Short Course on Wind Energy

- Scale Effects in Wind Turbines -

POLItecnico
di MI lano

Carlo
Carlo L.
L. Bottasso
Bottasso
Politecnico
Politecnico di
di Milano
Milano

November
November 2011
2011

POLItecnico
di MI lano

Scale Effects

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Scale Effects
Applications:
Understanding scaling effects in smallsmall-large wind turbines
Scaling laws for wind tunnel models
Tools:
Buckingam -Theorem (dimensional analysis)

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Dimensional Analysis: Buckingham Theorem

Buckingham -Theorem:
Theorem:

Given the governing equation for a physical system defined by n

physical variables, which are expressible in terms of
k independent fundamental quantities, one can construct an
equivalent equation involving a set of m = n k dimensionless
variables constructed from the original variables
The dimensionless parameters provide relations which define the
scaling laws

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Dimensional Analysis: Buckingham Theorem

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Consider the generic model:

f (p1 ; :::; pn ; a1 ; :::; ak ) = 0

Physical
parameters

Fundamental
quantities

The i-th physical parameter can be expressed in terms of k

independent fundamental quantities:
quantities:

pi = ad11i : : : adkki
di1 ; : : : ; dik = dimensions of pi wrt fundamental quantities
The Dimensional Matrix D 2 Rk Rn contains as elements dri the
r-th dimension of the i-th parameter

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Dimensional Analysis: Buckingham Theorem

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Equivalent non-dimensional model:

model:

(1 ; : : : ; m ) = 0, m = n k
j-th nonnon-dimensional parameter:
m1j

j = p1

: : : pn nj

The exponents are the components of matrix M 2 Rn Rm

found from the solution of the following system of equations:

D M=0

i.e.: M = null(D)

Remarks:
Remarks:
Set of m=n-k parameters is not unique
Selection of proper/representative nonnon-dimensional parameters
needs to be guided by physical considerations based on the model
under consideration
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Similarity
Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Consider two systems:

P = Physical system (full scale)

M = Model (reduced scale)
with governing equations:

f (p1P ; : : : ; pnP ; a1P ; : : : ; akP ) = 0

f (p1M ; : : : ; pnM ; a1M ; : : : ; akM ) = 0
and equivalent nonnon-dimensional relations obtained through
Buckingham -theorem:

(1P ; : : : ; mP ) = 0
(1M ; : : : ; mM ) = 0

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Similarity
Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

P is similar to M if:
jP = jM , for j = 1; ::; m
which provides a set of scaling relations:
m

p1P1j : : : pnPnj = p1M1j : : : pnMnj

Generic scaling relation for a model parameter:

p1M = p1P

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2P

p2M

2j
m
m

1j

nj
p m
m
nP
1j

pnM

POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Similarity and Scaling

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Typically, scaling is based on the assignment of a scaling parameter:

parameter:

lM
n=
lP

Characteristic length of the model

Characteristic length of full scale system

Accordingly, the general scaling relation can be expressed as:

p1M = p1P n12 : : : n1n

p1M = p1P n1

The scaling process reduces to a linear transformation of parameters:

parameters:

pM = S pP
Scaling matrix:
matrix:

S = diag(n1 ; : : : ; nn )

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Wind Turbine Dimensional Analysis

Example:
Example: 6 state 4 input
individualindividual-pitch model, with
stiffness modeled using
equivalent springs

Telc
K

States:
States:
Flap angles
Rotor azimuth
Shaft torsion
ForeFore-aft angle

c1
1 ; 2 ; 3

c2
K

c3

(and their rates)

Inputs:
Inputs:
Pitch angles
Electrical torque

c1 ; c2 ; c3
Telc

Readily generalized to more complex models

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Wind Turbine Dimensional Analysis

Derive equations of motion, apply Buckingham -theorem using as
fundamental quantities
Mass,
Length,, Time
Mass, Length

NonNon-dimensional equations of motion:

_ x;
u; ) = 0
(x; x;
States:
Inputs:

x = (; i ; ; )T

T
Teelc =
u = i ; Teelc

Telc
1=2ARV 2

NonNon-dimensional parameters

T
! !i !
= Ma; Re; Fr; Lo; ; ;
;
;
! !

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Wind Turbine Dimensional Analysis

Non-dimensional parameters of physical relevance resulting from
dimensional analysis:
Mach:

Ma = V =a

Effect typically negligible for WTs

Reynolds:

Re = V c=

Inertial/viscous aerodynamic force ratio

Froude:

Fr = V 2 =gR

Aerodynamic/gravitation force ratio

Lock:

Lo = CL cR4 =J

Aerodynamic/inertial force ratio

TSR:

= R=V

NonNon-dim. time:

= t

p
!
e = ! =; ! = K =J
NonNon-dim. tower freq.:
p
Flapping freq. placement: !i =! ; !i = Ki =Ji
p
! =! ; ! = K =J
Shaft freq. placement:
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Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Size Effects on Wind Turbines

Consider two wind turbines M and P with scale ratio

n = RM =RP
operating in the same wind

VM = VP
at the same TSR

M = P

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Size Effects on Wind Turbines

Quantity

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Rotor speed
Reynolds
Froude
Lock
NonNon-dim. freq.
Freq. placements
Power
Torque
Bending stress
Shaft shear stress

Symbol

Scaling coefficient

Comment

M =P
ReM =ReP
FrM =FrP

n1
n
n1

Gravity important only

for very large sizes

LoM =LoP

n0

Assuming same density

!
eM =e
!P
(!i =! )M =(!i =! )P
(! =! )M =(! =! )P
PM =PP
QM =QP
M =P
M =P

n0

Assuming same Young

modulus (*)

n0
n2
n3
n0
n0

Size indep.
indep. stress level
Size indep.
indep. stress level

Aeroelastic effects unchanged (Lock and frequencies), except for possible influence of Froude (only
large wind turbines)
Stress level unchanged (except for gravity induced loads)
(*) Using a more realistic beambeam-like natural frequency

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p
! = EJ=(mL4 )

POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Scaling Laws for Wind Turbine Models

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

General scaling procedure:

procedure:
Given scale factor n = RM =RP
Find velocity

nV = VM =VP

and time

nt = tM =tP scalings

Enforce:
Enforce:
Time:

M = P

(t)M = (t)P

n = M =P = 1=nt

(R=V )M = (R=V )P

nV = n n = n=nt

TipTip-speedspeed-ratio:

M = P
Lock:

LoM = LoP

(CL cR4 =J )M = (CL cR4 =J )P

mM =mP = 1

Remark: Lock can always be fixed with material density

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POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Scaling Laws for Wind Turbine Models

Enforce (continued):
Frequency placement:

!
eM = !
eP

(EJ=(mL4 4 ))M = (EJ=(mL4 4 ))P

(EJ)M =(EJ)P = n6 =n2t

Remark: frequency placement can always be fixed with stiffness

stiffness
Resulting errors:
errors:
Reynolds
Froude
Mach

ReM =ReP = n2 =nt

FrM =FrP = n=n2t
MaM =MaP = n=n2t

Important remark:
remark: only unknown left is time scaling nt
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Scaling Laws for Wind Turbine Models

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Optimal scaling:
scaling: minimize Reynolds error (reduce airfoil aerodynamic
differences) + scaled time acceleration (reduce active control frequency)

2 2

min k ReM =ReP + tM =tP = min k n =nt + nt

nt

nt

which gives mismatched Mach scaling nV = 1=k

Quantity

Symbol

Scaling coefficient

Comment

1=(nk)
n=k

M =P
ReM =ReP
FrM =FrP

1=(nk2 )

Gravity important only

for very large sizes

Lock

LoM =LoP

n0

Implies same density

NonNon-dim. freq.

!
!P
eM =e

n0

Implies bending
stiffness ratio

Rotor speed
Reynolds
Froude

Power
Torque
Material density
Bending stiffness

PM =PP
QM =QP
mM =mP
(EJ)M =(EJ)P

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n2 =k3
n3 =k2
n0
n4 =k2

Enforces Lock constraint

Enforces freq. constr.

POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Scaling Laws for Wind Turbine Models

Example:
Example: scaling a large wind turbine ( RP 30 m ) to fit in a 4mx4m
test section ( RM 1 m ):

n 1=30
Quantity

Symbol

k=2
Scaling
coefficient

M =P
ReM =ReP
FrM =FrP

1/60

Lock

LoM =LoP

NonNon-dim. freq.

!
eM =e
!P

Rotor speed
Reynolds
Froude

Power
Torque
Material density
Bending stiffness

PM =PP
QM =QP
mM =mP
(EJ)M =(EJ)P

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15

7.5

Aeroelastic effects unchanged

(Lock and frequencies), except
for possible influence of Froude
(only large wind turbines)
Moderate Reynolds mismatch,
mismatch,
can be partially mitigated with
transition strips or similar
devices
Higher required control
frequencies than on full scale
system, but manageable with
sufficient computing power

1/57600
1/432e3
1
1/1296e4

POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Testing of Scaling Laws

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Approach:
Approach:
Choose comparison metrics (e.g., fatigue damage index in turbulent
turbulent
winds, load peak values for gust response, etc.)
Simulate response of scaled and fullfull-scale models
Compare responses upon backback-scaling of scaled results using metrics
Aeroelastic
Aeroelastic
Model
Model
Input
Input
Parameters
Parameters

Performance
Performance
Scaling
Scaling
Laws
Laws

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Aeroelastic
Aeroelastic
Model
Model

Inverse
Inverse
Scaling
Scaling Laws
Laws

POLIPOLI-Wind Research Lab

Testing of Scaling Laws

Wind Turbine Modeling and Analysis

Example:
Example: performance comparison of two control laws on full scale and
MachMach-mismatchedmismatched-scaled model

Turbulent 16 m/s wind

Re full scale 5.25e+6
Re scaled 4.6e+5

Goodness
Goodness of one controller wrt the
other is practically the same when
tested on full scale and scaled model
Hence:
Hence:
Scaled model is appropriate for
conducting control law comparisons
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