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MODULE 11.01
Theory of Flight
Contents
1 MODULE 11 (AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND
SYSTEMS) .......................................................................................... 1-2
1.1
1.2
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The fixed aerofoils are the wings or mainplanes, the horizontal stabiliser or
tailplane and vertical stabiliser or fin. The function of the wings is to provide
enough lift to support the complete aircraft. The tail section of a conventional
aircraft, including the stabilisers, elevators and rudder, is occasionally known as
the empennage.
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Horizontal Stabiliser
The horizontal stabiliser is used to provide longitudinal pitch stability and is
usually attached to the aft portion of the fuselage. It may be mounted either on
top of the vertical stabiliser, at some mid-point, or below it.
Conventional horizontal stabilisers are placed aft of the wing and normally set at
a slightly smaller or negative angle of incidence with respect to the wing chord
line.
This configuration gives a small downward force on the tail with a value
dependent on the size of the stabiliser and its distance from the Centre of Gravity
(CG).
Horizontal Stabiliser
Figure 2
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T-Tail Arrangement
The T-Tail arrangement places the complete stabiliser/tailplane and elevator
assembly at the top of the vertical stabiliser. The use of this system not only
makes the fin and rudder more effective by the so-called end-plate effect but
also ensures pitch control is not affected by wing turbulence, (except during an
unwanted deep-stall condition).
However, this configuration has the disadvantage that the whole empennage
structure will be heavier than normal, due to the strengthening required to combat
the greater bending loads produced by this layout.
On some aircraft, the complete tailplane can be moved through several degrees
angle of attack to provide a trimming facility as an alternative to trim tabs.(later).
TTail Arrangement
Figure 3
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B2 Flying Wing
Figure 4
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Vertical Stabiliser
The vertical stabiliser for an aircraft is the aerofoil forward of the rudder and is
used to provide directional stability.
A problem encountered on single-engined propeller driven aircraft is that the
propeller causes the airflow to rotate as it travels rearward. This strikes one side
of the vertical stabiliser more than the other, resulting in a yawing moment. These
aircraft may have the leading edge of the stabiliser offset slightly, thereby causing
the airflow to pass around it in such a manner to counter the yaw.
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Moveable control surfaces are normally divided into Primary and Secondary
controls.
The primary control surfaces include the elevators, rudder, ailerons and roll
spoilers. The secondary control surfaces consist of trim controls (tabs), high lift
devices (flaps and slats), speed brakes and lift dumpers (additional spoilers).
Note: Traditionally, spoilers have not been included as primary controls, but those
which operate in conjunction with the ailerons during roll, are considered to be
primary in the JAR 66 syllabus, so this is how these notes will define them.
The primary control surfaces are used to make the aircraft follow the correct flight
path and to execute certain manoeuvres.
The secondary controls are used to change the lift and drag characteristics of the
aircraft or to provide assistance to the primary controls.
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Aileron Controls
Figure 7
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The ailerons are usually operated in conjunction with the rudder and/or elevator
during a turn and are rarely used on their own. A co-ordinated turn is one that
occurs without slip or skid. Too little bank will cause the aircraft to skid outwards,
too much bank will cause the aircraft to slip downwards.
Roll Control - Spoilers
The use of spoilers as a primary control, will be to operate asymmetrically in
conjunction with aileron movement and are normally referred to as Roll Spoilers.
Roll spoilers are mounted on the top of the wing just inboard of the outboard set
of ailerons.
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Elevator Controls
Figure 9
Stabilator Controls
Figure 10
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Canards
Some earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer, had horizontal surfaces
located ahead of the wings. This configuration, with the forward surface usually
referred to as a canard or foreplane, has been used on occasions, up to the
present day.
Conventional aircraft have the tailplane located at the rear of the fuselage which
provides a small, stabilising down force. This means that the wing has to produce
slightly more lift to balance this down force. As we have seen, in order for a wing
to produce lift it must also generate drag.
With the tailplane located at the front of the aircraft, the stabilising force is
directed upwards. This contributes to the total lift of the aircraft, thereby reducing
drag from the lift producing wing.
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The rudder is normally a single structural unit but on large transport aircraft it may
comprise two or more operational segments, moved by different operating
systems to provide a level of redundancy.
Rudder controls
Figure 13
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Another example are ruddervators normally used on aircraft fitted with a 'V' or
Butterfly tail. These surfaces serve the purposes of both rudder and elevator.
Ruddervator Controls
Figure 14
1.1.3 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Aerodynamic lift is determined by the shape and size of the main lifting surfaces
of the aircraft. In order to produce the outstanding performance achieved by a
large modern, swept wing, passenger jet such as the Boeing 777, the wing is
designed to give optimum lift to support the aircraft whilst in cruise (typically
Mach 0.87).
This has meant, that to be able to control and land the aircraft weighing around
200-tonne on runways of reasonable length, the landing speed needs to be
slower than the clean stalling speed of the aircraft. In order to achieve this, more
lift is required and this is obtained from so-called high lift devices.
These are divided generally into leading edge devices, namely slots, slats and
Krueger flaps and trailing edge devices including plain, slotted and fowler flaps.
They will increase lift and as a result, reduce the stalling speed. Consequently the
landing speed, (about 1.3 times the stalling speed), will also be reduced, since
drag is also increased with large angles of trailing edge flap deployment.
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Droop Aileron
Figure 16
1.1.4 DRAG INDUCING DEVICES
There are several situations where the aircraft must slow down fairly quickly. With
slower, high drag, light aircraft, simply closing the throttle allows the high drag of
the airframe and the idling propeller to slow the aircraft down, to gliding speed
prior to landing approach, for example.
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Lift dumpers are, as their name describes, are spoiler panels incorporated solely
to dump lift. They are normally deployed after landing, destroying the lift of the
wing and producing high drag, to assist in stopping the aircraft efficiently and
thereby allowing the wheel brakes to be operated more effectively.
Speed Brakes
Whilst it is true that the in-flight use of spoilers may be referred to as selecting the
'speed brakes', the term more accurately describes devices which are solely for
the production of drag without any change of trim. The rear fuselage mounted
'clamshell-type doors which open up on the BAe 146 and Fokker 70/100 aircraft
are true speed brakes (or air brakes) and have the following major advantage
over the use of spoilers for producing drag.
When the wing mounted spoilers are deployed, vibration or rumble is often felt in
the passenger cabin, which some people may find disturbing. The aft mounted
speed brakes not only produce high drag at any airspeed, but their selection is
virtually vibration free. Also, lift will be completely unaffected, thus permitting their
deployment on approach and making a go-around much safer. (This will be
covered later in powerplants).
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These devices are usually fitted to aircraft with swept wings. Total airflow over a
swept wing, splits into two components, one moving across the wing chord
parallel to the airflow and the other flowing spanwise towards the wing tip.
The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the leading edge of the wing and
extending rearwards. They are designed to control the spanwise flow of the
boundary layer air over the top of the wing. Also they will straighten the airflow
over the ailerons, improving their effectiveness and straighten the air nearer the
wing tip, resulting in less 'spillage' of air from beneath the wing to the top, thereby
producing less drag. (See Winglets later).
Wing Fences
Figure 19
Airflow Control Devices Saw Tooth Leading Edges
This form of airflow control is more common on military aircraft than modern
commercial airliners. The saw tooth or notch is simply a small increase in wing
chord on the outer portion of the wing. The step where the change occurs, tends
to form an invisible 'wall' of high velocity air, which flows over the wing and
straightens the spanwise flow. It functions in much the same way as the wing
fence but removes the extra drag and weight penalty.
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Winglets
Figure 21
1.1.6 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the aerofoil surface (the
boundary between metal and air). If measured, the air velocity in the layer will
vary from zero directly on the surface, to the relevant velocity of the free stream
at the outer extremity of the boundary layer.
Normally, at the leading edge of the wing the boundary layer will be laminar, (in
smooth thin sheets close to the surface), but as the air moves over the wing
towards the trailing edge, the boundary layer becomes thicker and turbulent. The
region where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition
point. .As airspeed increases, the transition point tends to move forward, so the
designer tries to prevent this thus maintaining laminar flow, over the top of the
wing for as far back as possible. Methods of boundary layer control are as
follows:
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Vortex Generators
Figure 22
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Stall Wedges are small, wedge-shaped strips mounted on the leading edge of the
wings at about one third span. The are designed to disrupt the boundary layer
airflow, at large angles of attack approaching the stall, thus ensuring the airflow
breaks away,(stalls), at the root end of the wing first.
Additionally they produce a similar effect to a wing fence at smaller angles of
attack resulting in a smoother airflow over the ailerons, thus retaining optimum
roll control.
Stall Wedges
Figure 23
Boundary Layer Control - Leading edge Devices
Other devices to prevent laminar separation at the low speed end of the range
and thus control boundary layer air are leading edge droop flaps and Kreuger
flaps. They can be a droop snoot or permanent droop type, or can be adjusted
during flight.
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During a flight an aircraft will develop a tendency to deviate from a straight and
level hands-off attitude. This may be due to changes in fuel state, speed, load
position or flap/landing gear selection and could be countered by applying a
continuous correcting force to the primary controls. This would be fatiguing for the
crew and difficult to maintain for long periods, so trim tabs are used for this
purpose instead.
Trim tabs move the primary control surface aerodynamically in the opposite
direction to the movement of the tab. To correct an aircraft nose down out of trim
condition, the elevator tab is moved down, resulting in the elevator moving up, the
tail of the aircraft moving down, so that the nose comes up, correcting the fault.
Fixed Trim Tabs
A fixed trim tab may be a simple section of sheet metal attached to the trailing
edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the ground by simply bending it up or
down, to a position resulting in zero control forces during cruise. Alternatively, the
tab is connected to the primary control by a ground-adjustable connecting rod.
Finding the correct position for both types is by trial and error.
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Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever, switch, etc., with the actuation of the
tab by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic means. Trim facilities are normally
provided on all three axes.
Servo Tab
Figure 27
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Balance Tabs
Balance tabs assist the pilot in moving the primary control surface. The flight deck
controls are connected to the primary control surface whereas the balance tab,
hinged to the trailing edge of the primary surface, is connected to the fixed
aerofoil. For example, the elevator balance tab, will be connected by an
adjustable rod to the horizontal stabiliser and is so arranged, that it tends to
maintain the tab at the same relative angle to the stabiliser when the pilot moves
the elevator.
Aerodynamically, therefore, the tab is moving in the opposite direction to the
control surface and assists its movement. Adjusting the length of the connecting
rod will alter the displacement of the effective range of the tab about the mid-point
datum.
Some types of balance tab have more than one point of attachment and it is
possible with these so called geared balance tabs, to alter the range of tab
deflection.
The function of a balance tab can also be combined with that of a trim tab, by
adjusting the length of the balance tab connecting rod from the flight deck. This is
usually achieved by installing a form of linear actuator in the rod and is termed a
trim/balance tab
(Geared balance and trim/balance tabs will be covered later in the notes).
Balance Tab
Figure 28
Anti-Balance Tabs
Anti-balance tabs operate in a similar way aerodynamically as balance tabs but
with a reverse effect. The difference is in the way it is connected to the fixed
aerofoil. It is routed so that the tab moves, relative to and in the same direction
as, the primary control surface. The effect is to add a loading to the pilot effort,
making it slightly heavier and thus providing feel, to prevent the possibility of
over-stressing the airframe structure.
Anti-Balance Tab
Figure 29
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Spring Tabs
At high speed, control surfaces operated directly from the flight deck, become
increasingly difficult to deflect from neutral, due to the force of the aerodynamic
loads caused by the airstream around them.
The spring tab is progressive in its operation and provides increasing
aerodynamic assistance in moving the control surface, with an increase in aircraft
forward speed. The flight deck controls are connected to the spring tab in a
similar manner to the servo tab previously described, except the linkage is routed
via a torque rod assembly (or spring box) attached to the primary control surface.
When the aircraft is stationary or flying at low airspeed the airloads are nonexistent or very small. If the flight deck controls are deflected from neutral, the
rigidity of the torque tube (or spring force) causes the primary control to be
deflected together with the spring tab. The tab will remain in the same relative
position with the primary control and consequently provides no additional
aerodynamic assistance.
As the aircraft flies faster, the increased force produced by the airflow, opposes
the movement of the primary control surface from its neutral position. Deflection
of the
flight deck controls in this case causes the torque tube to twist (or the spring to
compress), resulting in a deflection of the spring tab.
The tab deflection provides an added aerodynamic load which assists the flight
deck effort. The faster the aircraft flies, the greater the airflow force and therefore
the greater the spring tab deflection, resulting in a progressively increasing
assistance in moving the primary control.
Spring Tab
Figure 30
1.1.8 MASS BALANCE
All aircraft structures are distorted when loads are applied. If the structure is
elastic, as all good structures are, it will tend to spring back when the load is
removed, or its point of application is changed.
Since a control surface is hinged near its leading edge, the centre of gravity (C of
G) will be behind the hinge and as a consequence, there will be more weight aft
of the hinge line than in front of it .
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In the case of an aileron for example, should the air load distort the wing
upwards, it is likely that the aileron will lag behind and distort downwards. This
effectively produces an extra upward aerodynamic force which pushes the wing
up even further.
Due to its elasticity, the wing will spring back and the aileron will lag again but this
time upwards, aerodynamically forcing the wing down further than it would
normally go due to elastic recoil alone. Now the cycle is repeated and a high
speed oscillation will result. This unwanted phenomenon is referred to as flutter.
Flutter can be prevented if the C of G of the control surface is moved in line with,
or slightly in front of, the hinge line. The normal way of achieving this is to add a
number of high density weights, either within the leading edge of the surface itself
or externally, ahead of the hinge line. The addition of these weights, normally
made from lead or depleted uranium, is closely controlled and calculated to
ensure that the exact balance is obtained.
This procedure of adding weights is referred to as mass balancing of the controls.
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Horn Balance
Figure 33
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Additionally, in any one of the fluids, speed will vary with a change in
temperature. As temperature increases, the speed of sound will increase and
vice-versa, so that in Air on a standard day at sea level (15oC approx), the waves
will travel at 761mph (661.7 knots), whereas at 11,000 metres altitude, the speed
will fall to 661mph, since the temperature has dropped to -56oC at this altitude.
Note: At altitudes above 11,000 metres and up to about 27,000 metres, the
temperature and hence the speed of sound, will remain constant.
The propagation of the pressure waves from a stationary object has been
discussed above.
When an aircraft begins to move through the air at subsonic speeds, (a speed
less than pressure wave propagation speed) the waves still travel forward and it
is as if a message is sent ahead of the aircraft to warn of its approach.
On receipt of this message, the air streams begin to divide to make way for the
aircraft but there is very little, if any change in the density of the air as it flows
over the aircraft. This warning message can be detected perhaps 100metres in
front of the aircraft.
Consequently, anyone standing ahead of the aircraft, would hear it coming and
be able to detect the change in the nature of the pressure waves as the aircraft
passed by. It would be similar to the change in the pitch of the siren of a passing
emergency road vehicle.
This is often referred to as Doppler shift or Doppler effect.
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At subsonic speeds, the study of aerodynamics is simplified by the fact that air
passing over a wing experiences only very small changes in pressure and
density. The airflow is termed incompressible as, when it passes through a
venturi, the pressure changes without the density changing
At higher speeds, the change in air pressure and density becomes significant and
is called the compressibility effect. When air enters a venturi at supersonic
speeds, the airflow slows down and must compress in order to pass through its
throat. Once a fluid compresses, its pressure and density will both increase.
Subsonic Airflow
Figure 38
Supersonic Airflow
Figure 39
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The transonic flight range encompasses sound wave velocity and consequently is
the most difficult realm of flight since some of the air flowing over the aircraft,
particularly the wings, is subsonic and some is supersonic. As the aircraft
approaches the speed of sound, the pressure waves ahead of it will be travelling
at the same speed as the aircraft and are therefore relatively stationary. They
accumulate to form a continuous pressure wave and consequently will result in
the removal of any advance warning of the approach of the aircraft.
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Once the aircraft is supersonic, all parts of it are considered to be above the
speed of sound and therefore travelling faster than the rate of propagation of the
pressure waves. An infinite number of pressure waves are produced and form a
cone, the inclination of which will change as the aircraft speed changes.
Mach Cone
Figure 41
Mach Number
As previously mentioned, Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of the
aircraft and the local speed of sound at that altitude. An aircraft travelling at
exactly the speed of sound is said to be travelling at Mach 1.
It follows therefore that an aircraft travelling at twice the speed of sound would be
travelling at Mach 2 and at half the speed of sound, Mach 0.5, etc,.
The following definitions regarding airflow and mach number apply:
Subsonic Flow Mach Numbers below Mach 0.75
Transonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 0.75 and Mach 1.2
Supersonic Flow
Hypersonic Flow
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In this design, the total amount of lift lost by the shallower camber of the thin wing
is restored by making the chord longer. This is perfect for transonic cruise
conditions, but at low airspeeds, lift on a clean wing will be insufficient and so
extensive use of high lift devices (slots, slats and flaps) is necessary
Supercritical Wing
Figure 43
Adverse Transonic Effects
Even though the onset of compressibility is gradual, it begins to have a significant
effect as the Critical Mach number is approached. Unwanted adverse effects
including, buffeting, shock waves, increase in drag, decrease in lift and
movement of the centre of pressure occur.
If uncontrolled, these effects could result in the aircraft becoming difficult to fly
and to behave in a similar manner to a low speed high incidence stall, even
though the aircraft is at high speed and low angle of incidence.
Compressibility Buffet
Previously discussed has been the build up of the pressure wave in front of the
aircraft as it approaches Mach 1, including the fact that other parts of the
airframe, in particular the wing, are likely to reach Mach 1 well before the
complete aircraft does.
When this occurs the smoothness of the airflow over the wing is severely
affected. This region, as well as those on the flying control aerofoils, experience
violent vibration and so-called compressibility buffeting of the airframe. If allowed
to continue, control loss or possible structural damage can occur.
Shock Wave
Previously in the notes, the build up of pressure waves and the change from
incompressible to compressible flow as the aircraft or an aerofoil surface
approaches the speed of sound, has been discussed. Transonic flight presents
major design problems for the aerofoil in particular, because only a portion of the
airflow passing over the wing becomes supersonic.
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When an aerofoil moves through the air at a speed below its critical Mach
number, all of the airflow is subsonic and the pressure distribution is
predictable.The first indication of a change in the nature of the flow will be a
breakaway of the airflow from the aerofoil surface as described previously in
boundary layer control. Any turbulence resulting from the separation, will cause
an increase in drag and a corresponding reduction in the amount of lift. As speed
begins to increase, the point of separation moves forward, extending the turbulent
wake.
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Note: If the aerofoil is symmetrical and set at zero degrees angle of attack, the
incipient shock wave as it is called, would form equally on the upper and lower
surfaces. However, because the wing is usually set to an angle of incidence of
about 3 degrees, even a symmetrical aerofoil section would produce the incipient
wave on the top surface first.
The wave extends outwards more or less at right angles to the aerofoil surface
and is referred to as a normal (perpendicular) shock wave This normal shock
wave forms a boundary between supersonic and subsonic airflow.
As we have seen the high velocity airflow over the top of a wing creates an area
of low pressure. The shock wave causes it to decelerate to subsonic speed,
resulting in a rapid rise in pressure. The separation point and turbulent wake will
now start from this point, resulting in a sudden and considerable increase in drag
(about 10 times) and therefore a large loss of lift. Severe buffeting is likely, which
could even lead to a shock stall and the centre of pressure will be altered,
affecting the pitching moment.
This extra drag, so called Shock Drag, will be made up of two components,
namely Wave Drag, resistance caused by the wave itself and Boundary Layer
Drag, due to the increased turbulent region over the surface of the wing.
Furthermore, this shock-induced separation is likely to reduce flying control
effectiveness
The velocity of the air leaving the shock wave remains supersonic, so both the
static pressure and the density of the air increase adding to the high drag/ low lift
condition. Additionally, some of the energy in the airstream will be dissipated in
the form of heat.
As the aircraft speed continues to increase, the wave will extend outwards and
begin to move aft towards the trailing edge of the wing. A second wave begins to
form on the lower surface, as the airflow here also speeds up to supersonic
velocity
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As the airspeed reaches the upper end of the transonic range, both shock waves
move aft, become stronger and will eventually attach to the wing's trailing edge.
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As can be seen in figure 50, the transonic region has a great affect on the lift and
drag. Both values rise until Mach 0.81, when shock induced separation drastically
reduces the coefficient of lift. As speed approaches Mach 0.99, a bow wave is
forming and airflow over the wing is slowed to subsonic speeds, resulting in an
increase in lift coefficient and a reduction of drag.
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Area rule is an aerodynamic technique used in the design of high speed aircraft.
If drag is to be kept to a minimum at transonic speeds, aircraft must be slim,
smooth and streamlined. In general terms it means that the wings, fuselage,
empennage and other appendages have to be considered together when working
out the total streamlining. This is necessary so that the cross-sectional area of
successive slices of the aircraft from nose to tail, conform to those of a simple
body of streamline shape.
Area rule is defined as: For the minimum drag at the connections,
(wing/fuselage), the variation of the aircrafts total cross-sectional area along its
length, should approximate that of an ideal shape having minimum wave drag.
Without area rule, the greatest frontal cross-sectional area of the fuselage would
occur where the wings are attached to the fuselage. Therefore, one method of
achieving area rule in this situation, is to reduce the cross-sectional area of the
fuselage, thereby cancelling out the increase caused by the wings.
Alternatively, the fuselage cross-section could be increased with the use of
enlarged sections behind and in front of the wings to eliminate sudden changes in
the cross-sectional area and achieve the same result.
Area Rule
Figure 52
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Engine intakes on aircraft that operate in the subsonic flight range only can be of
almost any form.
The main criteria is that the airflow reaching the compressor stage of the engine
during cruise ideally does not exceed Mach 0.5. This is normally achieved by the
careful design of the intake ducts.
Obviously, if the aircraft never exceeds Mach 0.5, a parallel intake duct could be
employed, but if the aircraft is to cruise at airspeeds in excess of this, yet below
Mach 1, a divergent duct must be utilised to slow the airflow at the compressor
down to Mach 0.5.
If the aircraft is designed to cruise above Mach 1, the air entering the intakes will
be supersonic and will behave in accordance with the rules of supersonic flow. In
this case a convergent duct would be necessary to slow down the airflow to the
compressor.
However the aircraft must fly through the transonic range in order to reach
supersonic speed so both types of duct will be necessary.
One way to overcome the problem is to have moveable doors which change the
intake duct shape from divergent to convergent cross-section as the aircraft
passes through Mach 1. See figure 53. This technique can be found on the
intakes of Concorde.
Other methods to control airflow reaching the compressor is to make use of the
fact that air passing through a shock wave slows down to a lower speed. This
type of intake design is usually characterised by the bullet fairing, which on
some aircraft can translate in and out of the intake to reposition the shock wave
during low or high supersonic flight speeds. See Figure 54
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In order to fly at high speed in the transonic range without encountering the
problems caused by the production of shock waves, the Critical Mach number
needs to be as high as possible. As has already been shown, one way is to have
as thin a wing as possible. This of course is an acceptable solution in theory, but
in practice there will be structural integrity problems, such as wing loading,
strength and flexibility.
Another way of raising the Critical Mach number without the structural limitations
is by the use of swept wings. Sweepback not only delays the production of the
shock wave, but reduces the severity of the shock stall should it occur. The
theory behind this is that it is only the component of velocity over the wing chord
which is responsible for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock
wave to develop. The other velocity component which travels spanwise causes
only frictional drag and has no effect on shock wave production.
This theory is borne out by the fact that when it does appear, the shock wave lies
parallel to the span of the wing. Therefore only that part of the velocity
perpendicular to the shock wave, i.e. across the chord, is reduced by the shock
wave to subsonic speeds.
The greater the sweepback, the smaller will be the component of velocity
affected, resulting in a higher Critical Mach number and a reduction in drag at all
transonic speeds. Additionally sweepback results in a thinner mean aerodynamic
chord which raises the Critical Mach number even more.
Effects of Sweepback
Figure 55
Issue 1 04 Sept 2001
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2.1 ACCIDENTS
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