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a<
,
6
(12.1)
first order J1 ( x) in the general solution for a loop of constant current. Actually,
to make sure that the current has near-constant distribution along the loop, a
tighter limit must be imposed:
a < 0.03 ,
(12.2)
e j r
sin ,
Ej = ( IA)
4 r
e j r
2
H =
( IA)
sin .
4 r
It is obvious that the far-field pattern,
2
E ( ) = sin ,
(12.3)
(12.4)
(12.5)
F ( ) = sin 2 .
(12.6)
Radiated power:
1
2 sin d d ,
2 | E |2 r
ds
1
2
=
4 ( IA ) .
12
(12.7)
Radiation resistance:
2
8 A
Rr = 3 2 .
3
(12.8)
Rr 31171( A / 2 ) 2 .
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(12.9)
2
Equation (12.9) gives the radiation resistance of a single loop. If the loop
antenna has N turns, then the radiation resistance increases with a factor of N 2
(because the radiated power increases as I2):
2
8 A
Rr = 3 N 2 .
3
(12.10)
U
=
max 1.5 .
D0 4=
rad
(12.11)
(12.12)
In general, the solution for A does not depend on because of the cylindrical
symmetry of the problem. Here, we set = 0 . The angle between the position
vector of the source point Q and that of the observation point P is determined as
+ y sin ) ,
cos =r r =(x sin cos + y sin sin + z cos ) (x cos
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P
r
r
Q
I0
cos =
sin cos .
(12.13)
Now the vector potential integral can be solved for the far zone:
A ( r , , j ) =
4
e j ( r a sin cos j )
dl
I 0
r
C
(12.14)
e j r
( I 0a )
Aj ( r, ,j ) =
A ( r , , j ) =
4
r
( )e j a sin cosj dj .
(12.15)
Since
)
(x cos
+ y sin ) (x cos + y sin=
=
= cos
cos + sin sin =
(12.16)
=cos(
) =0 =cos ,
the vector potential is
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e j r
( I 0 a)
Aj ( ,0)
=
4
r
(12.17)
sin
cos
j
a
j a sin cos j dj .
cos
cos
e
d
e
j
j
j
+ . Then,
We apply the following substitution in the second integral:
=
e j r
( I 0 a)
Aj ( )
=
4
r
I 0 a e j r
Aj ( )
=
4
r
cos(nj )e jz cosj dj = j n J n ( z ) .
(12.19)
Here, J n ( z ) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order n. From (12.18) and
(12.19), it follows that
Aj ( )
e j r
( I 0 a)
j J1 ( a sin ) J1 ( a sin ) .
4
r
(12.20)
Since
J n ( z ) =
( 1) n J n ( z ) ,
(12.21)
e j r
Aj ( ) = j ( I 0 a )
J1 ( a sin ) .
2
r
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(12.22)
0.6
0.5
0.4
J1(x)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
10
15
20
25
x
30
35
40
45
50
e j r
Ej ( ) = ( I 0 a )
J1 ( a sin ),
2r
Ej
e j r
=
( I 0 a)
H ( ) =
J1 ( a sin ).
2r
(12.23)
The patterns of constant-current loops obtained from (12.23) are shown below:
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[Balanis]
1
1
J1 ( a sin ) = ( a sin ) ( a sin )3 + .
2
16
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(12.24)
7
1
(12.25)
J1 ( a sin ) ( a sin ) .
2
The substitution of (12.25) in (12.23) yields (12.3)-(12.4).
It can be shown that the maximum of the pattern given by (12.23) is in the
direction = 90 for all loops, which have circumference C < 1.84 .
Radiated power and radiation resistance
We substitute the E expression (12.23) in
1
2 sin d d ,
=
2 | E |2 r
ds
which yields
( ) 2 2
( I 0 A) J12 ( a sin )sin d .
=
4
0
(12.26)
Here, A = a 2 is the loops area. The integral in (12.26) does not have a closed
form solution. Often, the following transformation is applied:
1
2 ( a sin )sin d =
J
1
a
0
2 a
J 2 ( x)dx .
(12.27)
The second integral in (12.27) does not have a closed form solution either but it
can be approximated with a highly convergent series:
2 a
J 2 ( x)dx = 2 J 2 m +3 (2 a ) .
(12.28)
m =0
2
Rr =
=
I 02
( )2 A J 2 ( a sin )sin d .
2
(12.29)
The radiation resistance of small loops is very small. For example, for
/ 100 < a < / 30 the radiation resistance increases from 3 103 up to
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0.5 . This is often less than the loss resistance of the loop. That is why
small loop antennas are constructed with multiple turns and on ferromagnetic
cores. Such loop antennas have large inductive reactance, which is
compensated by a capacitor. This is convenient in narrowband receivers, where
the antenna itself is a very efficient filter (together with the tuning capacitor),
which can be tuned for different frequency bands.
4. Circular Loop of Nonuniform Current
When the loop radius becomes larger than 0.2 , the constant-current
assumption does not hold. A common assumption is the cosine distribution. 1,2
Lindsay, Jr., 3 considers the circular loop to be a deformation of a shorted
parallel-wire line. If I s is the current magnitude at the shorted end, i.e., the
point opposite to the feed point where = , then
I (a ) = I s cosh( aa )
(12.30)
where = is the angle with respect to the shorted end, is the line
propagation constant and a is the loop radius. If we assume loss-free
transmission-line model, then = j and cosh( aa ) = cos( aa ) . For a loop in
open space, is assumed to be the free-space wave number ( = 0 0 ).
The cosine distribution is not very accurate, especially close to the
terminals, and this has a negative impact on the accuracy of the computed input
impedance. That is why the current is often represented by a Fourier series:4,5
N
=
I (
) I 0 + 2 I n cos(n ) .
(12.31)
n =1
Here, is measured from the feed point. This way, the derivative of the
current distribution with respect to at = (the point diametrically
opposite to the feed point) is always zero. This imposes the requirement for a
symmetrical current distribution on both sides of the diameter from = 0 to
= . The complete analysis of this general case will be left out, and only
1
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some important results will be given. When the circumference of the loop
approaches , the maximum of the radiation pattern shifts exactly along the
loops normal. Then, the input resistance of the antenna is also good (about 50
to 70 ). The maximum directivity occurs when C 1.4 but then the input
impedance is too large. The input resistance and reactance of the large circular
loop are given below.
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The large circular loop is very similar in its performance to the large square
loop. An approximate solution of very good accuracy for the square-loop
antenna can be found in
W.L. Stutzman and G.A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2nd Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.
There, it is assumed that the total antenna loop is exactly one wavelength and
has a cosine current distribution along the loops wire.
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Rr
LA
Cr
Li
Z in
Z in
Rl
Cr
- resonance capacitor
Rl
Rr
- radiation resistance
LA
Li
(a)
Loss resistance
Usually, it is assumed that the loss resistance of loosely wound loop equals
the high-frequency loss resistance of a straight wire of the same length as the
loop and of the same current distribution. In the case of a uniform current
distribution, the high-frequency resistance is calculated as
=
Rhf
l
=
Rs , Rs
p
p f
,
s
(12.32)
where l is the length of the wire, and p is the perimeter of the wires crosssection. We are not concerned with the current distribution now because it can
be always taken into account in the same way as it is done for the
dipole/monopole antennas. However, another important phenomenon has to be
taken into account, namely the proximity effect.
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J1
J 2
When the spacing between the wound wires is very small, the loss resistance
due to the proximity effect might be larger than that due to the skin effect. The
following formula is used to calculate exactly the loss resistance of a loop with
N turns, wire radius b, and loop separation 2c:
=
Rl
Na R p
Rs
+ 1
b
R0
(12.33)
where
=
R0
2a
2c
2b
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The ratio R p / R0 has been calculated for different relative spacings c / b , for
loops with 2 N 8 in:
G.N. Smith, The proximity effect in systems of parallel conductors, J.
Appl. Phys., vol. 43, No. 5, May 1972, pp. 2196-2203.
The results are shown below:
(b)
Loop inductance
8a
=
LA1 a ln 2 .
b
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(12.34)
15
The inductance of a square loop with sides a and wire radius b is calculated as
=
Lsq
2
A1
a a
ln
0.774
.
b
(12.35)
The inductance of a multi-turn coil is obtained from the inductance of a singleturn loop multiplied by N 2 , where N is the number of turns.
The inductance of the wire itself is very small and is often neglected. It can
be shown that the DC self-inductance of a straight wire of length l is
=
Li
0
l .
8
(12.36)
Tuning capacitor
Y
=
in
1
1
=
Z in Rin + jX in
(12.37)
where
R=
Rr + Rl ,
in
=
X in j ( LA + Li ) .
The following transformation holds:
Y=
Gin + jBin
in
(12.38)
Rin
,
Rin2 + X in2
X
Bin = 2 in 2 .
Rin + X in
(12.39)
where
Gin =
Br = Cr .
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(12.40)
16
Br = Bin
(12.41)
2 f 0Cr =
X in
,
Rin2 + X in2
1
X in
.
Cr =
2 f ( Rin2 + X in2 )
(12.42)
(12.43)
Rin2 + X in2
1
1
R
,
=
= =
Z=
in
in
Gin Gin
Rin
(12.44)
X in2
Z in = Rin +
, .
Rin
(12.45)
17
i
H
y
Ei
optimal
y
incidence
x Voc
Voc = j m = j B s = jm H z a 2 ,
(12.46)
H z = H i cos sin i .
(12.47)
Here,
=
Voc j=
SH i cos sin i j SE i cos sin i .
(12.48)
18
6. Ferrite Loops
The radiation resistance and radiation efficiency can be raised by inserting a
ferrite core, which has high magnetic permeability in the operating frequency
band. Large magnetic permeability = 0 r means large magnetic flux m ,
and therefore large induced voltage Voc . The radiation resistance of a small loop
was already derived in (12.10) to include the number of turns, and it was shown
that it increases as N 2 . Now the magnetic properties of the loop will be
included in the expression for Rr .
The magnetic properties of a ferrite core depend not only on the relative
magnetic permeability r of the material it is made of but also on its geometry.
The increase in the magnetic flux is then more realistically represented by the
effective relative permeability (effective magnetic constant) reff . We show
next that the radiation resistance of a ferrite-core loop is ( reff ) 2 times larger
than the radiation resistance of the air-core loop of the same geometry. When
we calculated the far fields of a small loop, we used the equivalence between an
electric current loop and a magnetic current element:
jm ( IA) = I ml .
(12.49)
8
A
Rr = 0 3 N reff 2 .
3
(12.50)
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