POLARIZATION

A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is referred to as un-polarized light.

Ex: Light emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom, or by a candle flame is un-polarized
light.

In general, it is helpful to picture un-polarized light as a wave that has an average of half its
vibrations in a horizontal plane and half of its vibrations in a vertical plane.

Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane.

The process of transforming un-polarized light into polarized light is known as

polarization.

Applications of Polarization

Polarization has applications in 1. glare-reducing sunglasses.

2. Industry, Polaroid filters are used to perform stress analysis tests on transparent plastics.
As light passes through a plastic, each color of visible light is polarized with its own orientation.
If such a plastic is placed between two polarizing plates, a colorful pattern is revealed. As the top
plate is turned, the color pattern changes as new colors become blocked and the formerly blocked
colors are transmitted. A common Physics demonstration involves placing a plastic protractor
between two Polaroid plates and placing them on top of an overhead projector. It is known that
structural stress in plastic is signified at locations where there is a large concentration of colored
bands. This location of stress is usually the location where structural failure will most likely
occur. Stress analysis were performed on the plastic case of the CD that you recently
purchased.

3. in the entertainment industry to produce and show 3-D movies. Three-dimensional movies
are actually two movies being shown at the same time through two projectors. The two movies
are filmed from two slightly different camera locations. Each individual movie is then projected
from different sides of the audience onto a metal screen. The movies are projected through a
polarizing filter. The polarizing filter used for the projector on the left may have its polarization
axis aligned horizontally while the polarizing filter used for the projector on the right would have
its polarization axis aligned vertically. Consequently, there are two slightly different movies
being projected onto a screen. Each movie is cast by light that is polarized with an orientation
perpendicular to the other movie. The audience then wears glasses that have two Polaroid filters.
Each filter has a different polarization axis - one is horizontal and the other is vertical. The result
of this arrangement of projectors and filters is that the left eye sees the movie that is projected
from the right projector while the right eye sees the movie that is projected from the left
projector. This gives the viewer a perception of depth.
Malus's Law:

“when completely plane polarized light is incident on the analyzer, the intensity I of the
light transmitted by the analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of
angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer”.

i.e   I α cos2θ

Suppose the angle between the transmission axes of

the analyzer and the polarizer is θ. The completely
plane polarized light from the polarizer is incident on
the analyzer.

The electric field vector E0 can be resolved into two

rectangular components i.e E0 cosθ and E0 sinθ.

The analyzer will transmit only the component ( i.e E 0 cosθ ) which is parallel to its transmission
axis. However, the component E0sinθ will be absorbed by the analyser. Therefore, the intensity I
of light transmitted by the analyzer is

I ∞ ( E0 x cosθ )2

I / I0 = ( E0 x cosθ )2 / E02 = cos2θ I = I0 x cos2θ

Therefore, I ∞ cos2θ.

This proves law of malus.

When θ = 0° ( or 180° ), I = I0 cos20° = I0 That is the intensity of light transmitted by the

analyzer is maximum when the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer are parallel.

When θ = 90°, I = I0 cos290° = 0 That is the intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer is
minimum when the transmission axes of the analyzer and polarizer are perpendicular to each
other.

Problem-1: If the plane of vibration of the incident beam makes an angle of 30 0 with the optic
axis, compare the intensities of e-ray and o-ray.
Quarter Wave plate

It is a plate of doubly refracting uni-axial crystal of calcite or quartz of suitable thickness whose
refracting faces are cut parallel to the direction of the optic axis in which the path difference
between e-ray and o-ray becomes λ/4.

Let the plane-polarized light is incident on the

crystal normal to the optic axis. In this case the e-ray
and o-ray travel in same direction with different
velocities.

Therefore, the path travelled by e-ray = μet ….1

and the path travelled by o-ray = μot ….2

As the path difference between two rays is λ/4,

In case of Calcite crystal (negative crystal (μo > μe ) )

λ
μo t−μe t=
4

λ
t=
4 (μ ¿ ¿ o−μe )¿

In case of Quartz crystal (positive crystal (μe > μo )),

λ
t=
4 (μ ¿ ¿ e−μo ) ¿

Quarter wave plates are used to turn plane-polarized light into circularly polarized light and vice
versa.

Half wave plate

It is a plate of doubly refracting uni-axial crystal of

calcite or quartz of suitable thickness whose refracting
faces are cut parallel to the direction of the optic axis in
which the path difference between e-ray and o-ray
becomes λ/2.

Let the plane-polarized light is incident on the crystal

normal to the optic axis. In this case the e-ray and o-ray
travel in same direction with different velocities.

Therefore, the path travelled by e-ray = μet ….1

and the path travelled by o-ray = μot ….2

As the path difference between two rays is λ/2,

In case of Calcite crystal (negative crystal (μo > μe ) )

λ
μo t−μe t =
2

λ
t=
2(μ ¿ ¿ o−μe ) ¿

In case of Quartz crystal (positive crystal (μe > μo )),

λ
t=
2( μ ¿ ¿ e−μo ) ¿

The half wave plate can be used to rotate the polarization state of a plane polarized light.

Note:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fu-aYnRkUgg, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fy7EeRSsOsY

DOUBLE REFRACTION (BIREFRINGENCE)

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MoZar-gCj3E):

The phenomenon in which a single ray of un-polarized light enters an anisotropic medium is split into two
rays, one ray called the extraordinary ray and the other ray called the ordinary ray, is known as double
refraction or birefringence.

When un-polarized light passes through certain anisotropic crystals such as calcite or quartz,
velocity of propagation of these two components vary with direction. This means that the
material exhibits two different refractive indices. Since μ = sin i/sin r, though both the
components have the same angle of incidence, they have different angles of refraction. Hence
when un-polarized light passes through such crystals, we get two refracted beams and this
phenomenon is called double refraction or birefringence.
Calcite or Iceland spar is a crystalised calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is a good example of a
system of anisotropic crystals. It is rhombic in shape and the line AC joining the blunt corner A
and C is called the crystal axis.

Line drawn through A which makes equal angles with the three edges gives the direction of
optic axis. Any line parallel to this line is also optic axis since optic axis is not a line but
direction. If a ray of light is incident along the optic axis or in a direction parallel to the optic
axis, then it will not break in to two rays, i.e. the phenomenon of double refraction is absent
when light is allowed to enter the crystal along the optic axis.

When un-polarized light passes through the crystal, in a direction different from optic axis, it is
split into o-ray and e-ray. When a ray of light PQ is incident on the calcite crystal making an
angle of incidence = I, it is refracted along two paths inside the crystal, (i) along QS making an
angle of refraction = r2 and (ii) along QR making an angle of refraction = r1.

The ordinary ray travels with the same velocity in all directions. The corresponding refractive
index is called ordinary refractive index (μo).

sin i
μo =
sin r 1

The ordinary ray obeys the laws of refraction and its refractive index is constant. The
extraordinary ray travels with the same velocity as that of ordinary ray along optic axis direction.
In other directions, the velocity gradually changes and in a direction perpendicular to optic axis
the change is maximum. The refractive index of extraordinary ray corresponding to this direction
is called extra ordinary refractive index (μe) and its refractive index is not constant.

sini
μe =
sin r 2

For calcite crystal for Sodium light ( λ = 5893 Ao) μo = 1.6584, μe = 1.4864. Both o-ray and e-ray
are plane polarized but with their planes of polarization mutually perpendicular to each other.

When the crystal is rotated about the beam as axis, the e-ray rotates about the fixed o-ray. Such
crystals are good polarizers if we can eliminate any one of the ray.

Note: The shown figure is known as principal plane, a plane in the crystal drawn through
the optic axis.

Differences between O-ray and e-ray:

A ray of light is not split into o-ray and e-ray when it is incident on calcite parallel to its axis. In
this both the rays travel in same direction with same velocity. If it is incident normal to the optic
axis, they travel in the same direction with different velocities.

The refractive index of o-ray is constant and e-ray varies with the direction.

One ray obeys the laws of refraction (ordinary ray) and the other does not (extraordinary ray).

The ordinary and extraordinary components follow different paths inside the crystal, but on
leaving the crystal, they follow parallel paths.

NICOL PRISM

It is an optical device used for

producing and analyzing plane
poparized light. It was invented by
William Nicol, in 1828.

The Nicol Prism is made in such a way

that it eliminates one of the two rays by
total internal reflection. It is generally
found that the ordinary ray is
eliminated and only the extraordinary
ray is transmitted through the prism.

A Calcite crystal whose length is three times its breath is taken. The two ends PQ and RS of the
crystal are cut, so that the angle PQS reduces from 71 o to 68o. Then the crystal is cut into two
halves along the plane P1S1 which passes through the blunt corners and perpendicular to both the
principal section and end faces. P1S1 makes an angle of 90o with S1D and P1Q. The two cut faces
are well polished and cemented together using a thin layer of Canada Balsam, a clear transparent
material. It has refractive index 1.55 for 5893 A o. When un-polarized Sodium light enters the
Nicol prism, it splits into o-ray and e-ray. O-ray has the refractive index 1.6584 and e-ray varies
between 1.4864 to 1.6584. Inside the crystal when o-ray meets the thin layer of Canada balsam
cement, it has to travel from denser medium (μo= 1.6584) to rarer medium (μ = 1.55). Because of
shaping of the crystal face, the o-ray is refracted more so that the angle of incidence at the
canada balsam interface is greater that the critical angle. Hence, it undergoes total internal
reflection and leaves the crystal through its side. Hence e-ray alone emerges out of the other face
of the prim.

Nicol prisms are good polarizers and analysers and can be used to produce and analyse plane
polarized light.

PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the thickness of a half wave plate of quartz for a wavelength of 5000 A o. Here μe=
1.553 and μo = 1.544.

2. Plane polarized light passes through a quartz plate with its optic axis parallel to the faces.
Calculate the least thickness of the plate for which the emergent beam will be plane-polarized.
(Here μe= 1.5533, μo = 1.5442 and λ = 5 x 10-5cm.)

3. Find the thickness of a quarter wave plate when the wavelength of light is 5890A o. (Here μe=
1.5533, μo = 1.5442)

4. A polaroid sheet and an analyzer are placed such that their transmission axes are co-linear.
The analyzer is then rotated by 22.5 o. What is the irradiance of the transmitted light as a fraction
of its previous value?
Ans: When the axes are co-linear, the amplitude or irradiance of the transmitted light is a
maximum. After rotation, the irradiance is given by Malus' Law: I = I 0cos2 θ = I 0cos2(22.5 o ) =
0.85I 0 . Thus the fraction of transmitted light is 85% of its previous value.

5. You have three ideal linear polarizers. Light of irradiance 1000 W/m 2 is shone through two of
the polarizers, with their transmission axes placed at a relative angle of 40 o . What is the
intensity of the transmitted light? Now place the third polarizer at an angle of 20 o between the
other two. What is the irradiance?
In the first case, we just apply Malus' Law: I = 1000 cos2(40 o ) = 587 W/m 2 . In the second case,
we must first calculate how much light is transmitted through the first two polarizers, at a
relative angle of 20 o : I = 1000 cos2(20 o ) = 883 W/m 2 . This light is then incident on the second
polarizer, which is at 20 o relative to the middle one: I = 883 cos2(20 o ) = 780 W/m 2 .

6. Unpolarized light of intensity I0 is incident on a series of three polarizing filters. The axis of
the second filter is oriented at 45o to that of the first filter, while the axis of the third filter is
oriented at 90o to that of the first filter. What is the
intensity of the light transmitted through the third
filter?
A.0 B.I0/8 C.I0/4 D.I0/2 E. I0/√2
The first filter always reduces the intensity of the
light to half, I1=½ I0
The next filter reduces the intensity by In = I(n-1) cos2 θ , θ is the angle with respect to the nth filter.
Thus, I1=½I0, I2=I1(cos45)2=I1(½√2)2=½I1=¼I0, I3=I2 (cos 45)2 = ½ I2 = I0/8
7. Consider a single-slit diffraction pattern for a slit of width d. It is observed that for a light of
wavelength 400 nanometers, the angle between the first minimum and the central maximum is 4
× 10−3 radians. The value of d is
A. 1 × 10−5 m B. 5 × 10−5  m C. 1 × 10−4  m D. 2 × 10−4 m E. 1 × 10−3 m
Solution: dsinθ =mλ (θ is small)