DISCOURSE MARKERS CONNECTORS

The word discourse is used to refer to a piece or unit of writing or speech that is longer
than, respectively, a sentence or an utterance. In writing, especially academic writing, it is
essential for the author to guide the reader through the discourse signalling what is
important and how each sentence connects to others. Readers who have to work too
hard to understand where to focus their attention and to link together the concepts
presented in the writing do not have enough mental energy to process the authors ideas
and to remember them after having finished reading.
One of the main ways that authors help guide readers through discourse is by marking
how the coming sentence or clause (NB discourse markers generally come at the
beginning of clauses and sentences) relates back to previous discourse. Thus if the author
wants to show a continuation of a previous line of thought, s/he will begin the coming
sentence with a marker such as in addition or moreover. This automatically helps the
reader to approach the coming sentence with the knowledge of how it relates to the theme
the author is constructing (i.e. this is another sentence in support of an idea previously
posited). If, on the other hand, the author wants to signal a change in direction of the
discourse, s/he will utilize a marker such as on the other hand or conversely (now go back
to the beginning of this sentence and note how the phrase on the other hand prepared you
to understand that the sentence would pose an idea in opposition to the previously
presented idea of supporting a previous theme, replaced by the concept of contrasting a
previous theme).
It isnt easy to present a complete list of discourse markers and their various functions.
There are many of them, and, perhaps even more importantly, some of them are used
more in speech than in writing, or vice versa or some of them are more informally used
than formally and so on and so on. The best way to understand an effective use of
discourse markers (which, remember, is essential for academic writing!) is to read a lot.
However, reading without paying special attentions to discourse markers may be
somewhat helpful, but not completely. You must take a step back from the reading process
in order to pick out and notice how the author is employing discourse markers and what
they add to the reading experience. In this way, you can begin to develop both a conscious
and unconscious knowledge of how to use them yourself. Whats important is NOT to
simply throw discourse markers haphazardly into your writing. This is the case, for
example, of learners who remember suddenly, oh yeah, Im supposed to be using those
discourse markers and then arbitrarily write one of the common ones remembered at the
moment (indeed, for some unknown reason, Italian students love moreover and use it
constantly, often when its not appropriate).
I have compiled some lists of discourse markers for you to look at and study, and to keep
close at hand when you are writing. While it is obvious that you may develop a preference
for certain discourse markers, you should try to vary them, especially now as you are
learning to write academic English. You are in the process of learning and developing a
writing style and so if you limit yourself to the use of just a few discourse markers now, you
will inevitably continue to develop a style which is more limited and less versatile.
Below you will find 3 separate lists and/or tables which show discourse markers, their
functions, grammatical definitions and some examples. I have decided to include all three,
even if this means that there are repetitions, in order to show you how different people
might look at discourse markers differently. In other words, these are not mathematical
formulas but rather expressions which may be interpreted and utilized in slightly different
ways by different authors. You may find that one list or table in particular appeals to you in
its presentation, explanation and organization. Or you may vary between them without a
20

particular preference; whats important is that you dont simply read through them once,
but that instead you refer to them during your writing process so as to stimulate your
creativity and remind yourself of the importance of discourse marker usage in your writing.

A LIST OF DISCOURSE MARKERS WITH EXAMPLES

with regard to; regarding; as regards; as far as is concerned, as for
These expressions focus attention on what follows in the sentence. This is done by
announcing the subject in advance. As regards and as far asis concerned usually
indicate a change of subject
Examples:
His grades in science subjects are excellent. As regards humanities
With regard to the latest market figures we can see that ...
Regarding our efforts to improve the local economy, we have made ...
As far as I am concerned, we should continue to develop our resources.
As for John's thoughts, let's take a look at this report he sent me.
on the other hand; while; whereas
These expressions give expression to two ideas which contrast but do not contradict each
other.
Examples:
Football is popular in England, while in Australia they prefer cricket.
We've been steadily improving our customer service center.
On the other hand our shipping department needs to be redesigned.
Jack thinks we're ready to begin whereas Tom things we still need to wait.
however, nonetheless, nevertheless
All these words are used to present two contrasting ideas.
Examples:
Smoking is proved to be dangerous to the health. Nonetheless, 40% of the population
smokes.
Our teacher promised to take us on a field trip. However, he changed his mind last week.
Peter was warned not to invest all of his savings in the stock market. Nevertheless, he
invested and lost everything.
moreover, furthermore, in addition
We use these expressions to add information to what has been said. The usage of these
words is much more elegant than just making a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
Examples:
His problems with his parents are extremely frustrating. Moreover, there seems to be no
easy solution to them.
I assured him that I would come to his presentation. Furthermore, I also invited a number
of important representatives from the local chamber of commerce.
Our energy bills have been increasing steadily. In addition to these costs, our telephone
costs have doubled over the past six months.
therefore, as a result, consequently
21

These expressions show that the second statement follows logically from the first
statement.
Examples:
He reduced the amount of time studying for his final exams. As a result, his marks were
rather low.
We've lost over 3,000 customers over the past six months. Consequently, we have been
forced to cut back our advertising budget.
The government has drastically reduced its spending. Therefore, a number of programs
have been cancelled.

CONNECTORS TABLE
Type of
Connector

Connector(s)

Examples

Coordinating
conjunctions

for (cause), so (effect)

Professionals can sometimes be extremely

impatient, for their positions are at times
rather stressful.

Subordinating
conjunctions

because, since

Since high level positions are at times rather

stressful, professionals can sometimes be
extremely impatient.

Conjunctive
adverbs

therefore, as a result,
consequently

High level positions are at times rather

stressful; therefore, professionals can
sometimes be extremely impatient.

Prepositions

because of, due to, as a

result of

Due to the stressful nature of high level

positions, professionals can sometimes be
extremely impatient.

Type of Connector Connector(s)

Examples

Coordinating
Conjunction

and

High level positions are stressful at times,

and can be harmful to your health.

Conjunctive
adverbs

in addition, additionally,
furthermore, moreover,
also

High level positions are stressful at times;

furthermore, they can be harmful to your
health

Correlative
conjunctions

not only...but also

Not only are high level positions stressful at

times, but they also can be harmful to your
health.

Prepositional
phrases

in addition to, along with, Along with being stressful, high level
as well as
positions can also be harmful to your health

Type of Connector Connector(s)

Examples

Coordinating
conjunction

but

High level positions are stressful at times,

but professionals can learn to manage their
stress levels.

Subordinating
conjunctions

Despite the fact that high level positions are

although, despite the fact
stressful at times, professionals can learn to
that
manage their stress levels.

Conjunctive
adverbs

however, nevertheless

High level positions are stressful at times;

nevertheless, professionals can learn to
manage their stress levels.

Prepositional

despite, in spite of

In spite of the stressful nature of high level

22

phrases

positions, professionals can learn to manage

their stress levels

Type of
Connector

Connector(s)

Examples

Coordinating
Conjunction

and...too

High level positions are stressful, and can be

harmful to your health too.

Subordinating
conjunction

just as

Just as high level positions are stressful,

they can be harmful to your health.

Conjunctive
adverbs

similarly, in comparison

High level positions are stressful at times;

similarly, they can be harmful to your health.

Prepositions

like, similar to

Similar to other important professions, high

level business positions are stressful at
times.

Type of Connector Connector(s)

Examples

Subordinating
conjunctions

if, unless, only if, even if

If you consider the financial rewards of high

level positions, the stressful nature of these
positions becomes less important.

otherwise

You should remember the financial rewards

of high level positions; otherwise, you might
find the stressful nature of these positions
too demanding.

Conjunctive
adverb

Type of Connector Connector(s)

Examples

Coordinating
conjunction

but

High level positions are stressful at times,

but the financial rewards make these
positions very desirable indeed.

Subordinating
conjunctions

whereas, while

While high level positions are stressful at

times, the financial rewards make these
positions very desirable indeed.

Conjunctive
adverbs

in contrast, on the other

hand

High level positions are stressful at times; on

the other hand, the financial rewards make
these positions very desirable indeed.

Prepositions

unlike

Unlike the undesirable stress of high level

positions, the financial rewards make these
positions very desirable indeed.

DISCOURSE MARKER TABLE

Meaning

Basic Form and Formal

More Formal Most Formal
Use

ADDITION

also

additionally

first, second, etc.

besides

equally
important
moreover

further
similarly
23

furthermore
in addition
ADDITION

last but not least

next
not only... but
also
too

CAUSE-EFFECT

then

as a result

accordingly

therefore

for this reason

as a
consequence

thus
consequently
hence
COMPARISION

also

as well as

by comparison

like

both... and

in common with

too

compared to

similarly

in the same way

in like manner

likewise
neither... nor
CONTRAST

however

instead

conversely

nevertheless

in contrast to

on the other
hand

in opposition to
on the contrary
otherwise
still
whereas

TIME

after a while

afterward

concurrently

after that

at the same time

previously

24

also

formerly

simultaneously

at last

immediately

subsequently

currently

in the meantime

earlier

later

eventually
finally
first, second, etc.
in the future
in the past
last
next
now
EXAMPLE

for example

for instance

as an example

in other words

as an illustration
to exemplify

SUMMARYCONCLUSION

finally

after all

accordingly

therefore

all in all

as a
consequence

at last
in brief
briefly
in closing
consequently
in conclusion
last
in short
on the whole
in sum
thus
in summary
to conclude
to summarize

25

Paragraphs and Topic Sentences

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related
to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences
should be organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where
the subdivisions of an text begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of
the text and grasp its main points.
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a
series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a
place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more
things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the
kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the
most important of these is a topic sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCES
A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is
expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important
functions: it substantiates or supports an essays thesis statement; it unifies the content of
a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the
subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look to
the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the
paragraph. Thats why its often best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the
paragraph. In some cases, however, its more effective to place another sentence before
the topic sentencefor example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous
one, or one providing background information.
More specifically, lets look below at some functions of topic sentences, illustrated through
examples:
1. announcing the topic: A polar bear walks in a way all its own. Barry Lopez
2. making a transition from a previous paragraph: Like sensations, ideas are neither
true nor false. Mortimer J. Adler
3. asking and answering a rhetorical question: What about motion that is too slow to
be seen by the human eye? That problem has been solved by the use of the timelapse camera James C. Rettie
4. forecasting sub-topics to be dealt with in the paragraph or in a whole section of
paragraphs: Oppressed groups are denied education, economic independence, the
power of office, representation, an image of dignity and self-respect, equality of
status, and recognition as human beings. Kate Millet

COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling
idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence
flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also
highlights the ties between old information and new information to make the structure of
ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraphs coherence may also be related to
its length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed
page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if you perhaps need to start a new
paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other
26

hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to
develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.
A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are
described below.
Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify
an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and
repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand your definition
or description. This notion may contrast with your previous ideas about repetition in writing;
however, you must now accept that in order to write academic English well, you will have
to learn to approach the concept of repetition from a different point of view.
Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more
phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of
speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to
read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your
reader see the connections between ideas. The paragraph below shows how a few
carefully placed parallel structures (CAPITALIZED) create a balanced and clear
presentation of fairly complex material.
I DONT WISH to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied
"stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, but I DO
WISH to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. First of all, large animals
have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size
with body size among kindred animals (ALL reptiles, ALL mammals, for example) is
remarkably regular. As we move FROM small TO large animals, FROM mice TO
elephants or small lizards TO Komodo dragons, BRAIN SIZE increases, but not AS
FAST AS BODY SIZE. In other words, bodies grow faster than brains, and large
animals have low ratios of BRAIN WEIGHT to BODY WEIGHT. In fact, brains grow
only about two-thirds AS FAST AS bodies. Since we have no reason to believe that
large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude
that large animals require relatively less brain to do AS WELL AS smaller animals. If
we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power
of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.

Stephen Jay Gould, Were Dinosaurs Dumb?

Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view,
verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the
more personal "you" to the impersonal one, from past to present tense, or from a man
to they, for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can
also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.
Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs.
Transitional expressions (also known as discourse markers or connectors) emphasize the
relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of thought or see
connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand. The same paragraph from
above now serves to demonstrate how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead
the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.
I dont wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus"
houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert
that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have
relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. INDEED, the correlation of brain

27

size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is
remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or
small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not as fast as body size. IN
OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of
brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as
bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider
than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less
brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are
likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.

ibid

In order to grasp the underlying concepts and usage of coherence, it is important for
you to have a chance to do some exercises that focus on topic sentences and on the
creation of coherence. In the next section of this manual, beginning on the following
page, you will find paragraphing exercises that will help you work on your ability to
identify, define and eventually generate topic sentences. You will also be working on
paragraph division and on coherence.
Although none of the exercises focuses exclusively on the placement of new and old
information as in the above examples, ideally you should make a concerted effort to
notice how the sentences you read begin and end. Can you find a thread that weaves
together the writing as the author carries the reader from old and familiar towards new
and important information? Do you see how what was old information in one sentence
(introduced towards the end of a sentence) is transformed into new information and
then often occurs at the beginning of a subsequent sentence? This sort of progressive
linking of ideas and information is at the heart of clear and successful English writing
and your ability to be aware of the process can make all the difference in your own
capacity to write well. The ability to consciously notice this and other aspects of
language use is known as language awareness and increasing it is one of the best
ways to improve your capacity for learning.
Language awareness implies a constant curiosity about language and an active
participation in your own learning processes. You mustnt ever forget that old models of
passive learning focused almost exclusively on the teacher have been replaced by a
model promoting active student research and exploration that is focused primarily on
the learner. As writing is so clearly an active skill (in that you generate the language
rather than having to understand it only), your active involvement and your level of
language awareness become key factors in your eventual improvement and
satisfaction.

28

PARAGRAPHING EXERCISES
Exercise 1
Below you will find the first part of a text discussing the White House in Washington. The first
paragraph is in its original form and format, the only exception being that its topic sentence
appears in bold type. In addition, any elements throughout the paragraph that contribute to its
coherence have been highlighted in bold as well in order to help you get a feel for how the
language is being used to create a unified, easy-to-follow text. As stated above, coherence
can be created by the use of discourse markers, which help orient the reader towards the flow
of the information, and it can also be created through the repetition of old information to link
back to previous text.
For two hundred years, the White House has stood as a symbol of the Presidency,
the United States government, and the American people. Its history, and the
history of the nations capital, began when President George Washington signed an Act
of Congress in December of 1790 declaring that the federal government would reside in
a district "not exceeding ten miles squareon the river Potomac." President
Washington, together with city planner Pierre LEnfant, chose the site for the new
residence, which is now 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. As preparations began for the new
federal city, a competition was held to find a builder of the "Presidents House." Nine
proposals were submitted, and Irish-born architect James Hoban won a gold medal for
his practical and handsome design.

Below you will find the second paragraph of the text, but the sentences have been separated
from each other and their order has been changed. Decide which of them should be the first,
or topic sentence of the second paragraph and then put the other sentences into the most
logical order possible. When you feel sure about the order, write out your final version of the
second paragraph in the space provided, underlining the topic sentence and also any
coherency items as well. Make sure that your layout of the paragraph reflects its inherent
structure; in other words, do not simply write out 4 separate sentences as shown below,
changing only the order, but rather create a unified block of sentences that are clearly and
instantly identifiable as a paragraph.
It was not until 1800, when the White House was nearly completed, that its first
residents, President John Adams and his wife, Abigail, moved in.
It is also the only private residence of a head of state that is open to the public, free
of charge.
Construction began when the first cornerstone was laid in October of 1792. Although
President Washington oversaw the construction of the house, he never lived in it.
Since that time, each President has made his own changes and additions. The White
House is, after all, the Presidents private home.

Paragraph Two

29

Exercise 2
Below you will find another part of the text on the White House. This time two paragraphs have
been merged together to form one single paragraph. Your task is to decide where the text
should be broken into two different paragraphs as it was presented in the original text. When
we are revising written work, there is a symbol that is used to indicate where a new paragraph
should be started within the text. The symbol looks like this . Read the text below carefully
and decide where to insert the new paragraph symbol in order to break up the text into two
separate paragraphs. Remember that a new paragraph should begin with a topic sentence
which will prepare the reader for what is coming afterwards. You should be able to relate all of
the sentences which follow back to the topic sentence which has set the theme for the entire
paragraph.
The White House has a unique and fascinating history. It survived a fire at the
hands of the British in 1814 (during the war of 1812) and another fire in the West
Wing in 1929, while Herbert Hoover was President. Throughout much of Harry S.
Trumans presidency, the interior of the house, with the exception of the third
floor, was completely gutted and renovated while the Trumans lived at Blair House,
right across Pennsylvania Avenue. Nonetheless, the exterior stone walls are those
first put in place when the White House was constructed two centuries ago.
Presidents can express their individual style in how they decorate some parts of
the house and in how they receive the public during their stay. Thomas Jefferson
held the first Inaugural open house in 1805. Many of those who attended the
swearing-in ceremony at the U.S. Capitol simply followed him home, where he
greeted them in the Blue Room. President Jefferson also opened the house for
public tours, and it has remained open, except during wartime, ever since. In
addition, he welcomed visitors to annual receptions on New Years Day and on the
Fourth of July. In 1829, a horde of 20,000 Inaugural callers forced President
Andrew Jackson to flee to the safety of a hotel while, on the lawn, aides filled
washtubs with orange juice and whiskey to lure the mob out of the mud-tracked
White House.

30

Exercise 3
Below is an exercise that asks you to give each paragraph in a text about pizza its own heading or
title. To do this properly, you need to identify each paragraphs topic sentence and then note how
its controlling idea is developed throughout the rest of the paragraph. This analysis will lead you to
the overall theme of each paragraph and from there you should be able to produce a heading for
the paragraph which sums up its theme.

The History of Pizza

Paragraph 1 heading:

Pizza, like so many other foods, did not originate in the country for which it is now famous. Unless you
have researched the subject, you, like so many people, probably always thought Pizza was strictly an
Italian creation. In reality, the foundations for Pizza were originally laid by the early Greeks who first
baked large, round and flat breads which they topped with various items such as olive oils, spices,
potatoes and other things. However, tomatoes were not known in Greece at that time or, very likely, the
Greeks too would have used them to garnish Pizza as we do today.

Paragraph 2 heading:

Eventually the idea of flat bread found its way from Greece to Italy where, in the 18th century, the flat
breads called "Pizzas" were sold on the streets and in the markets. They were not topped with anything
but were enjoyed au naturel. Since they were relatively cheap to make and were tasty and filling, they
were sold to the poor all over Naples by street vendors.

Paragraph 3 heading:

The arrival of the tomato in Italy and the visit of a queen to Naples contributed to the Pizza as we know
and enjoy it today. In about 1889, Queen Margherita, accompanied by her husband, Umberto I, took an
inspection tour of her Italian Kingdom. During her travels around Italy she saw many people, especially the
peasants, eating this large, flat bread. The queen, who was in Naples at the time, was curious and so
ordered her guards to bring her one of these Pizza breads. The Queen loved the bread and would eat it
every time she was out amongst the people, which caused some consternation in Court circles. It was not
seemly for a Queen to dine on peasant's food.

Paragraph 4 heading:

Despite peoples scandalized reactions, the queen continued to eat the bread and at a certain point she
decided to take matters into her own hands. Summoning Chef Rafaelle Esposito from his Neapolitan
pizzeria to the royal palace, the queen ordered him to bake a selection of pizzas for her pleasure. To
honor the queen who was much beloved by her subjects, Rafaelle decided to make a very special pizza
just for her. He baked a Pizza topped with tomatoes, Mozzarella Cheese, and fresh Basil (to represent the
colors of the Italian flag: Red, white, and green).

Paragraph 5 heading:

This became Queen Margherita's favorite pizza and when word got out that this was one of the queen's
favorite foods, she became even more popular with the Italian people. She also started a culinary
tradition, the Pizza Margherita, which lasts to this very day in Naples and has now spread throughout the
world.

31

Exercise 4
The next exercise is similar in that you also have to provide each paragraph in a text with
its own heading. However, here you are given a choice of headings to choose from and
you have to match the most appropriate heading to each paragraph in the text, rather than
inventing your own heading as you did in the previous exercise. The exercise is based on
one that comes from the Reading Comprehension section of the Cambridge First
Certificate Exam and you may find the level a bit more difficult than that of the previous
text and exercise. If you are interested in testing your readiness for possibly taking the
First Certificate Exam (and this could be a very good and motivating activity for you to
think about!), then you should make sure to complete the exercise in not more than 20
minutes and without the use of a dictionary, even a monolingual one. If this proves too
difficult, then take your time and check a monolingual dictionary (only!) for the meaning of
words or expressions you dont know. Dont forget that the key to successfully completing
the task is to pay close attention to the topic sentence and its controlling idea in each
paragraph.

Instructions
You are going to read a magazine article on the next page that gives advice about how to
overcome sleep problems. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A - I for each paragraph
(1 - 7) of the article. There is one extra heading you do not need to use. There is an example at the
beginning (0).
______________________________________________________________________________

Time to get up

Put your appetite to bed

Doctors know best

Sleeping only please

Rest your weary bones

Cut down or cut out

Creatures of habit

The sleep environment

Relax the natural way

32

Sleep right, sleep tight

Say goodnight to sleep problems with these effective strategies for getting a better night's sleep.

If you've had one or two bad nights lately, you

can probably solve the problem by taking
some of the measures below. For starters,
make your bedroom a haven for sleep. Your
room should be quiet and sufficiently dark,
because darkness prompts the pineal gland
to produce melatonin, the hormone that
induces sleep. Heavy curtains can help keep
the light out, and a fan can help drown out
any annoying sounds. Cool temperatures
help you sleep, so set your thermostat
appropriately. For better air circulation, open
a window or use a fan. If the air in the room is
too dry, buy a humidifier.

1
A night-time routine can be very effective in
letting your body know when it's time to
sleep. Go through whatever rituals help you
get mentally prepared for sleep. Read a few
pages of your novel, spend 5 to 10 minutes
on personal grooming, meditate, or stretch.
It's also critical to go to bed and get up at the
same time every day, even at the weekends.

2
Reserve your bed just for sleeping. Avoid
working, paying bills, reading, or watching
television in bed. If you associate your bed
only with sleep, you'll be more likely to fall
asleep when you get under the covers for the
night. A bed that's too soft can cause poor
sleep postures, which can also lead to
muscle stiffness and back problems. Replace
your mattress if it's more than 10 years old,
and buy one that's as firm as you can tolerate
but still comfortable.

3
Going to bed either hungry or too full can
disrupt your sleep. You shouldnt have a big
meal too close to bedtime as the digestion
process might keep you awake. Also, if you
lie down after stuffing yourself you can end up

with gastric reflux. If you're peckish, have a

snack rich in carbohydrates, which trigger the
release of the brain chemical serotonin,
associated with relaxation. Try a cracker or a
bowl of cereal.

4
Watch the caffeine. Too much caffeine
throughout the day, even if it's not consumed
right before bedtime, can contribute to fitful
slumber. Once you hit 50, your metabolism
slows down, so caffeine may stay in your
system longer - up to 10 hours. Limit yourself
to two cups of tea, coffee, or cola, taken at
least 6 hours before bedtime. If that doesn't
work, try eliminating caffeine altogether.

5
Go the exercise route. It's a simple fact: If
you're physically tired at the end of the day,
you'll sleep better. Outdoor exercise is
especially helpful. Try jogging or a brisk walk.
Remember that your body needs some time
to unwind so you should exercise at least
three hours before bedtime.

6
Throw away your sleeping tablets and try
taking a warm bath instead. Your body
temperature will slowly drop after you get out
of the bathtub, making you feel sleepy. For
further relaxation, investigate the benefits of
camomile, valerian, or passionflower. These
herbs can be taken in hot drinks or other
forms. A cup of camomile tea before bedtime
may be all you need to unwind.

7
Following these steps should help you to nod
off with ease. But if 30 minutes go by and you
still haven't fallen asleep, don't lie there
feeling frustrated. Get out of bed and do
something relaxing, like listening to soothing
music or flicking through a magazine. Or
make yourself a cup of warm milk. Then try
again. Sweet dreams!

33

Exercise 5
Below is another exercise which utilizes a format from the Cambridge First Certificate
Exam. In this case, you have a text which contains gaps for missing sentences. Your task
is to choose from a list of possible sentences in order to complete the text appropriately,
logically and correctly. In order to identify which sentence goes into which gap, you must
pay close attention to the sentences preceding and following the gap. This is because if
you utilize clues from these sentences, you will be able to see which of the possible
sentences logically continues the flow of the writing. In order to complete the exercise
successfully, you are required to focus on the linking of ideas and on the creation of
coherence in the text so as not to create any logical gaps in the progression of the writing.
Once again, if you would like to do the exercise as a preparation for the actual exam, you
should attempt to complete it within 20 minutes and without the use of a dictionary.
You are going to read a magazine article about a holiday in Thailand for elephant-lovers. Eight
sentences have been removed from the article. Choose from the sentences A-I the one which fits
each gap (15-21). There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use. There is an example
at the beginning (0).
______________________________________________________________________________

F
A

It was the first day of my "mahout"

Initially, the elephants want to follow the

(elephant driver) course at the Anantara

mahout.

resort in Thailand.

Elephants only sweat in one place - above

And so I learned lesson one in driving an

their toenails - but they love to be hosed

elephant: remember where you parked the

down with cool water.

night before.

After enjoying a cup of green tea in

bamboo cups, it was time to get aboard.

Elephants, like humans, have distinct

personalities and a wide range of

emotions, from grumpy to giddy.

A hot breakfast awaits and you are

presented with your elephant mahout
license to drive.

Guests learn to bathe their elephants, find

a good sleeping spot where food is

Our first task was to drive back to the

hotel restaurant, park our elephant and

plentiful, and drive them using mahout

commands.

enjoy a hot breakfast on the terrace.

34

Learning to drive in Thailand

We had somehow managed to lose an elephant.

0

Disco Inferno, our 26-year-old, two-ton

John finally gathered the four elephants together

and we headed with the other guests to the

charge, was simply nowhere to be found.

training arena for shower time.

Crashing around in 160 hectares of misty jungle at

the mahouts, we set about washing off the mud,

6.30am with Khun Nan, the professional mahout,

while discussing the texture of their skin, a thick

I couldn't believe he had lost her.

hide that feels like prickly vinyl.

15

19

18

With

Sitting up high with my legs behind

There are four elephants at the Anantara elephant

her big, floppy ears, I felt comfortable despite the

village, including Disco. They originally worked

lack of climate control or seat belt! I learned the

in mining and logging, but were "checked in" to

basic commands: stop (leg squeeze); go (one

Anantara in September 2003, having been

kick); and reverse (rocking). Trying my best to

acquired from the Thai Elephant Conservation

mimic the mahout's instructions, I was delighted

Centre.

when Disco, my elephant, obligingly started to

16

Those of the Anantara group are

distinct: there is the eldest Pang Yom (the wise

move towards the training arena.

matriarch); Tantawan and Champen, inseparable

and best friends from logging; and lastly Lawann

20

Over three days, however, a bond is

(Disco Inferno). Shes the cheeky elephant who is

built between you and your elephant, and that is

an all-night rager, hence her nickname.

the main objective of the course. On the last day,

your elephant meets you at the hotel. You drive

The driving school is the only one of its type for

her unaided through the forest to visit a Buddhist

tourists and is modelled on the professional

shrine with a view across the Mekong River to

mahout training camp at Lampang's conservation

Burma and Laos.

centre. Nature ranger John Roberts, formerly an

life skill or valuable addition to your curriculum

engineer in England, explains that it is the only

vitae, but riding astride an elephant is certainly a

chance for people to become well acquainted with

unique way to get off the beaten tourist track and

elephants in a natural setting.

make a friend who is distinctly larger-than-life.

17

They can

21

It may not be a vital

also trek and explore the resort grounds.

35

Conclusion
You have now come to the end of the manual for the first-year English academic writing
module. Please keep in mind however that a manual is not meant to be read once and put
aside. Rather it should be thought of as a tool and a reference source that you keep
nearby when you are writing and that you go back to from time to time to refresh your
ideas. Some of the notions introduced in this manual may not have made a lot of sense to
you the first time you were exposed to them. This could be the case for a variety of
reasons. For example, it could be that until you have done a certain amount of academic
writing yourself and therefore had the opportunity to put into practice some of the theory
presented in the manual, you find it difficult to completely grasp certain concepts. Or it
could be that youre particularly tied to your Italian writing style and so automatically or
even unconsciously reject some of the stylistic conventions of the English academic style
(e.g. the use of repetition, short sentences and rigidly structured sentences and
paragraphs). Or it could even be that your overall level of English still needs to be raised
and therefore youre unable at the moment to properly absorb all of the information in the
manual, needing more time and more exposure to English (never forget how important it is
to maintain a more or less constant contact with a language youre learning and also how
important READING is!)
Whatever the reason for your possibly not comprehending or applying the material in a
complete or even adequate way at the moment, you should remember that you are only
now at the beginning of a continuing three-year process. This means that your first-year
writing manual may be useful for you in the next two years of university and that, given
time, you will undoubtedly improve your writing skills and your control of English in
general. Although learning to write can be difficult, frustrating and even tedious at times,
you will surely find that the ability to write clearly and correctly in a semi-formal style will
serve you well in the future, from outlining an abstract for your degree thesis to creating a
Curriculum Vitae after graduation, from preparing for international certification exams to
writing e-mails at your future job.
At the end of the writing module, it is time for you to go back to review the primary
objectives fixed at the beginning of this manual. Ask yourself if you have reached the
objectives below before closing out your first-year writing experience.
___

understanding how to use punctuation correctly

___

writing clear and correct sentences

___

understanding and using paragraph structure

___

knowing how to place and order information in a sentence or a paragraph

I sincerely hope that you can confidently put a tick ( ) next to all four of these objectives. If
not, because you still feel that you need improvement in the above areas, then you now
know what to focus on in your future preparation, study and practice. You will have ample
opportunity to further consolidate and refine your academic writing skills in the 2nd and 3rd
year of your university degree course in Languages. Hopefully you have acquired a solid
foundation for your continued writing activities in the future.

36