Crystal

Polarimeter
Polarization of Light

Biots Polariscope Nöremberg Polariscope

 Introduction
• Experiments on interference and diffraction have shown that
light is a form of motion.
• This effects do not tell us about the type of wave motion i.e.,
whether the light waves are longitudinal or transverse, or
whether the vibrations are linear, circular or torsional.
• Polarization of light establish that light waves are
transverse wave.
• Electromagnetic waves such as light exhibit polarization, as
do some other types of wave, such as gravitational waves.
• Polarization of a gravitational wave is just
like polarization of a light wave except that
the polarizations of a gravitational wave are 45 degrees
apart, as opposed to 90 degrees.
 A Brief History of Polarization

• 1669: Bartholinus discovers double refraction in calcite

• 17th – 19th centuries: Huygens, Malus, Brewster, Biot, Fresnel and Arago,
Nicol...
• 19th century: unsuccessful attempts to describe unpolarized light in terms
of amplitudes
• 1852: Sir George Gabriel Stokes took a very different approach and
discovered that polarization can be described in terms of observables
using an experimental definition
 Polarization

• The processes by which light

wave can be confined to a
plane is known as
polarization of light.

Direction of
propagation
of wave
Polarized Light
Polarized Light
Vibrations lie on one single plane only.
Unpolarized Light
Superposition of many beams, in the same
direction of propagation, but each with
random polarization.
Polarizers absorb one component of the
polarization but not the other.
The input is natural light, the output is
polarized light (linear, circular, elliptical).
They work by dichroism, birefringence,
reflection, or scattering.

➢Polarizer: It is an optical device that

transforms unpolarized light into polarized
light.
➢Analyzer: Analyzer is a device, which is
used to find whether the light is polarized or
unpolarized.
 Representation . . .

E E

Unpolarized Polarized
Examples in everyday life and nature
Polarization in Application
Polarization in Everyday Situations
Action of Polaroid Sunglass
Polarization in 3D Movies
Plane of Vibration and Plane of Polarization
 Methods of Polarizing Light
It is possible to transform unpolarized light into polarized light. Polarized
light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane.
The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as
polarization. There are a variety of methods of polarizing light. The four
methods discussed on this page are:

➢ Polarization by Transmission
➢ Polarization by Reflection
➢ Polarization by Refraction
➢ Polarization by Scattering
Methods of Polarizing Light (Cont…)
Methods of Polarizing Light (Cont…)
Polarization of light by reflection
Polarization of light by reflection (Cont…)
Biots Polariscope
 Biots Polariscope (Cont…)
When the mirror M2 is rotated further it is found that the intensity of CD
becomes maximum at 180, minimum at 270 and again maximum at 360.
The above experiment proves that when light is incident at an angle 57.5 on a
glass surface, the reflected light consists of waves in which the displacements
are confined to a certain direction at right angles to the ray and we get
polarized light by reflection.
 Polarized light by reflection: Brewster’s Law
❑ In l8ll, Brewster performed a number of experiments to study the polarization of
light by reflection at the surfaces of different media.
❑ He found that ordinary light is completely polarized in the plane of incidence when
it gets reflected from a transparent medium at a particular angle known as the angle
of polarization.
❑ Brewster’s states that “the tangent of the angle of polarization is numerically
equal to the refractive index of the medium. Moreover, the reflected and the
refracted rays are perpendicular to each other”.
Polarized light by reflection: Brewster’s Law (Cont…)
Polarized light by reflection: Brewster’s Law (Cont…)
 Malus Law
❑ This is the law of Malus named after Etienne Malus who published this
relationship in 1809.
❑ When a beam of light, polarized by reflection at one plane surface is
allowed to fall on the second plane surface at the polarizing angle the
intensity of the twice reflected beam varies with the angle between the
planes of the two surfaces.
❑ In the Biot's polariscope it was found that the intensity of the twice
reflected beam is maximum when the two planes are parallel and zero
when the two planes are at right angles to each other.
❑ The same is also true for the twice transmitted beam from the polarizer and
the analyzer.
❑ Malus law states that “when completely plane polarized light is incident
on the analyzer, the intensity (I) of the light transmitted by the
analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of angle
between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer”.

Mathematically, I ∞ cos2θ, where θ is the angle between the polarizer and the
analyzer.
 Malus Law (Cont…)
Proof of the Malus law:

'head-on' view of the analyzer

❑ Suppose the angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the
polarizer is θ. The completely plane polarized light form the polarizer is
incident on the analyzer.
❑ If E0 is the amplitude of the electric vector transmitted by the polarizer, then
intensity I0 of the light incident on the analyzer is
𝐼0 ∞𝐸02
(The intensity of a beam, measured in W/m2, is proportional to the square of
the amplitude.)
❑ The electric field vector E0 can be resolved into two rectangular
components i.e E0cosθ and E0sinθ.
❑ The analyzer will transmit only the component (i.e E0cosθ) which is parallel
to its transmission axis.
 Malus Law (Cont…)
❑ However, the component E0sinθ will be absorbed by the analyzer.
❑ Therefore, the intensity (I) of light transmitted by the analyzer is,
𝐼∞ 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
Or, 𝐼∞𝐸02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Or, 𝐼∞𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Therefore, 𝐼∞𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
This proves Malus law.

❑ When θ = 0° (or 180°), I = I0cos20° = I0. That is the intensity of light

transmitted by the analyzer is maximum when the transmission axes of the
analyzer and the polarizer are parallel.
❑ When θ = 90°, I = I0 cos290° = 0. That is the intensity of light transmitted
by the analyzer is minimum when the transmission axes of the analyzer and
polarizer are perpendicular to each other.
❑ A sheet of Polaroid is being used to reduce the intensity of a beam of
polarized light. What angle should the transmission axis of the Polaroid
make with the plane of polarization of the beam in order to reduce the
intensity of the beam by 50%?
 Problems
1. What angle is needed between the direction of polarized light and the axis
of a polarizing filter to reduce its intensity by 90.0%? (Ans: =71.6)
2. At what angle will light traveling in air be completely polarized
horizontally when reflected from water and crown glass? Air has n1 = 1.00,
water has n2 = 1.333, and crown glass has n′2=1.520. (Ans: water=53.1,
Crown glass =56.7)
3. What angle is needed between the direction of polarized light and the axis
of a polarizing filter to cut its intensity in half? (Ans: =45)
4. The angle between the axes of two polarizing filters is 45.0. By how much
does the second filter reduce the intensity of the light coming through the
first? (Ans: 1/2)
5. If you have completely polarized light of intensity 150 W/m2, what will its
intensity be after passing through a polarizing filter with its axis at an 89.0
angle to the light’s polarization direction? (Ans:45.7 mW/m2)
6. What angle would the axis of a polarizing filter need to make with the
direction of polarized light of intensity 1.00 kW/m2 to reduce the intensity
to 10.0 W/m2? (Ans: =71.56)
 Problems (Cont…)
7. What is Brewster’s angle for light traveling in water that is reflected from
crown glass? water has n1 = 1.333, and crown glass has n2=1.520. (Ans:
=48.8)
8. A scuba diver sees light reflected from the water’s surface. At what angle
will this light be completely polarized? Air has n1 = 1.00, water has n2 =
1.333. (Ans: 53.1)
9. At what angle is light inside crown glass completely polarized when
reflected from water, as in a fish tank? water has n1 = 1.333, and crown
glass has n2=1.520. (Ans: =41.25)
10.Light reflected at 55.6 from a window is completely polarized. What is the
window’s index of refraction? (Ans: µ=1.46)
11.Unpolarized light falls on two-polarizing sheets placed one on top of the
other. What must be the angle between the characteristics direction of the
sheets if the intensity of the transmitted light is one third intensity of the
incident light (Ans: =35.3)
 Double refraction
❑ Erasmus Bartholinus discovered double refraction in 1669.
❑ When light incident on a certain crystal (anisotropic crystal) such as
calcite, it is split into two refracted rays (as shown in Fig.) differing in their
properties. The phenomenon of causing two refracted rays by an
anisotropic crystal is called double refraction or birefringent.
❑ Calcite or Iceland spar is crystallized calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and was
found in Iceland as very large transparent crystals. Due to this reason
calcite is also known as Iceland spar.

Ordinary ray (o-ray): obey Snell’ law of refraction at the crystal surface.
Extraordinary ray (e-ray): does not obey Snell’ law of refraction at the
crystal surface.
 Double refraction (cont…)
Calcite crystallize in many forms and can be reduced by cleavage or breakage
into a rhombohedron, bounded by six parallelograms with angles 102 or 78
(more accurately 10155 or 785)
Optic Axis
❑ At two opposite corners A and B of the
rhombohedron all the angles of the faces
are obtuse. These corners of A and B are
known as blunt corners of the crystal.
❑ An imaginary line passing through one of
the blunt corners and making equal
angles with all the three faces is called
optic axis.
❑ In fact, any line parallel to this line is
also an optic axis. Therefore, optic axis is
not a line but it is a direction.
❑ If a ray of light is incident along the optic
axis or in a direction parallel the optic
axis, then it will not split into two rays.
 Double refraction (cont…)
❑ Thus, the phenomenon of double refraction is absent when light is allowed
to enter the crystal along the optic axis.
Double refraction (cont…)
 Principal Section of the Crystal
❑ A plane containing optic axis and perpendicular to the opposite faces of
the crystal is called principal section of the crystal.
❑ As a crystal has six faces, therefore, for every point there are three
principal sections. A principal section always cuts the surface of a calcite
crystal in a parallelogram with angles 109 and 71.
 Principal Plane
❑ A plane in the crystal drawn through the optic axis and the ordinary ray is
defined as the principal plane of the ordinary ray.
❑ Similarly, a plane in the crystal drawn through the optic axis and the
extraordinary ray is defined as the principal plane of the extraordinary ray.
❑ In general, the two planes do not coincide. In a particular case, when the
plane of incidence is a principal section then the principal section of the
crystal and the principal planes of the ordinary and the extraordinary rays
coincide.
 Optical activity
❑ The ability of an optical substance to rotate the plane of
polarization of a beam of light that is passed through it
❑ The intensity of optical activity is expressed in terms of a quantity, called
specific rotation.
❑ the specific rotation depends upon the temperature and upon the
wavelength of the light.
Specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter

What is polarimeter?

Part of polarimeter:
1. Sodium lamp
2. Polarizer
3. Sample Tube
4. Analyzer
5. Eyepiece
 Types of Retarders/waveplates
A wave plate is an optical device that alters the polarization state of light
wave travelling through it. Types of waveplates are:

1. Full waveplates
2. Quarter waveplates
3. Half waveplates

Full waveplates
Whenever monochromatic light is incident on a doubly refracting material like
Calcite, Quartz etc., it will split up into ordinary & extra ordinary beams. A
phase difference is developed between ordinary & extra ordinary waves as
they travel through the material. If this phase difference is equal to 360 or
equal to a path difference of one wavelength, the thickness of the plate is fixed,
and this plate is called full wave plate.
 Quarter waveplates
Quarter waveplate is a doubly refracting uniaxial crystal of calcite or quartz
of suitable thickness having refracting faces parallel to the direction of the
optic axis. The incident plane-polarized light is perpendicular to its surface
and the ordinary and extraordinary rays travel along the same direction with
different velocities. The suitable thickness is such that it create a path
difference of λ /4 or a phase difference of π/2 between the O-ray and the E-
ray.

If the thickness of the plate is t and the refractive indices for the O-ray and
E-ray are µo and µE respectively, then the suitable thickness will be related
to the path difference introduced between the two rays is given by:

𝜆 𝜆
a) For calcite or negative crystals, 𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝐸 𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑡 =
4 4 𝜇𝑜 −𝜇𝐸

𝜆 𝜆
b) For calcite or negative crystals, 𝜇𝐸 − 𝜇𝑜 𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑡 =
4 4 𝜇𝐸 −𝜇𝑜
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿 = × =
𝜆 4 2
 Application of Quarter waveplates
❖ It is used to produce elliptically or circularly polarized light.
 Half waveplates
Half waveplate is made from a doubly refracting uniaxial crystal of calcite
or quartz of suitable thickness having refracting faces parallel to the optic
axis. The suitable thickness is such that it create a path difference of λ /2 or
a phase difference of π between the O-ray and the E-ray.

If the thickness of the plate is t and the refractive indices for the O-ray and
E-ray are µo and µE respectively, then the suitable thickness will be related
to the path difference introduced between the two rays is given by:

𝜆 𝜆
a) For calcite or negative crystals, 𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝐸 𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑡 =
2 2 𝜇𝑜 −𝜇𝐸

𝜆 𝜆
b) For calcite or negative crystals, 𝜇𝐸 − 𝜇𝑜 𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑡 =
2 2 𝜇𝐸 −𝜇𝑜

2𝜋 𝜆
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛿 = × =𝜋
𝜆 2
 Application of Half waveplates
❖ A half wave plate is used for changing the direction of plane of vibration of the
plane polarized light .When it is incident normally on a half wave plate , emergent
ray is also plane polarized but the plane of vibration of emergent ray rotates
through an angle 2.
 Problems on waveplates
1. A plane polarized light is incident on a piece of a cut parallel to the
axis. Find the least thickness for which the O-ray and E-ray combine
to form plane polarized light. Given that µo = 1.5442; µE = 1.5533 and
-5 -3
λ = 5×10 cm. (Ans: 2.75×10 cm).
2. Calculate the thickness of mica sheet required for making a quarter
0
wave plate for A. = 5460 λ The indices of refraction for the
ordinary and extraordinary rays in mica are 1.586 and 1.592. (Ans:
-2
2.275×10 cm).
3. Calculate the thickness of a double refracting plate capable of
producing a path difference of λ /4 between ordinary and
extraordinary waves (λ = 5890 Å, µo = 1.53 and µE = 1 .54). (Ans: t =
-3
1.47×10 cm).
4. Calculate thickness of quarter wave plate for light of wavelength 5000
λ. Given µo = 1.54 and ratio of velocity extraordinary to ordinary
-5
wave is 1.006. (Ans: t = 1.25×10 cm)
 Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles.

❑ Let us look at the result of superposition of two waves linearly polarized

at right angle to each other (see fig. a)
❑ Let consider two light waves travelling in the x-direction
❑ One wave is polarized in the xy plane and the other is polarized yz plane.
❑ Let us find the effect produced due to the super positions of these two
waves.

❑ At a given time t, the optical vectors 𝐸𝑦 and 𝐸𝑧 produce a resultant optical

vector of magnitude , say A
❑ At a slightly later time t+Δt, they produce a resultant vector of amplitude B
❑ We will apply the principle of superposition to find the equation of the
curve traced by the resultant of the two vectors
 Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles (Cont…)

Two waves are represented as

𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸1 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 … … … . . (1)
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸2 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 … … . (2)
where, 𝛿 is the phase difference between the waves
The two waves have same frequency 𝑓 = 𝜔/2𝜋
According the the principle of superposition
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧
Or, 𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐸2 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 … . . (3)
From equation- (2)

From equation (1)

Hence equation (4) becomes

 Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles (Cont…)

Rearranging above equation,

Squaring both the sides,

Or,

Or,

Dividing both side by E22

Above equation, is the general equation of ellipse Hence, the tip of the
resultant vector traces an ellipse in Y-Z plane.
 Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles (Cont…)

The ellipse is constrained within a rectangle having sides 2E1, and 2E2.

Special cases:-
(A) When , then two waves are in phase.

Hence,

  
This is the equation represents a straight line, having a slope (E2/E1).
It means that, the resultant of two plane-polarized waves is again a plane-
polarized wave.
 Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles (Cont…)

(B) When
• The two waves are in opposite phase.

Equation (7) becomes



Hence,

This equation represents a straight line of a slope (-E2/E1).

(C) When , then

Equation (7) becomes

• This is the equation of ellipse.

• Its major and minor axis considers with y-and z coordinates axes.
• Thus the waves are out of phase by 900 and their resultant wave is elliptically
polarized wave.
 Superposition of waves linearly polarized at right angles (Cont…)

(D) When , then equation (7) reduced to,

This is the equation of circle. Hence result wave is circularly polarized.