Polarized Light

Vectors
what they are and how they apply to light waves

Linearly polarized light

Vertical, horizontal, other directions
Components of linear polarization in other directions
Law of Malus and linear polarizers

Circular and elliptical polarization

Unpolarized light
Random polarization

Production of polarized light

Birefringence and crystals
waveplates
May 01

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Vectors
Many physical quantities have both a strength (magnitude)
and a direction
velocity (magnitude is speed), force, electric field

Objects with a strength and direction are called vectors

symbolized by an arrow with length of arrow indicating direction
sometimes location of base of arrow is significant (where a force is
applied) other times only the strength and direction are important
Force applied
by
support

velocity
May 01

Force of gravity
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Addition (or superposition) of vectors

More than one vector of the same type can act on one object
(e.g. several forces)
In this case, vectors must be added

Vectors are added by placing the tail of the second vector at

the tip of the first
result is the vector from the tail of the first to the tip of the second
same result is obtained if first and second vector are reversed
vectors to be added called components, sum called resultant

Blue vector
added first
May 01

Resultant
vector
Red vector
added first
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Components of a vector

The sum of the two forces on the car gives the

resultant force
The resultant is the component of the force of
gravity along the ramp
The force from the ramp cancels the force of gravity
perpendicular to the ramp
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Components in any given direction

To find a vectors component in a given direction:
draw a line in the given direction through the tail of the vector
drop a perpendicular from the tip of the vector to the line
the component in the given direction is the vector along the given
direction to the point where the perpendicular intersects
length of component always less than length of vector

vector
Direction
line
Component of vector
in direction of line
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Independent vectors
A vector has no component in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of the vector
Two vectors which are perpendicular to each other are
called independent

Independent
vectors

vector
direction
Vector has zero component in
this direction
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Linear polarization

Light is a transverse wave

electric field and magnetic field vibrate perpendicular to the

propagation direction ( fields have no component along
propagation direction)
For a horizontal propagation direction, the electric field can
vibrate in the horizontal plane or the vertical direction
can vibrate in any other transverse direction also

Electric field for

vertical polarization
May 01

Electric field for

horizontal polarization
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What does this diagram mean?

Electric Field at P

P
This means that at P there is an electric field
An electric charge placed at P would experience a force
The direction of the force is indicated by the arrow
The strength of the force is indicated by the length of
the arrow

The diagram says nothing about electric fields at

other points
There is no field indicated at the tip of the arrow or any
other place along it
May 01

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Properties of linearly polarized light

Polarization direction is always perpendicular to direction of
propagation
Any two perpendicular directions may be chosen as fundamental
directions (possibly horizontal and vertical for beams propagating
horizontally)

Electric field vector oscillates in plane of polarization

Sometimes we symbolize it by a single arrow or double headed
arrow or a line, but if we follow the change in vector with time it
will go positive and negative
y
y

x
Electric field at peak
for vertical
polarization
May 01

x
Electric field at peak
for horizontal
polarization
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Superposition of polarization vectors

Since the electric field is a vector, two light
waves traveling in the same direction can be
added by adding their electric field vectors
This just like what we did in interference,
except there we didnt talk about the direction
of the field vector only its size and phase

beam 2
horizontal

May 01

beam 1
vertical

Resultant
(at one time and
position)

Just as in interference, the

result of adding these two
vibrating fields depends
on the phase of their
vibrations

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Superposition of two in-phase, linearly

polarized waves

Two linearly polarized waves in phase add to give another

linearly polarized wave with a different polarization plane
New plane is found by vector addition of two components

A linearly polarized wave can be thought of (and is) a sum

of two other linearly polarized waves
Can be resolved into any two orthogonal directions

resultant
At peak
May 01

After peak

After going
through zero

Negative peak
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Pass
direction

Law of Malus
m
a
e
b
t
Outpu

ea
b
t
u
p
In

A beam polarized in the pass direction is transmitted

through the linear polarizer
A beam polarized perpendicular to the pass direction is
not transmitted
Several different types of linear polarizer will be
discussed later
The beam exiting from the linear polarizer is
always polarized in the pass direction
May 01

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Law of Malus
Pass
direction
Component along
pass direction
m
a
e
b
t
Inpu

What if the beam is not polarized

either parallel to or perpendicular
to the pass direction?

Output
polarization
direction
m
a
e
b
t
Outpu
Input
polarization
direction

The input polarization is resolved into two components,

along and perpendicular to the pass direction
The component along the pass direction is transmitted,
the perpendicular component is not
Simple trigonometry gives, Pout=Pin*cos2()
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Circular polarization
There are other ways that the electric field can
vibrate in a light wave
The vibration must be transverse, i.e. perpendicular to
the propagation direction
Field direction and magnitude must repeat after a
wavelength

In circular polarization, the electric field maps out

a circular pattern
Either observe at fixed point or wave frozen in time
Propagation
direction
Path of electric
field vector
May 01

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Out-of-phase componentscircular
polarization

Two components equal in amplitude, but 90 out of phase

x is at its peak when y is zero, and vice-versa
resultant traces out a circle as components oscillate
changing sign of one component gives opposite rotation

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Elliptical polarization

If the x and y components are not equal amplitude, the

path of the resultant is an ellipse

etc.

If the amplitudes are equal, but the phase difference is not

90 the polarization is also elliptical
x component is
at maximum,
but y is not zero
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Change of polarization with phase

between x and y components
Many polarizations can be obtained from the same x
and y components just by changing phase between them

max. y
field

all possible polarizations can be inscribed in a rectangle

max.
x
field

Phase = 0
May 01

Phase = 45

Phase = 90

Phase = 180
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Unpolarized (natural) light

Polarized light is predictable
If you know light is circularly polarized you know what its electric
field vector will be at any time or place
The phase difference between the x and y components is fixed

If the phase between the two components is unpredictable,

rapidly changing in time, the light is unpolarized
Unpolarized light is a mixture of linearly polarized components in
all possible directions, as well as all possible circular and elliptical
polarizations
unpolarized light originates in natural (thermal) sources

Partially polarized light can be thought of as a mixture of

polarized and unpolarized light
no device exists that can separate the two however

May 01

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Coherent light is always polarized!!!

If a light wave is perfectly coherent then the x and y
components both have known and constant phases
Since we know the phase of x and y separately for all time, we
also know their difference
may be linear, circular, or elliptical, but stays constant

Whoa? What about unpolarized lasers???

Coherence is an ideal, the phase of a laser eventually (in a
coherence time) forgets is past
coherence time, or coherence length, varies greatly between
different laser types
during a coherence time polarization of a laser stays constant
to acknowledge this state of affairs, a laser without a definite
polarization is often called randomly polarized (confusing
terminology, but its all we have for now)
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Production of polarized lightscattering

scatterers
Single
scaterer
Scattered light,
partially polarized

Microscopically, light interacts with

materials by setting their electrons in
motion
the electrons then reradiate producing
absorption, reflection, scattering, and
refractive index
skylight is partially polarized
May 01

t
n
e
id
c
n
i

ed
tter
sca

Incident,
unpolarized light

electron

Force on the electron

is transverse to
propagation direction,
thus only one
polarization emitted
at right angles
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ref
ray lecte
d

Production of polarized lightreflection

nt
ide
inc
ray

Reflected ray is partially polarized

in the direction out of the paper
air
Refracted ray is partially polarized
glass
in the plane of the paper
Reflected ray and refracted ray are
generated by microscopic
radiators also
When refracted and reflected ray are at 90 the reflected ray
is completely polarized (Brewsters angle)
Refracted ray is partially polarized in the plane of the paper
Reflected ray and refracted ray are generated by
microscopic radiators also
cted
refra
ray

May 01

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Polarization by reflection
s-polarization
perpendicular to
plane of incidence

1
0.9
0.8

n=1.5

0.7

Reflectivity

both reflectivities
high at grazing
incidence

from German word

for perpendicular
sometimes called

0.6
0.5

s polarization

0.4

p polarization
both reflectivities
equal at normal
incidence

0.3
0.2

p-polarization
parallel to plane of
incidence

Brewster's
angle

0.1
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

sometimes called

Angle (degrees)

Sometimes easiest to remember

as skip and pass
May 01

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Polarizing pile of plates

Invented by Arago in 1812
15% of s polarization rejected at each surface
in principle the p-polarization is completely transmitted
in practice it is difficult to reduce the loss below a few
tenths of a percent

Still in use for some applications (e.g. CO2 laser at

10.6 m)
Vertically (p)
Unpolarized

polarized
light

light

May 01

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Polarization by dichroic crystals

Some natural crystals

(e.g. tourmaline) have
absorption coefficients
that are much larger for
one linear polarization
than another
electrons are free to
vibrate only along one
axis
circular dichroic
polarizers also exist

Polaroid sheet invented by E. Land in 1932

microscopic polarizing crystals in nitrocellulose sheet
stretched so all the crystals line up on the same axis

May Dichroic
has other unrelated meanings (its not my LASERS
fault!!)
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51

Production of polarized lightlaw of Malus

What happens when polarized, or unpolarized light is
incident on a linear polarizer?
Light is
direction of
resolved into amplitude of
polarizer
polarization of
transmitted
components
incident light

light
along and
perpendicular to
Eincident
the polarizer
direction
Parallel component transmitted, pependicular component
rejected
transmitted amplitude=Eincident*cos
transmitted intensity=Iincident*cos2
holds true even if incident polarization is elliptical or random
May 01
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Production of polarized light by thin

film polarizers
s-polarized
component
Input beam

p-polarized
component

Glass has a multilayer dielectric coating (similar to

antireflection coating)
Angle is close to Brewsters angle (makes coating
design easier)
All s-polarized light is reflected not just 15%
May 01

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Birefringence (Double refraction)

Electrons in many crystals have different
forces on them in different directions
these crystals are said to be anisotropic
an=not, iso=same, tropic=direction, thus not the
same in every direction

As a result, the index of refraction depends on

the polarization
result is refractive index depends on polarization
Speed of light depends on polarization

May 01

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Optic axis in anisotropic crystals

In an anisotropic crystal light going in one or two
special directions has the same index of refraction
independent of its polarization

these special directions are called the optic axes

optic axis is a direction in the crystal not one particular line
crystals with two optic axes are biaxial
only uniaxial crystals will be discussed here

Direction of optic axis is closely tied to crystal structure

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Propagation in a uniaxial crystal

ordinary
polarization

ic
t
Along optic axis, the light
p
o s
axi
propagates with a single
propagation
refractive index, the
direction
extraordinary
ordinary index, no
polarization
For other propagation directions, there are two indices
Resolve the light into two linearly polarized components
one polarized perpendicular to the optic axis
one in plane of optic axis and propagation direction

polarization perpendicular to optic axis has index no

The other polarization propagates with a different index of
refraction called the extraordinary index, ne

Extraordinary index depends on the direction of propagation

Perpendicular to optic axis it differs the most from no
Smoothly approaches no as direction approaches optic axis

May 01

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Uniaxial crystalsrefraction
Consider a light ray incident at normal
incidence on the surface of a uniaxial
crystal
A light ray with a polarization
perpendicular to the optic axis is called an
ordinary ray
A light ray with the other linear polarization
is called an extraordinary ray

ry
a
in
d
or y
ra

ry
a
in
d
r
o
a
r
t
ex y
ra

At the surface, the ordinary ray obeys Snells law, it doesnt

refract because the incidence angle is zero
The extraordinary ray bends at the surface (except in the special
case that the optic axis is parallel to the surface)
At any angle of incidence the ordinary ray obeys Snells law
The extraordinary ray does not in general obey Snells law
May 01

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Birefringent polarizersNicol prism

Invented by William Nicol in 1828

according to Jenkins & White he didnt understand how it worked

Start with single crystal of calcite

cut down ends 3 from natural angle (to 68)
cut apart along diagonal
cement back together with Canada Balsam

O-ray of calcite has lower index than e-ray, undergoes TIR

at interface, e-ray is transmitted
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Other birefringent polarizers

Nicol prisms are simple, but have disadvantages
relatively small acceptance angle (~28)
input is not at normal incidence
cemented optics cannot be used with high-power lasers or
in the UV

Several variations exist

Glan-Thompson is the most popular and overcomes all the
difficulties listed above (but not all at once!)

Other polarizers separate the two components

Rochon prism, Wollaston prism

May 01

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Interference of polarized lightwaveplates

Incident polarization is resolved

into o and e polarizations inside
crystal
shown with optic axis in plane of
plate, but same principles if not
directions along o and e are called
fast axis and slow axis

direction of
optic axis

cally
i
t
r
e
ent, v
incid ized beam
polar

Inside crystal the two waves

propagate independently
each has its own index and possibly
its own direction

birefringent
plate

phase delay of o - ray = not /

phase delay of e - ray = net /
phase difference = (no ne )t /

Phases given in waves!

After emerging from crystal, recombine the two waves

using the principle of superposition
keep track of phase difference in crystal
continues to propagate in the normal way after exiting crystal
May 01
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Quarter wave plate

Phase difference is a quarter wave

If incident light polarized at 45 to

fast axis the o and e components are
equal amplitudes
emergent light is circularly polarized

Phase difference is a quarter wave

Slow axis

Fast axis

If incident light polarized at 45 to fast axis the o and e

components are equal amplitudes
emergent light is circularly polarized

If incident light is circularly polarized, output is linearly

polarized
right-hand circular comes out parallel to fast axis, left to slow

Other polarizations result in elliptic output, but unpolarized

light comes out unpolarized!
May 01
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Waveplates (cont.)
Quarter wave plate in which the phase delay is exactly 1/4
is called a zero-order plate
only works exactly for one wavelength (even neglecting
dispersion!!), but close to a quarter wave for other wavelengths
must be very thin, can be mounted on substrate for structural
stability
if phase delay is n waves + 1/4 acts exactly the same at , but
goes out of phase very quickly as changes

Half-wave plate, 90 phase difference

for linearly polarized input at 45 to fast axis, emergent light is
linearly polarized, but rotated 90
Babinet-Soliel compensator, arrangement of birefringent
plates that can produce a variable phase delay
May 01

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Analysis of unknown polarization

If a linear polarizer is rotated and the transmission goes to
zero at some angle, then input is linearly polarized, DONE.
If no there is no variation with polarizer rotation, light is
circularly polarized, unpolarized, or a mixture of these
to distinguish between these, put in /4 plate before polarizer
if light was circular, it will now be linear, detect with polarizer
if it was unpolarized, it will still be unpolarized, ie no variation
with polarizer
if there is now a variation with the polarizer but the minima dont
go to zero, then the light is partially polarized
degree of polarization defined as

I MAX I MIN
=
I MAX + I MIN
May 01

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Analysis of unknown polarization (cont.)

If there is a variation with the linear polarizer (and no /4

plate) the light must be at least partially polarized but might
also be elliptical
Insert /4 plate with fast axis along direction of maximum
transmission
for elliptically polarized light, the phase difference between major
and minor axes is also /4, but the two components are unequal
amplitude, therefore, the /4 plate will convert this to linear
polarization, but an angle to the original maximum, detect with
polarizer
If the polarizer show that the light is not linear even with the /4
plate inserted, the light is not completely polarized, degree of
polarization defined as before, there are still two possibilities

May 01

if minimum at same angle as before, mixture of linear polarization and

unpolarized, if minimum at different angle then mixture of linear and
elliptical

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Optical rotation
Some materials exhibit the phenomenon of optical activity plane polarized light (at any angle) remains plane polarized, but its
angle of polarization rotates as it goes through the material
Note differences between this behavior and that of a waveplate, in
optical activity: input polarization doesnt matter, rotation
increases with thickness of the material, output polarization is
always linear

Optical activity can be induced in some materials due to a

magnetic field, Faraday effect
This is the only one of the multitude of polarization effects we
have examined which is not reversible
By reversible I mean that the direction of propagation can be reversed if the
output and input polarizations are switched

This effect is the basis of optical diodes and optical isolators

May 01

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