduction. This includes
(1) its range of tolerance for various physical and chemical conditions, such as
temperature or water availability (2) the types and amounts of resources it uses, such as
food or nutrients and space, (3) how it interacts with other living and nonliving
components of the ecosystems in which it is found, and (4) the role it plays in the energy
flow and matter cycling in an ecosystem.
The ecological niche of a species is different from its habitat, or physical location, where
it lives. Ecologists often say that a niche is like a species' occupation, whereas habitat is
like its address.
A species' ecological niche represents the adaptations or adaptive traits that its members
have acquired through evolution. These traits enable its members to survive and
reproduce more effectively under a given set of environmental conditions.
Understanding a species' niche is important because it can help us (1) prevent it from
becoming prematurely extinct and (2) assess the environmental changes we make in
terrestrial and aquatic systems. For example, how will the niches of various species be
changed by clearing a forest, plowing up a grassland, filling in a wetland, or dumping
pollutants into a lake or stream?
What Is the Difference Between a Species' Fundamental Niche and Its Realized
Niche?
A species' fundamental niche is the full potential range of physical, chemical, and
biological conditions and resources it could theoretically use if there were no direct
competition from other species. But in a particular ecosystem, species often compete with
one another for one or more of the same resources. This means the niches of competing
species overlap.
To survive and avoid competition for the same resources, a species usually occupies only
part of its fundamental niche in a particular community or ecosystem-what ecologists call
its realized niche. By analogy, you may be capable of being president of a particular
company (your fundamental professional niche), but competition from others may mean
you may become only a vice president (your realized professional niche).
The niches of species can be used to broadly classify them as generalists or specialists.
Generalist species have broad niches. They can (1) live in many different places, (2) eat
a variety of foods, and (3) tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. Flies,
cockroaches, mice, rats, whitetailed deer, raccoons, coyotes, copperheads, channel
catfish, and humans are generalist species.
Specialist species have narrow niches. They may be able to (1) live in only one type of
habitat, (2) use only one or a few types of food, or (3) tolerate only a narrow range of
climatic and other environmental conditions. This makes them more prone to extinction
when environmental conditions change. Examples of specialists are (1) tiger salamanders, which can breed only in fishless ponds so their larvae will not be eaten, (2) redcockaded woodpeckers, which carve nest holes almost exclusively in old (at least 75
years) longleaf pines, (3) spotted owls, which need old-growth forests in the Pacific
Northwest for food and shelter, and (4) China's highly endangered giant pandas, which
feed almost exclusively on various types of bamboo.
Is it better to be a generalist than a specialist? It depends. When environmental
conditions are fairly constant, as in a tropical rain forest, specialists have an advantage
because they have fewer competitors. But under rapidly changing environmental
conditions, the generalist usually is better off than the specialist.
What Are Two Common Misconceptions About Evolution? Two common
misconceptions about evolution are as follows:
"Survival of the fittest" means "survival of the strongest." To biologists, fitness is a
measure of reproductive success not strength. Thus the fittest individuals are those that
leave the most descendants.
Evolution involves some grand plan of nature in which species become progressively
more perfect. From a scientific standpoint, no plan or goal of perfection exists in the
evolutionary process. However, some people (creationists) believe there is a conflict
between the scientific theory of evolution and their religious beliefs about how life was
created on the earth.
SPECIATION, EXTINCTION, AND BIODIVERSITY
How Do New Species Evolve?
Under certain circumstances, natural selection can lead to an entirely new species. In this
process, called speciation, two species arise from one. So, Speciation is the evolution of
two species from one species because of divergent natural selection in response to
changes in environmental conditions. It usually takes thousands of years to take place.
The most common mechanism of speciation (especially among animals) takes place in
two phases: geographic isolation and reproductive isolation.
Geographic isolation occurs when groups of the same population of a species become
physically separated for long periods. For example, part of a population may migrate in
search of food and then begin living in another area with different environmental
conditions. Populations also may become separated (1) by a physical barrier (such as a
mountain range, stream, lake, or road), (2) by a change such as a volcanic eruption or
earthquake, or (3) when a few individuals are carried to a new area by wind or water.
The second phase of speciation is reproductive isolation. It occurs when mutation and
natural selection operate independently in two geographically isolated populations and
change the allele frequencies in different ways. If this process, called divergence, continues long enough, members of the geographically and reproductively isolated populations
may become so different in genetic makeup that (1) they cannot interbreed, or (2) if they
do, they cannot produce live, fertile offspring. Then one species has become two, and
speciation has occurred through divergent evolution.
How Do Species Become Extinct?
After speciation, the second process affecting the number and types of species on the
earth is extinction. Extinction is the ultimate fate of all species, just as death is for all
individual organisms. It occurs when the last individual member of a species dies. Local
extinction occurs when a species disappears from a part of its range but persists elsewhere.
Global extinction means that a species becomes extinct everywhere.
Extinction is an irreversible loss: once a species is extinct it can never reappear. Although
extinction is the role of nature, the rate of extinctions has varied greatly over geologic time and
has increased rapidly since the industrial revolution. When environmental conditions change,
a species must (1) evolve (become better adapted), (2) move to a more favorable area (if
possible), or (3) cease to exist (become extinct).
The earth's long-term patterns of speciation and extinction have been affected by several
major factors: (1) large-scale movements of the continents (continental drift) over
millions of years, (2) gradual climate changes caused by continental drift and slight shifts
in the earth's orbit around the sun, and (3) rapid climate change caused by catastrophic
events (such as large volcanic eruptions, huge meteorites and asteroids crashing into the
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earth, and release of large amounts of methane trapped beneath the ocean floor). Some of
these events create dust clouds that shut down or sharply reduce photosynthesis long
enough to eliminate huge numbers of producers and, soon thereafter, the consumers that
fed on them.
Extinction is the ultimate fate of all species, just as death is for all individual organisms.
Biologists estimate that 99.9% of all the species that have ever existed are now extinct.
As local environmental conditions change, a certain number of species disappear at a
low rate, called background extinction. In contrast, mass extinction is a significant rise
in extinction rates above the background level.
Causes of Extinction
Causes of extinction are usually grouped into five categories: population risk, environmental
risk, natural catastrophe, genetic risk, and human actions.
Population Risk
Random variations in population rates can cause a species in low abundance to become extinct.
This is termed population risk. For example, blue whales swim over vast areas of ocean. Because
whaling once reduced the total population to only several hundred individuals, there were
probably year-to-year variations in the success of individual blue whales in finding mates. If in
one year most whales were unsuccessful in finding a mate, then births could be dangerously low.
Such random variation in populations, typical among many species, can occur without any
change in the environment. It is a risk especially to species that consist of only a single
population in one habitat.
Environmental Risk
Population size can be affected by changes in the environment that occur from day to day, month
to month, year to year, even though the changes are not severe enough to be considered
environmental catastrophes. Environmental risks involve variation in the physical or biological
environment, including variations in predator, prey, symbiotic, or competitor species.
In some cases, species are sufficiently rare and isolated that such normal variations (e.g. late snow
& freeze) can lead to their extinction. In other cases, species succumb to catastrophic variation in
the environment.
Natural Catastrophe
A sudden change in the environment not the result of human action is a natural catastrophe. Fires,
major storms, earthquakes, and floods are natural catastrophes on land; changes in currents and
upwellings are ocean catastrophes. The explosion of a volcano on the island of Krakatoa in
Indonesia in 1883 caused the island blown to bits bringing about local extinction of most life
forms there.
Genetic Risk
Detrimental change in genetic characteristics not caused by external environmental changes is
called genetic risk. Genetic changes can occur in small populations from reduced genetic
variation, genetic drift, and mutation. In a small population, only some of the possible inherited
characteristics will be found. The species is vulnerable to extinction because it lacks variety or
because a mutation can become fixed in the population.
Human Actions
Human actions cause extinction of species through (1) intentional hunting or harvesting (for
commercial purposes, for sport, etc); (2) disruption or elimination of habitats; (3) introduction of
new parasites (transported by introduced species), predators (e.g. introduction of exotic species
such as dogs on islands caused extinction of dodo birds, whose eggs, laid on ground, were easy
prey for dogs), or competitors of a species; and (4) pollution of the environment.
Endemic Species: A species that is native to a particular area and not native elsewhere is
called an endemic species. Monterey pine is endemic to a portion of California coast and
exotic in New Zealand.
Cosmopolitan species: A species with a broad distribution, occurring all over the world
wherever the environment is appropriate, is called cosmopolitan species. The moose is
found both in North America and Europe and is therefore a cosmopolitan species of
northern boreal forests.
Nonnative species, Exotic, or alien species: Species that migrate into an ecosystem or
are deliberately r accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans are called
nonnative species, exotic species, or alien species.
Indicator Species: Species that serve as early warnings that a community or an
ecosystem is being damaged are called indicator species.
Birds are excellent biological indicators because they are found almost everywhere and
respond quickly to environmental change.
Keystone Species: The roles of some species in an ecosystem are much more important
than their abundance. They are known as keystone species. In tropical forests, various
species of bees, bats, ants, and hummingbirds play keystone roles by pollinating
flowering plants, dispersing seed or both.
Symbiosis:Species interact in ways that are beneficial to one or both; this is called
symbiosis (from the Greek words sum and biosis, meaning "life together"). Symbiosis is
very common; most organisms, even humans, participate in some form of symbiotic
relationship. Humans, for example, host a wide range of microorganisms (about a
hundred common ones). Some of them are of benefit to us, such as the organisms that
reside in our intestines and help us digest our food. Some of them are just along for the
ride, such as the mites that inhabit our eyelashes. And some of them can be annoying or
harmful if they grow out of control, such as the fungus that causes athlete's foot.
Symbiosis affects biological diversity
Symbiotic microorganisms and the intestine of human body
~ 10% of a persons body weight is actually the weight of symbiotic microorganisms in
the intestines. The resident bacteria help us in our digestion. We provide habitats that
supply the needs of those microorganisms.
Rein deer and symbiotic bacteria
A reindeer on the northern tundra may appear to be alone but carries with it many
companions. The reindeer is a ruminant with a four chambered stomach teeming with
microbes.
In order to save species from extinction, we must save its symbionts along with its niche.
Predation: Predation can increase diversity of prey species by reducing the abundance of
the dominant prey. They can contribute to species evenness by keeping the dominant
species from overwhelming others via competitive exclusion.
The principle of competitive exclusion tells us that species compete against one another
for scarce resources, and no two species can occupy exactly the same niche within an
ecosystem. This might lead to the conclusion that a single species would eventually and
inevitably come to dominate a given ecosystem, to the exclusion of others. Instead,
competition, symbiosis, and predation, along with constant adaptations to changing
environmental conditions, have led to increasing richness and variety of species. This
variety of life-forms is called biodiversity.
Biological diversity involves the following concepts:
Genetic diversity: the total number of genetic characteristics, sometimes of a
specific species, subspecies, or group of species Genetic diversity refers to the
amount of variability or heterogeneity that is available among the DNA of
individuals within a population or species.
Habitat diversity: Habitat diversity (or ecosystem diversity) refers to the variety
of habitat types in an ecosystem and the biologic richness of those habitats.
Species diversity: which, in turn has three qualities:
a. Species richness: the total number of species.
b. Species evenness: the relative abundance of species.
c. Species dominance: the most abundance species.
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