Mechanics

Physics 151
Lecture 4
Hamiltons Principle
(Chapter 2)

Administravia
!

Problem Set #1 due

!

Problem Set #2 is here

!

Solutions will be posted on the web after this lecture

Due next Thursday

Next lecture (Tuesday) will be given by Srinivas and

Abdol-Reza
!

I will be attending a workshop at Stanford

What We Did Last Time

!

Derived Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn

!

Using DAlemberts Principle = differential approach

Lagranges Equations work if

!
!
!

Constraints are holonomic " Generalized coordinates

Forces of constraints do no work " No frictions
Other forces are monogenic " Generalized potential
U d U
Qj =
+
q j dt q! j

Todays Goals
!

Discuss Hamiltons Principle

!
!
!

Derive Lagranges Eqn from Hamiltons Principle

Calculus of variation
Looks unfamiliar, but not so difficult

Discuss conservation laws again

!
!
!

Using Lagrangian formalism

Linear, angular momenta
Connection between symmetry, invariance of the
Lagrangian, and conservation of generalized momentum

Configuration Space
!

Generalized coordinates q1,...,qn fully describe the

systems configuration at any moment
configuration
Imagine an n-dimensional space
!

Each point in this space (q1,...,qn)

corresponds to one configuration of the system
Time evolution of the system " A curve in the
configuration space
real space

configuration space

space

Action Integral
!
!

A system is moving as q j = q j (t ) j = 1...n

Lagrangian is L(q, q! , t ) = L(q(t ), q! (t ), t ) = L(t )
integrate
!
!

t2

I = Ldt
t1

Action, or action integral

Action I depends on the entire path from t1 to t2

Choice of coordinates qj does not matter
! Action is invariant under coordinate transformation

Hamiltons Principle
The action integral of a physical system is stationary
for the actual path
!

This is equivalent to Lagranges Equations

!

We will prove this

We will also define stationary

Three equivalent formulations

!
!
!

Newtons Eqn depends explicitly on x-y-z coordinates

Lagranges Eqn is same for any generalized coordinates
Hamiltons Principle refers to no coordinates
! Everything is in the action integral
Hamiltons Principle is more fundamental

probably...

Stationary
!

Consider two paths that are close to each other

Difference is infinitesimal

t2

Stationary means that the

difference of the action integrals is
zero to the 1st order of q(t)
t2

t2

t1

t1

I = L(q + q, q! + q! , t )dt L(q, q! , t )dt = 0

Almost same as saying minimum

!

q(t )

Similar to first derivative = 0

configuration space

It could as well be maximum

q (t ) + q (t )

t1

q(t1 ) = q (t2 ) = 0

Infinitesimal Path Difference

!

Whats q(t)?
!
!
!

configuration space

t2

Its arbitrary sort of

It has to be zero at t1 and t2
Its well-behaving
Dont worry

q(t )

too much
Continuous, non-singular,
continuous 1st and 2nd derivatives
!

q (t ) + q (t )
t1

Have to shrink it to zero

!

Trick: write it as q(t ) = (t )

! is a parameter, which well make " 0
! (t) is an arbitrary well-behaving function (t1 ) = (t2 ) = 0

Hamilton " Lagrange

!

Consider 1 generalized coordinate q

!
!

Add q(t) to q(t), then make q(t) " 0

Do this by q(t ) = (t )

configuration space

t2

q (t , ) = q(t ) + (t )
!
!

is a parameter " 0
(t) is an arbitrary well-behaving

function
(t1 ) = (t2 ) = 0
!

q(t )

Continuous, non-singular,
continuous ' and ''
t2

Lets define I ( ) t L(q(t , ), q! (t , ), t )dt

1

q (t ) + q (t )
t1
NB: this also
depends on (t)

Calculus of Variations
!

t2

Lets define I ( ) = t L(q(t , ), q! (t , ), t )dt

1

If the action is stationary

t2 L dq
dI ( )
L dq!
dt
=
+

t
1
d
q d q! d

Some work!

t2

t1

L d L dq
dt

q dt q! d

NB: this also

depends on (t)

dI ( )

=0
d =0

for any (t)

q (t , ) = q(t ) + (t )
= (t )
Arbitrary function

Lagranges Equation
Fundamental lemma

x2

x1

M ( x) ( x)dx = 0 for any ( x)

!

M ( x) = 0 for x1 < x < x2

We got

t2

t1

L d L
(t )dt = 0

q dt q!

L d L

=0
q dt q!

Done!

Notation of Variation
!

For shorthand, we use for infinitesimal variation

!

I.e. -derivative at = 0
t2
d
dI
I
L(q(t , ), q! (t , ), t )dt d
d =

t
d 1
d =0

dq
d = (t )d
d =0

q
!

Hamiltons Principle can be written as

I =

t2

t1

L d L
qdt = 0

q dt q!

Going Multi-Coordinates
!

Trivial to expand q " (q1, q2, , qn)

!

See Goldstein Section 2.3

I =

t2

t1

L d L
i q dt q! qi dt = 0
i
i

= 0 for each i
!

Assumption: q1, q2, are arbitrary and independent

! Not true for x-y-z coordinates if there are constraints
! True for generalized coordinates if the system is
holonomic

Hamiltons Principle
t2

I = L(q, q! , t )dt = 0
t1

Action I describes the entire motion of the system

!

Action I does not depend on the choice of the

coordinates
!

It is sufficient to derive the equations of motion

Lagrange formalism is coordinate invariant

Adding dF/dt to L would add F(t2) F(t1) to I

!

It wouldnt affect I Variations are 0 at t1 and t2

dF (q, t )
Arbitrarity of L is obvious L = L +
dt

Calculus of Variation
!

Technique has wider applications

!

x2

In general for J = f ( y ( x), y( x), x)dx

x1

J =0

dy
y
dx

f d f

=0

y dx y

Examples in Goldstein Section 2.2

Most famous: the brachistochrone problem

Fastest path via gravity

Conservation Laws
!

Weve seen (in Lectures 1&2) conservation of linear,

angular momenta and energy in Newtonian mechanics
!
!

How do they work with Lagranges equations?

Should better be the same

Well find a few differences and assumptions

!

They are, in fact, limitations we ignored so far

Momentum Conservation
!

Lets consider a simple system

mi ( x! + y! + z! )
L = T V =
V ( xi , yi , zi , t )
2
i
2
i

L
= mi x!i = pix
x!i
!

2
i

2
i

Momentum

Potential does
not depend on
velocity

L
V
=
= Fix
xi
xi

Force

Momentum pix conserved if V does not depend on xi

Now try to generalize from here

Generalized Momentum
L
! Lets call p j
the generalized momentum
q! j
!

Also known as canonical or conjugate momentum

Equals to usual momentum for simple x-y-z coordinates

dp j L

=0
! Lagranges equation becomes
dt q j
!

pj is conserved if L does not depend explicitly on qj

Such qj is called cyclic (or ignorable)

Generalized momentum associated

with a cyclic coordinate is conserved

Linear momentum
conservation is a
special case

Generalized Momentum
!

L
pj
q! j

Generalized momentum may not look like linear

momentum
!

Dimension may vary, if qj is not a space coordinate

! pjqj always has the dimension of action (= work time)
Form may vary if V depends on velocity
! Example: a particle in EM field
1
L = mv 2 q + qA v
px = mx! + qAx
2
Extra term due to velocitydependent potential

Symmetry
!

Linear momentum p = (px, py, pz) is conjugate of

(x, y, z) coordinates
!

Conserved if Lagrangian does not depend explicitly on

position
I.e. if Lagrangian is invariant under space translation
( x , y , z ) ( x + x , y + y , z + z )
Such a system is called symmetric under space translation

Symmetry of a system = Invariance of Lagrangian

" Conservation of conjugate momentum
!

Lets study an example of angular momentum

Angular Momentum
!

ri = ri (q1 ,..., qn , t )

Consider a multi-particle system

!

Suppose q1 turns the whole system around

! Example: in ri = ( xi , yi , zi ) = ( ri cos , ri sin , zi )
n
Assume V does not depend on !
r
i

Conjugate momentum is
L T
p
=
!
!
bit of
work

= n Li = n L

d
zi

ri ( )

Axis of rotation

ri ( + d )

Total angular
momentum

Bit of Work

ri = ri ( , q2 ,..., qn , t )

ri ! n ri
r
+
q!k + i
r!i =

t
k = 2 qk

mi
T = r!i r!i
2
i
!
!

r!i ri
=
!

r!i
ri
T
= mi r!i
= mi r!i
!
!

i
i

dri is perpendicular to both n and ri

Size of dri is ri sin d ri
= n ri

= mi r!i (n ri )

ri

= mi n (ri r!i ) = n Li
i

dri

Angular Momentum
!

Angular momentum is conserved if the system is

symmetric under rotation
!

How does this relate to the total torque N?

Generalized
force
!

L
Q

This must be zero

if is cyclic

T cannot depend on Rotating doesnt change vi2

ri
L
V
=
= Fi
= Fi ( n ri ) = n ri Fi

i
i
i

Total torque is zero along the axis of symmetry

Torque

Conservation Laws
!

Following statements are equivalent:

!
!
!
!

System is symmetric wrt a generalized coordinate

The coordinate is cyclic (does not appear in Lagrangian)
The conjugate generalized momentum is conserved
The associated generalized force is zero

Symmetry
Coordinate
Momentum
Force

Spatial translation
Distance along an axis
Linear
Force

Rotation
Angle around an axis
Angular
Torque

Summary
!

Derived Lagranges Eqn from Hamiltons Principle

!

Discussed conservation laws

!
!

Calculus of variation

L
Generalized (conjugate) momentum p j
q! j
Symmetry of the system
" Invariance of the Lagrangian
" Conservation of momentum

We are almost done with the basic concepts

!
!

Finish up next Tuesday with energy conservation

Some applications are in order " Central force problem